Printed Dipole Antenna

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE
APPLICATION
1. PREAMBLE
1.1
DEFINITION OF ANTENNA
A radio antenna is usually defined as - An antenna is a transition device, or transducer,

between a guided wave and a free-space wave, or vice versa. Antenna is a device which
interfaces a circuit and space.
On transmission, an antenna accepts electromagnetic energy from a transmission line
(coaxial cable or waveguide) and radiates it into space, and on reception, an antenna
collects the electromagnetic energy from an incident wave and sends it through the
transmission line.
In aircraft communication systems the antenna is one of the most critical components. A
good design of antenna can improve overall system performance and reduce system
requirements. In order to meet the system requirements of todays aircraft communication
systems and the increasing demand on their performances, much advancement in the field
of antenna engineering have occurred in the last few decades. This increasing demand is
fuelled by digital and RF circuit fabrication improvements, new large scale circuit
integration and other miniaturisation technologies which makes antennas smaller, cheaper
and more reliable. Among the different types of antennas, printed antennas are the ideal
candidates for these applications due to their planar structure and compatibility with the
printed circuit fabrication techniques.
1.2
SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
The project deals with design of printed dipole antenna with Omni-directional radiation
characteristics along with the implementation of DC short. The antenna will be used for
on-board datalink communication for indigenous UAV systems, with appropriate
encapsulation and reinforcement.
1.3
AIM OF THE PROJECT

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT
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APPLICATION
To design and develop a printed dipole antenna for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) data
link communication in C Band with the following specialized features -
1.4
C Band operation with 800MHz bandwidth
Omni-directional radiation pattern
Vertical polarization
Integrated 'balun' and DC grounding
Compact , encapsulated and aerodynamic shape
MOTIVATION FOR THE PROJECT
There has always been a curiosity in our minds that, as to how a UAV is controlled from
the Ground Control Station (GCS). The commands that are transmitted by them, have to
be efficiently received by the UAV, and various UAV parameters during mission have to
be relayed back to the GCS. An Omni-directional antenna on-board is a key constituent
for successful operation of a UAV mission. It is a challenging task to design an antenna
which will ensure an uninterrupted communication datalink between the GCS and the
UAV. We attempted to do it, under the expertise guidance of ADE.
1.5
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION METHODOLOGY
For designing and optimizing the designs, FEKO code has been used.
CADFEKO tool provides the platform for designing the antenna models, with the desired
specifications. RUNFEKO is used for simulating the designed models. POSTFEKO is
used for verifying the design by means of the various plots that can be plotted here.
The flow can be represented as
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Fig 1.1: Flow chart project implement methodology
1.6
ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
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CHAPTER 1: This chapter gives the introduction to the project, describing the
motivation behind the project, its scope, objectives to be accomplished and the
methodology that we followed to implement the assignment.
CHAPTER 2: This chapter deals with the fundamental concepts of the dipole antenna, its
radiation mechanism and the antennas derived from dipole.
CHAPTER 3: This chapter discusses about the printed dipole antenna and its feeding
method which forms the guidelines for this project.
CHAPTER 4: "Balun" concept has been discussed here. We also look into its types and
their advantages.
CHAPTER 5: Here the various design considerations are discussed, for designing the
printed dipole antenna.
CHAPTER 6: Introduction to the EM simulation code has been given here, discussing its
components and their functionality.
CHAPTER 7: This chapter gives an insight into the simulation results of the various
antenna models that have been designed, and their optimization process.
CHAPTER 8: The procedure of antenna fabrication and their testing description has
been given here.
CHAPTER 9: The experimental results of the antennas fabricated are plotted.
CHAPTER 10 & 11: The obtained results have been concluded and the scope of this
project for future utility have been arrived upon .
2. DIPOLE ANTENNA THEORY

2.1
HISTORY
Dipole antennas were invented by German physicist Heinrich Hertz around 1886 in his
pioneering experiments with radio waves. The dipole antenna he designed was in UHF
band. Since then extensive research and development of dipole antenna has been done
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APPLICATION
exploiting the new advantages such as light weight, low volume, low cost and compatible
with integrated circuits.
2.2
DIPOLE ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
A dipole antenna is a radio antenna that can be made of a simple wire, with a centre-fed
driven element. The dipole antenna is a balanced antenna and has two perfectly
symmetrical poles, made of wires that open out in opposite direction from the central feed
point. Since dipole antenna consists of two terminals or poles into which radio
frequency current flows, hence it is called a Dipole antenna. There are different types of
dipole antennae, but each have the same function of transmitting and receiving radio
signals. For resonance the conductor is an odd number of half wavelengths long. In most
cases, a single half wavelength is used, although three, five,.. wavelength antennas are
equally valid. Half-wavelength dipoles are a unique type, with each wire measuring
exactly one-fourth of the electromagnetic wavelength, making it a total of one half
wavelength.
Fig2.1: Schematic of half-wave dipole antenna
The current and the associated voltage causes electromagnetic or radio signal to be
radiated. A Dipole is generally taken to be an antenna that consists of a resonant length of
conductor, cut to enable it to be connected to the feeder.
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Fig2.2: The basic half wave dipole
The current distribution along a dipole is roughly sinusoidal. It falls to zero at the end,
and is at maximum in the middle. Conversely, the voltage is low at the middle and rises to
a maximum at the ends. It is generally fed at the centre, at the point where the current is at
a maximum and the voltage is a minimum. This provides a low impedance feed point
which is convenient to handle. High voltage feed points are far less convenient and more
difficult to use. When multiple half wavelength dipoles are used, they are similarly
normally fed in the centre. Here again the voltage is at a minimum and the current at a
maximum. Theoretically any of the current maximum nodes could be used.
Fig2.3: three half wavelength wave dipole antenna
2.3
DIPOLE RADIATION MECHANISM
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The polar diagram of a half wave dipole antenna that the direction of maximum
sensitivity or radiation is at right angles to the axis of the RF antenna. The radiation falls
to zero along the axis of the RF antenna as might be expected.
Fig2.4: Polar diagram of a half wave dipole in free space
Fig2.5: Field distribution in E and H plane.

If the length of the dipole antenna is changed then the radiation pattern is altered. As the
length of the antenna is extended, it can be seen that the familiar figure of eight pattern
changes to give the main lobes and a few side lobes. The main lobes move progressively
towards the axis of the antenna as the length increases.
The dipole antenna is a particularly important form of RF antenna which is very widely
used for radio transmitting and receiving applications. The dipole is often used on its own
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as an RF antenna, but it also forms the essential element in many other types of RF
antenna. As such it is the possibly the most important form of RF antenna.
Dipole antenna is used in a variety of everyday electronics. Dipole antenna is used on
television sets to receive broadcasts and also dipole antennas are also widely used in the
military, where they are built into equipment such as navigation devices and radios.
2.4
DIPOLE FEED IMPEDANCE
The feed impedance of a dipole is determined by the ratio of the voltage and the current at
the feed point. A simple Ohms law calculation will enable the impedance to be
determined.
Although a dipole can be fed at any point, it is typically fed at the current maximum and
voltage minimum point. This gives low impedance which is normally more manageable.
Most dipoles tend to be multiples of half wavelengths long. It is therefore possible to
feed the dipole at any one of these voltage minimum or current maximum points which
occur at a point , that is a quarter wavelength from the end, and then at half wavelength
intervals.
The vast majority of dipole antennas are half wavelength long. Therefore they are centre
fed the point of the voltage minimum and current maximum.
The dipole feed impedance is made up from two constituents
Loss resistance: The loss resistance results from the resistive or Ohmic losses
within the radiating element, i.e. the dipole. In many cases, the dipole loss
resistance is ignored as it may be low. To ensure that it is low, sufficiently thick
cable or piping should be used, and the metal should have a low resistance. Skin
effects may also need to be considered.

Radiation resistance: The radiation resistance is the element of the dipole antenna
impedance that results from the power being dissipated as an electromagnetic
wave. The aim of any antenna is to dissipate as much power in this way as
possible.
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As with any RF antenna, the feed impedance of a dipole antenna is dependent upon a
variety of factors including the length, the feed position and the environment. A half wave
centre fed dipole antenna in free space has an impedance of 73.13 making it ideal to feed
with 75 ohm feeder.
2.4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE DIPOLE FEED IMPEDANCE

The feed impedance of a dipole can be changed by a variety of factors the proximity of
other objects having a marked effect. The ground has a major effect. If the dipole antenna
forms the radiating element for a more complicated form of RF antenna, then elements of
the RF antenna will have an effect. Often the effect is to lower the impedance, and when
used in some antenna the feed impedance of the dipole element may fall to ten ohms or
less, and methods need to be used to ensure a good match is maintained with the feeder.
2.5
HALF WAVE DIPOLE
One of the most commonly used antennas is the half-wavelength (l = /2) dipole. Because
its radiation resistance is 73 ohms, which is very near the 50-ohm or 75-ohm
characteristic impedances of some transmission lines, its matching to the line is simplified
especially at resonance.
Fig2.6: (a) finite dipole geometry (b) geometrical arrangement for far field approximation
The geometry of a finite dipole along with far field approximation is shown above. Here
in this case far field approximations are done with phase and amplitude margin are
calculated as
R rz ' cos .This is margin for the phase.
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The margin for amplitude is given below.

R r
As far as current plot of this dipole is considered the current distribution is almost same as
small dipole which is highest at the input at zero at l /2 . The above geometries are
valid for all other types of dipole except short dipole. Here for our case length l= /2. The
current plot for the same is shown below.
Fig2.7: Current distribution in half wavelength dipole

For a very thin dipole (ideally zero diameter), the current distribution can be written, to a
good approximation, as
l
z ' ) 0 z l /2
(
2
I ( x =0, y =0, z )=
l
a^ I sin k ( + z ' ) l/2 z 0
2
'
'
'
a^z I 0 sin k
z 0
eqn 2.1
This distribution assumes the antenna is centre-fed and the current vanishes at the end
points (z = l/2). Experimentally it has been verified that the current in a centre-fed wire
antenna has sinusoidal form with nulls at the end points. Here for half wavelength dipole
l= /2.
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The finite dipole antenna of dipole length /2 in figure 4.5 is subdivided into a number of
infinitesimal dipoles of length z. As the number of subdivisions is increased, each
infinitesimal dipole approaches a length dz.
For an infinitesimal dipole of length dz positioned along the z-axis at z, the electric and
magnetic field components in the far field are given below:
k I e (x ' , y ' , z ' ) e jkR sin dz '
d E = j
4 R
eqn 2.2
d E r=d E =d H r=d H =0
eqn 2.3
'
d H = j
'
'
jkR
k I e (x , y , z )e
4 R
sin dz '
eqn 2.4
Where
R= x 2+ y 2+( zz ' )2
eqn 2.5
finally approximated as above formula. Using far field approximation it reduces to
d E
k I e ( x ' , y ' , z' ) e jkr

j
sin e+ jkz ' cos dz '
4 r
eqn 2.6
Summing the contributions from all the infinitesimal elements, the summation reduces, in
the limit to integration. Here limit is for l /2 .
+l /2
k e jkr
E = d E = j
sin
4 r
l /2
+l/ 2
I e ( x' , y ' , z' ) e+ jkz' cos dz '
l /2
eqn 2.7
The factor outside the brackets is designated as the element factor and that within the
brackets as the space factor. For this antenna, the element factor is equal to the field of a
unit length infinitesimal dipole located at a reference point (the origin). In general, the
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APPLICATION
element factor depends on the type of current and its direction of flow while the space
factor is a function of the current distribution along the source. Calculation factor
Total field = element factor X space factor
eqn 2.8
The pattern multiplication for continuous sources is analogous to the pattern

multiplication of for discrete-element antennas (arrays). For the current distribution of can
be written as
E = j
I 0 k e jkr
sin
4 r
sin k
l
2
+l /2
l '
l
+ z e+ jk z d z ' + sin k z ' e+ jkz 'cos dz '
2
2
0
( )
' cos
eqn 2.9
Putting l=/2 and since k=2/ and solving above integration the electric field and
magnetic field along the dipole is given by
jkr
E = j
H =
I 0e
2 r
cos
( 2 cos )
I e jkr
=j 0
2 r
sin
cos
eqn 2.10
( 2 cos )
sin
eqn 2.11
For the dipole average pointing vector is given by

1
W av = [ E H ]
2
eqn 2.12
1
[ a^ E a^ H ]
2
E
1
a^ E a^
2
eqn 2.13
eqn 2.14
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APPLICATION
2
cos cos
|I 0|
2
a^r
2 2
sin
8 r
W av =a^r W av
eqn 2.15
hence,
2
cos cos
|I 0|
2
W av = 2 2
sin
8 r
|I 0|
2 2
8 r
sin3
eqn 2.16
The radiation intensity can be calculated as

U=r 2 W av
|I 0|
8
eqn 2.17
cos cos
2
sin
eqn 2.18
|I 0|
8
sin 3
eqn 2.19
The total power radiated can be written as

2
Prad = r 2 W av sin d d
0 0
Prad =
|I 0|
cos 2
( 2 cos ) d
sin
eqn 2.20
eqn 2.21
This on integration gives
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APPLICATION
2 2
Prad =
|I 0|
8
y
( 1cos
) dy
y
eqn2.22
|I 0|
= 8 C ( 2 )
eqn 2.23
Where
x
C ( x )=
0
1cos y
dy
y
eqn 2.24
C ( x )=ln + ln xCi ( x )
eqn 2.25
cos y
cos y
dy=
dy
Where ln()=.5722 also Ci ( x )=
y
y
x
eqn 2.26
C ( 2 )=.5722+ ln2 C i ( 2 )
eqn 2.27
Now since Ci ( 2 ) =.02

Hence
eqn 2.28
C ( 2 )=.5722+1.838(.02 )
Now Directivity =
D 0=4
= 2.435
eqn 2.29
U max
Prad
2
4
P rad
eqn 2.30
U|=
4
C (2 )
4
2.435
1.643
eqn 2.31
In
D0 ( dB )=20 log1.643=2.15 dBi
eqn 2.32
The corresponding maximum effective area is
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APPLICATION
A em =
2
2 (
D0 =
1.643 ) .13 2
4
4
eqn 2.33
and the radiation resistance, for a free-space medium (=120), is given by

Rr =
2 Prad
2
|I 0|
C ( 2 ) =30 ( 2.435 ) 73
eqn 2.34
The radiation resistance given above is also the radiation resistance of input terminals
since the current for a dipole of l=/2 occurs at input terminals. The reactance part for
l=/2 is 42.5 hence input impedance is Zin = 73+j42.5. If dipole length is .47 to .48 the
reactance part falls to zero approximately hence normally these two lengths are taken
2.6
ANTENNAS DERIVED FROM DIPOLE ANTENNA
Fig2.8: Antennas derived from dipole antenna
2.6.1
YAGI-UDA ANTENNA
The Yagi-Uda antenna or Yagi Antenna is one of the most brilliant antenna designs. It is
simple to construct and has a high gain, typically greater than 10 dB. The Yagi-Uda
antennas typically operate in the HF to UHF bands (about 3 MHz to 3 GHz), although
their bandwidth is typically small, on the order of a few percent of the centre frequency.
We are familiar with this antenna, as they sit on top of roofs everywhere.
The Yagi antenna was invented in Japan, with results first published in 1926. The work
was originally done by Shintaro Uda, but published in Japanese.
2.6.2
LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNA
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Log-Periodic antennas antennas are designed for the specific purpose of having a very
wide bandwidth. The achievable bandwidth is theoretically infinite; the actual bandwidth
achieved is dependent on how large the structure is (to determine the lower frequency
limit) and how precise the finer (smaller) features are on the antenna (which determines
the upper frequency limit).
Mathematically, due to the properties of logarithms, if all the elements grow by a constant
multiple then the ratios of the logarithm will be constant.
2.6.3
PARABOLIC ANTENNA
In parabolic antenna, the dipole antenna can be used at the focus of the parabolic antenna.
The radiation power received is reflected by the dish towards the dipole in the centre,
which can collect this power for its use, or vice versa.
2.6.4
PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA
These antennas are basically designed where there is need for small and compact antenna.
It is a dipole antenna, printed on a PCB. It has been discussed in detail in the next chapter.
3. PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA

3.1
INTRODUCTION
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Printed dipole antenna is the antennas which are printed on Printed Circuit Board (PCB).
Basically, they are the printed version of the free-space cylindrical dipole. An antenna
with a narrow rectangular strip (typically strip width less than 0.05) is called a
microstrip dipole. Printed dipole antennas are the main focus of this thesis. The
conventional design geometry and the design implemented are as shown in the Fig:
below.
Fig3.1: (a) Conventional design, (b) Design incorporated in this thesis
In Fig: (b), the coplanar strip of conductors are printed on the opposite surfaces of a
dielectric sheet to simplify the feed arrangement. The incorporated design is also very
simple to implement, as opposed to conventional design.
These antennas are chosen because they are simple and yet have potential for future
improvement. These antennas are used when an electronic device, which is implemented
on a PCB, is in need of a cheap, compact antenna.
Unlike the straight wire dipole antennas, the radiating elements (i.e. the dipole arms) of
the printed dipole antennas are on a dielectric substrate. Therefore, the selection of the
substrate material will affect the performance of the antennas. It nevertheless makes the
design of the antennas more flexible.
Most existing printed dipole antennas are based on the popular printed dipole design first
proposed in 1987. Unlike the traditional dipole antennas, this printed dipole antenna has
an integrated balun and can be fed by a 50- single-ended microstrip line.
3.2
FEEDING THE DIPOLE
In the incorporated design, the dipoles are printed on the opposite surfaces of the
dielectric sheet. To feed such a configuration, a compatible feed structure is the printed
version of parallel strip line, as shown below.
Fig 3.2: dipole feeding

In the above design, this has been taken care of together with the balun structure.
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3.3
ADVANTAGES OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA

1. Provides Omni-directional radiation coverage in the azimuth plane.
2. Easy to manufacture and low fabrication cost.
3. Small and compact size, less weight making it easy to integrate it on aircraft.
4. Compatible with microwave integrated technologies.
5. Performance parameters can be easily controlled, hence changes in the design is
easy to achieve.
6. When compared to patch antenna, these have smaller size, and hence arrays
occupy less area in the substrate.
7. The cross polar component is lower because the transverse current component on
the strip decreases as the width-to-length ratio decrease.
8. Dipoles are well suited for millimetre-wave frequencies in particular, where the
substrate can be electrically thick and therefore the bandwidth can be significant.
4. BALUN
4.1
INTRODUCTION
The term balun is the acronym for balanced to unbalanced. It is a device which is used to
connect a balanced line (e.g. Dipole) to an unbalanced coaxial line. Balun usually solves
problems caused by an imbalance.
When we connect centre fed antennas, like dipoles, unless care is taken, it is not difficult
to end up with feeder radiation. Not only can the loss in power be quite significant, but
the radiation characteristics of the antenna system will also be seriously compromised. In
laymen's terms, it won't be what you are expecting from the pattern of your antenna. In a
simple dipole, the balun assures that the dipole, and not the feed line, is doing the
radiating.
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In a coaxial cable, the currents on the inner conductor and the inside of the shield are
equal and opposite. This is because the fields from the two currents are confined to the
same space. With the presence of skin effect, a different current flows on the outside of
the shield than on the inside. In contrast to a balanced line, an unbalanced line has an
unequal magnitude of current or voltage in each conductor of the coaxial line.
In transmitting antennas, the current flowing on the outside of the coaxial cable is
eliminated by presenting high impedance (resistance), to RF currents flowing outside the
coax shield. This forces currents in each side of driven elements to be equal.
Fig4.1: Schematic showing unbalanced to balanced conversion using balun.
4.2
WORKING PRINCIPLE
In Fig below, a coaxial cable is connected to a dipole antenna. For a dipole antenna to
operate properly, the currents on both arms of the dipole should be equal in magnitude.
When a coaxial cable is connected directly to a dipole antenna however, the currents will
not necessarily be equal. To see this, note that the current along a transmission line should
be of equal magnitude on the inner and outer conductors, as is typically the case. Observe
what happens when the coax is connected to the dipole. The current on the centre
conductor (the red/pink centre core of the coax, labelled IA) has nowhere else to go, so
must flow along the dipole arm that is connected to it. However, the current that travels
along the inner side of the outer conductor (IB) has two options: it can travel down the
dipole antenna, or down the reverse (outer) side of the outer conductor of the coaxial
cable (labelled IC in Fig).
Ideally, the current IC should be zero. In that case, the current along the dipole arm
connected to the outer conductor of the coax will be equal to the current on the other
dipole arm - a desirable antenna characteristic. Because the dipole wants equal or
balanced currents along its arms, it is the balanced section. The coaxial cable does not
necessarily give this however - some of the current may travel down the outside of the
outer coax, leading to unbalanced operation - this is the unbalanced section.
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The solution to this problem, however you come up with it, is a balun. A balun forces an
unbalanced transmission line to properly feed a balanced component. This would be done
by forcing IC to be zero.
Fig4.2: An unbalanced coaxial cable connected to a dipole antenna.
4.3
TYPES OF BALUN
4.3.1
CURRENT BALUN
An ideal current balun delivers currents that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
phase. A good current balun will approach the ideal condition. It will deliver
approximately equal currents with approximately opposite phase, irrespective of the load
impedance (including symmetry). Common mode current will be small. If the load
impedance is not symmetric, then the voltages at each output terminal will not be equal in
magnitude and opposite in phase. A parameter often used to quantify the effect of a balun
is its common mode impedance or choking impedance. An ideal current balun has infinite
common mode impedance; a good current balun has very high common mode impedance
(typically thousands of ohms for an effective general purpose balun in an antenna
system).
4.3.2
VOLTAGE BALUN
An ideal voltage balun delivers voltages that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
phase. A good voltage balun will approach the ideal condition. It will deliver
approximately equal voltages (with respect to input ground) with approximately opposite
phase, irrespective of the load impedance (including symmetry). Common mode voltage
will be small. If the load impedance is not symmetric, then the currents flowing in each
output terminal will not be equal in magnitude and opposite in phase. An ideal voltage
balun has zero common mode impedance; a good voltage balun has very low common
mode impedance (ohms).
4.4
IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION
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An ideal balun performs an ideal impedance transformation, normally 1:1 unless specified
otherwise. Practical baluns depart from the ideal, and the departure is often specified as
Insertion VSWR.
It is possible to design a balun to not only facilitate the unbalanced to balanced transition,
but to perform a nominal impedance transformation (e.g. 4:1 is common).
Voltage baluns and current baluns are both capable of impedance transformation other
than nominally 1:1.
4.5
APPLICATIONS
If the application is one where current balance is important then a current balun is the
better choice. For example:
Reducing radiation from an antenna feed line by ensuring that the currents in each
feed line conductor are nearly equal but opposite in phase.
If the application is one where voltage balance is important then a voltage balun is the
better choice. For example:
Some audio applications where rejection of common node voltage injected into a
source is important.
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5. DESIGN OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA

5.1
INTRODUCTION
The basic dipole antenna element is the two radiating arms of length Ld and width W,
on a dielectric substrate of dielectric constant r and thickness h. The length of
microstrip balun is equal to the length of the dipole arm which is approximately quarter of
wavelength (/4).
5.2
DESIGN CONCEPTS
As shown in figure, the printed dipole antenna is fed using a co-axial feed line at feed
point 1 which behaves like unbalanced to balanced and a microstrip balun between
two printed dipole strips. The microstrip balun consists of two coplanar strips on the
bottom layer and a microstrip feed line on the top layer, the dipole radiating arms on the
bottom layer. Both the length of the dipole strip and microstrip balun is approximately
quarter of wavelength (/4). The base surfaces of the microstrip line and dipole antenna
strips are on the same plane. The metallic short in figure connects the microstrip line on
the top layer to the right dipole arm on the bottom layer. The dipole arm will now have
the same phase as the microstrip line. The coplanar strips serve as the ground plane for
the microstrip line. The phase difference between the coplanar strips and the microstrip
line is 180. Since the left dipole arm is connected to the coplanar strips, the phase
difference between the two dipole arms will also be 180.
2Ld =
Fig 5.1: Designed Geometry
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Lb =

APPLICATION
5.3
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
Three essential parameters for the design of the dipole antenna are:
Frequency of operation (fo): The resonant frequency of the antenna must be selected
appropriately. In this project the dipole antenna is designed in C band.
Dielectric constant of the substrate (r): A substrate with a high dielectric constant
reduces the dimensions of the antenna.
Height of dielectric substrate (h): For the microstrip patch antenna to be used in certain
applications (such as cell phones) it is essential that it is not bulky and to ensure this the
height of the dielectric substrate cannot be more than a few mm.
The effect of all of the above 3 factors and the position of feed point on antenna
performance is studied by simulating the design several times.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Operating frequency fo - 4.85GHz
Coaxial cable impedance - 50
Dielectric Constant of the substrate r- 2.5
Loss tangent tan - 0.0001
Substrate thickness h 1.6 mm
5.4
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Step 1:
The length of the dipole arms and the balun is quarter of the wavelength. To calculate the
wavelength, the following formula is used
c
= fo
eqn 5.1
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APPLICATION
: Wavelength in m
c: Speed of light =3x108m/s
Calculated value of = 0.061 m
Step 2:
The length of microstrip arms and microstrip balun line are equal and given by the below
formula
Ld = /4 = 15.46 mm
Lb = /2 = 30.92 mm
Step 3:
Typical width of strips which are going to printed on both sides for formation of dipole
are taken as
width /10
taken it as width /20
for a printed dipole antenna for construction ease we have
which is approximately 3mm.
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APPLICATION
6. FEKO
6.1
INTRODUCTION TO THE FEKO SUITE
The name FEKO is an abbreviation derived from the German phrase FEldberechnung bei
Krpernmit beliebiger Oberflche (Field computations involving bodies of arbitrary
shape). As the name suggests, FEKO can be used for various types of electromagnetic
field analyses involving objects of arbitrary shapes.
6.2
FEKO OVERVIEW
FEKO is a software Suite intended for the analysis of a wide range of electromagnetic
problems. Applications include EMC analysis, antenna design, microstrip antennas and
circuits, dielectric media, scattering analysis and many more. The kernel provides a
comprehensive set of powerful computational methods and has been extended for the
analysis of thin dielectric sheets, multiple homogeneous dielectric bodies and planar
stratified media. Figure below illustrates some of the numerical analysis techniques
available in FEKO and the types of problems for which they are intended.
Fig 6.1: Illustration of the numerical analysis techniques in FEKO
6.3
FEKO SOLUTION ENGINE
The Method of Moments (MoM) technique forms the basis of the FEKO solver. Other
techniques such as the Multilevel Fast Multipole Method (MLFMM), the Finite Element
Method (FEM) Uniform Theory of Defraction (UTD), Geometrical optics (ray launching)
and Physical Optics (PO) have been implemented to allow the solving of electrically large
problems and inhomogeneous dielectric bodies of arbitrary shape. Special approximations
and acceleration techniques are available for problems of specific types.
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Method of Moments
The core of the program FEKO is based on the Method of Moments (MoM). The MoM is
a full wave solution of Maxwells integral equations in the frequency domain. An
advantage of the MoM is that it is a source method meaning that only the structure in
question is discretised, not free space as with field methods. Boundary conditions do
not have to be set and memory requirements scale proportional to the geometry in
question and the required solution frequency.
MLFMM
The MLFMM is an alternative formulation of the technology behind the MoM and is
applicable to much larger structures than the MoM, making full-wave current-based
solutions of electrically large structures a possibility. This fact implies that it can be
applied to most large models that were previously treated with the MoM without having
to change the mesh.
Adaptive Cross Approximation (ACA)
The ACA is a fast method similar to the MLFMM but is also applicable to low frequency
problems or when using a special Greens function. It approximates the impedance matrix
by constructing a sparse H-matrix (only a few selected elements are computed).
Uniform Theory of Diffraction
FEKO hybridizes the current-based accurate MoM with the UTD in the truest sense of the
word with the coupling between the MoM and UTD being maintained in the solution, i.e.
modifying the interaction matrix and ensuring accuracy. Frequency does not influence the
memory resources required for UTD treatment of a structure as only points of reflection
from surfaces and diffraction from edges or corners are considered without meshing the
structure. Insights into the propagation of rays are provided in POSTFEKO during post
processing.
Geometrical Optics (ray launching)
The Geometrical optics (ray launching) is a ray-based method intended for the
consideration of electrically large dielectric and perfect electrically conducting structures
in applications like the analysis of lens antennas. The GO method is hybridized with the
MoM in a similar fashion to the UTD. The GO method in FEKO employs ray-launching
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APPLICATION
and transmission, reflection and refraction theory to model the interaction between the
dielectric region and the MoM.
Physical Optics
PO is formulated for use in instances where electrically very large structures are modeled.
PO is an asymptotic high frequency numerical method of the same nature as the UTD.
Users will typically attempt a solution with the MoM at first and when they realize that
the structure is electrically too large to solve with their available resources (platform
memory, time) they will turn to one of the asymptotic high frequency techniques.
Large Element Physical Optics
Large element PO is formulated for use in instance where electrically very large smooth
structures are modeled. This method is only to be used when there are no discontinuities
in the incident field (e.g. if the incident field closely represents a point source). Large
element PO is similar to PO in that it is an asymptotic high frequency numerical method
of the same nature as the UTD.
Finite Element Method
The FEM is applicable to the modeling of electrically large or inhomogeneous dielectric
bodies, which are not efficiently solvable with FEKOs extensions to the MoM. The FEM
is a volume meshing technique that employs tetrahedra to accurately mesh arbitrarily
shaped volumes where the dielectric properties may vary between neighboring tetrahedra.
FEM modeling is advantages in these instances because FEM solution matrices are
sparse, where MoM matrices are densely populated, making FEM matrices significantly
more scalable with an increase in frequency.
General non-radiating networks
General networks (defined using network parameter matrices) as well as ideal nonradiating transmission lines may be used in FEKO simulations. These non-radiating
networks may be interconnected (cascaded) and excited or loaded directly at the ports.
The voltages and currents at the ports of these ideal representations of networks may
interact with currents and voltages on parts of the model that are solved using other
solution methods, though no radiation-based coupling is taken into account.
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Periodic boundaries
Large, equally-spaced periodic structures may be simulated in FEKO using an infinite
periodic boundary approach. This approach may be used to provide an accurate
accelerated solution for many applications like frequency selective surface analysis and
large array analysis.
6.4
FEKO SUITE COMPONENTS
The graphical user interface consists of the components:

CADFEKO is used to create and mesh the geometry and to specify the solution
settings and calculation requirements in a graphical environment.
EDITFEKO is used to construct advanced models (both the geometry and solution
requirements) using a high level scripting language which includes repetitive FOR
loops and conditional IFELSE statements.
POSTFEKO reads results from binary output files (*.bof) and can display the
results on 2D graphs or in combination with the geometry in 3D views.
POSTFEKO is also used to visualize optimization results during and after
optimization, as well as the meshed geometry of the FEKO model, with
excitations, field requests points etc. before the actual FEKO run.
QUEUEFEKO facilitates the creation of packages which can be transported to
remote cluster machines where the package is placed in an execution queue (such
as PBS).
FEKO_UPDATE is a command line tool that can be used to check if updates are
available from a master (internet) or local repository SECFEKO_GUI is a
visualization of the FEKO license manager. See SECFEKO for more details on
the license management tool.
Other components that form part of the FEKO Suite do not provide a graphical interface.
These are:
PREFEKO processes the model and prepares the input file (*.fek) for the FEKO
solution kernel.
FEKO is the actual solver code. The ASCII (*.out) and binary (*.bof) output files
generated by FEKO contain all the solution information.
OPTFEKO is a tool that is used for the optimization of a FEKO model according
to specific requirements. OPTFEKO calls the FEKO solver as required during
optimization.
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TIMEFEKO provides a Fourier-transform based time-domain analysis mechanism

for FEKO. TIMEFEKO calls the FEKO solver as required during the solution
process.
ADAPTFEKO is used in the generation of continuous adaptively sampled results.
ADAPTFEKO is called as required by the FEKO kernel when continuously
sampled results are required.
CADFEKO_BATCH is a command line tool that can be used to modify variable
values in a CADFEKO model file from a command-line interface without
launching the CADFEKO GUI.
SECFEKO is the FEKO license manager and shows all the licenses in the
specified license file (secfeko.dat) for node locked licenses or connects to the
floating license servers and retrieves license information.
6.5 GUI Features
Large array of primitives for model creation (e.g helix, cone, rectangle, circle,
cylinder, paraboloid, hyperboloid, bezier curves).

Importation of externally computed lists of points for creation of lines, polygons,
etc.
Tree based access to simulation elements (settings, materials, grids, results, etc.)
Selection, zooming, 3-D mouse-only based handling, etc.
Full Solver control via GUI.
6.6 Excitations
Voltage or current source at a port
Port definitions at wires, edges, waveguide aperture or stripline
Plane Wave
Magnetic point source
Electric point source
Point source with specified radiation pattern
Impressed line currents
Near-field aperture
Spherical modes
6.7 CAD Import and Export Features

Parasolid import and export are standard components of FEKO
AutoCAD DXF, IGES, STEP, ProEngineer, Unigraphics, CATIA V4, CATIA V5
6.8 Mesh Import Features
FEKO mesh import is a standard component of FEKO
FEMAP neutral, NASTRAN, meshed AUTOCAD DXF, STL mesh, PATRAN
mesh, Ansys CDB file mesh, Concept mesh, ABAQUS mesh, ASCII data
format as additional mesh options
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.
Meshing Features
Variable mesh densities in a single model to accurately and efficiently model
6.9
small features
Mesh density specifiable on faces and edges
Mesh fixing tools
6.11
6.10 Post Processing Features

2-D and 3-D views
2-D XY plots, polar plots, Smith Chart
Radiation Pattern(3-D in model , 2-D XY/Polar)
Radiation and far-field data, Radar Cross-Section (RCS) etc.
SAR (IEEE standard compliant whole body average, 10g cube localized, 1g cube
localized)
Full multiport S-parameter extraction
Several visualization options for surfaces, incl. isosurfaces , 2-D field cuts
Multiple results displayable in same viewport for comparison
64-bit enabled for large model viewing
Export views to image formats
Applications
Antennas: analysis of horns, microstrip patches, wire antennas, reflector
antennas, conformal antennas, broadband antennas, arrays

Antenna placement: analysis of antenna radiation patterns, radiation hazard
zones, etc. with an antenna placed on a large structure e.g aircraft, ship
EMC: analysis of diverse EMC problems including shielding effectiveness of an
enclosure, cable coupling analysis in complex environments, e.g wiring in a car,
radiation hazard analysis

Bio-electromagnetics: analysis of homogenous or non-homogenous bodies ,
SAR-extraction
RF-components: analysis of waveguide structures , e.g filter, slotted antennas,
directional couplers
3D EM circuits: analysis of microstrip filters, couplers, inductors, etc.
Radomes: analysis of multiple dielectrics layers in a large structure
Scattering problems: RCS analysis of large and small structures
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7. SIMULATION RESULTS
7.1GETTING STARTED WITH FEKO
Fig 7.1: CADFEKO window for making new models
Fig 7.2: Substrate selection and its properties window
Fig 7.3: Setting the frequency range for simulation
Fig 7.4: Creating the mesh
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APPLICATION
Fig 7.6: Window for selection of solver settings after meshing
Fig 7.7: Initialisation of RUNFEKO for beginning the simulation
7.2ANTENNA DESCRIPTION - PRINTED DIPOLE DESIGN 1

Simplest Geometry; Card size:- 40mm X 20mm.
The design was initidated with dipole length l = /2, but with some tuning procedure it
has been currently reduced to .43.. The geometry has not been optimised for
compactness. The required operational band is from 4.4 to 5.2 GHz, hence VSWR is
maintained at a lower value than 2 (VSWR<2) in the operational band for compensating
the variations that may arise from fabrication process.
Fig 7.9: Dual layer Schematic view

Fig 7.10: VSWR Plot
The VSWR plot indicates that VSWR = 1.07 at 5.1 GHz; Operational Bandwidth
(VSWR<2): 1.8 GHz (3.7GHz to 5.5 GHz).
Fig 7.14: (a) 2D Azimuth plane, (b) 2D Elevation plane
Fig 7.15: (a) 3D Pattern at 4.5GHz , (b) 3D Pattern at 5 GHz

The radiation pattern in 2D azimuth shows the omnidirectional pattern and in elevation
shows the figure of eight, which is as per the characterstics of dipole antenna. The
omnidirectional pattern in 3D clearly shows dipole nature.
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APPLICATION
CONCLUSION:
The basic dipole has been implemented in the above design. Further optimization to make
the antenna more compact have to be done.

Card dimensions 42.5mm X 13mm
In this model length minimisation has been done by bending balun. The separation
between the balun and the dipole has also been done. The input feed has been placed in
centre to provide constructional symmetry and for ease of fabrication. This symmetrical
feeding also helps maintain the aerodynamics of the antenna.

Fig 7.17: VSWR Plot
(VSWR<2): 0.9 GHz (4.2GHz to 5.1GHz).

3D Pattern:

CONCLUSION:
Centre feeding an antenna not only provides a symmetrical geometry, but also results in
improved performance in the desired range of frequencies. Although the bandwidth has
reduced by 900MHz but antenna is still covering the desired band and also providing
symmetry in the design.
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APPLICATION

Card size- 49.5mm X 13mm
The innovation process which was maintained right from the start by moving away from
conventional design and using a new design is continued here also. The solution for
grounding of static charge in aircraft which are produced due to friction between aircraft
body and air during flight is implemented through new and innovative design
approach.This approach maintains performance of antenna along with effiecient
grounding.

DC short:
Here it is implemented through a short using a small rectangular strip which is connects
the live and neutral lines in the two layers.
The approach involved studying the current density plot of previous antenna model to
determine the maximum current density zone. The current density plot, used for location
selection of the short is as below:
Fig 7.21: current density

Then the short of minimum width are placed at those places are their performance is
checked. The optimum location for the short was determined to avoid compromise in
performance or for minimum degradation in performance. The DC short was found to be
affecting the matching performance of the antenna in good manner. It is found to be
acting as impedance matching approach if employed in appropriate manner.
A comprehensive study was done at dc short after the fabrication of above model which
includes variation in different parameters like width, length and distance from dipole
centre.
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APPLICATION
In this study it is found that even though maximum bandwidth was found at different
locations compare to fabricated model but they provide marginal performance at some
critical frequencies, which is undesirable.
W(mm)
Fig 7.22: figure showing the various parameters that are varied to study their effect on the
performance.
One of the parameter with reference to fabricated piece is varied keeping other
parameters constant. The parameters whose variation is checked are
1. Length of DC short L (mm) from feed of shorting
2. Distance or position of DC short from dipole centre P (mm)
3. Width of DC short W (mm)
Their variations have been plotted below.
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APPLICATION
Fig 7.23: The above plot shows the variation of bandwidth with variation in the position
of DC short.
Fig 7.24: The above plot shows the variation of bandwidth with variation in the length of
DC short.
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APPLICATION
Fig 7.25: The above plot shows the variation of bandwidth with variation in the width of
DC short.
The parameters of performance which are plotted below are based on the most optimum
configuration of DC short, based on the study of the above parameters.
F
ig 7.26: VSWR Plot
(VSWR<2): 1.8 GHz (4.3GHz to 6.1 GHz)
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APPLICATION

CONCLUSION:
We can see that by using DC short we obtain a wider bandwidth. The radiation patterns
are also as per the dipole characteristics. DC short is placed in vertical manner which
may interfere with the performance of the dipole antenna upon fabrication. This happens
if the short is too close to the dipole. Therefore care must be taken while designing the
short regarding its length and closeness to the dipole.
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APPLICATION

(SHORT DIPOLE)
Card size- 50mm X 13mm
To overcome the problems associated with the previous design, bending of short was
done by 45 to provide it a smooth finish and to keep it off the axis of the dipole. This
way, the length of the short may not have to be compromised upon. Since the short is now
away from the dipole arms, hence least effect on the radiation pattern of the dipole is
seen. Though the bandwidth has been reduced by 300MHz with reference to the previous
design, still it is covering the required band of frequencies.
Fig 7.30: VSWR Plot
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(VSWR<2): 1.5 GHz (4.3GHz to 5.8 GHz).
CONCLUSION:
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APPLICATION
The inclination of the short is not resulting in major difference in the performance, while
maintaining the good bandwidth coverage. The patterns are providing Omni-directional
coverage in azimuth plane and figure of eight in elevation plane.

(LONG DIPOLE)
Card size- 115mm X 13mm
This antenna has been designed keeping the application of this antenna in mind. This
antenna is to find application in an UAV platform. Basically, antennas are placed on a
projected platform. This projection can lead to blocking of the pattern in the lower side,
when we use the previous design, because of the presence of a base surface which is
larger than the dimension of the antenna. Therefore, to nullify the effect of this base, we
have increased the height of antenna by . This does not affect the performance of the
antenna by any means.
Fig 7.37: VSWR Plot

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(VSWR<2): 0.9 GHz (4.3GHz to 5.2 GHz)

CONCLUSION:
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APPLICATION
The elevation in height has slightly reduced the bandwidth but antenna is still providing
good coverage in the desired band. The elevation results in comparatively higher gain
margin at required elevation plane if mounted on a base.
8. ANTENNA FABRICATION AND TESTING

The designed and simulated antenna is to be fabricated. The detail process of fabrication
is illustrated below:
8.1FABRICATION PROCEDURE
The fabrication procedure adopted in realizing the hardware is given below. The process
diagram is given in figure.
1. A rectangular strip of red Mylar sheet of dimensions designed is cut and pasted on
a transparent Mylar sheet, which is also rectangular, but with bigger dimensions.
This forms the negative.
2.
By using suitable photographic procedures a positive photo of strip is taken

which consist of a transparent portion instead of the red rectangular strip and the
rest of the portions being black.
3. Now the substrate coated with copper is cut to the dimensions in excess of the
dimensions of the patch desired.
4. The substrate is cleaned by using chromic acid and cleaning cloth and water
5. The cleaned substrate is dried in an oven.
6. The dried substrate is now coated with a film of a polymer photo resist on both
sides and left for cooling.
7. The positive is then placed on a substrate coated with resist in a suitable position
and fixed in that position.
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APPLICATION
8. Except the desired patch, which is still in the form of transparent portion of the
photo film, opaque sheets cover all other portions of the photo resist polymer. But
opposite side is left as it is.
9. U.V. light is exposed to the set up so that only the transparent portion that is the
patch dimensions, are hardened and the rest of the photo resist polymer is not
sticky and hardened, but loose. But the whole of the opposite side, which is the
ground plane portion, is hardened.
10. The loose photo resist is manually removed.
11. Etching of copper is done for the exposed copper not covered by photo resist.
12. The rest of the photo resist is then removed using ammonia solution mixed with
water.
13. Thus the microstrip patch is ready.
14. The corporate feed network is fabricated the same way.
15. Soldering is done using flux, lead and soldering iron.
16. The resulting final microstrip antenna is cleaned using a cleaning solution
isopropyl alcohol. The microstrip antenna is ready for testing.
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APPLICATION
P a g e | 45

APPLICATION
Fig8.1: Fabrication procedure
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APPLICATION
8.2FABRICATED MODEL
FINAL HARDWARE
Fig 8.2: Fabricated Model 4
1ST MODEL FABRICATED
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APPLICATION
Fig 8.3: Fabricated Model 5
8.3VSWR / RETURN LOSS MEASUREMENT TEST
Fig 8.4: VSWR/ Return loss measurement test setup (Network Analyser)
PROCEDURE FOR VSWR/ RETURN LOSS MEASUREMENT:
Make the connections as shown in the figure. Switch on the power supply for the test
equipments.
Monitor the VSWR/ Return loss directly in the Network Analyzer display. At the centre
frequency it should be <=2.0
Move the cursor both sides from the centre frequency and mark the frequencies where
VSWR=2.5. The span of frequency where VSWR<=2.5 will give the measurement for
bandwidth of the antenna.
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APPLICATION
8.4PROCEDURE FOR RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMENT

1. The radiation pattern measurement of an antenna will be performed inside the
Anechoic Chamber. The antenna under test will be placed on the wooden turntable/
positioner with appropriate ground plane.
2. The test antenna operates in receiving mode.
3. Power on to all the equipments. Transmit continuous wave signal at the test
frequency. Observe IF signal indication at the receiver. Adjust attenuation and gain
parameters to obtain optimum signal.
4. Rotate the positioned by its controller and monitor the response of the amplitude of
the signal in the pattern recorder. Plot on the rectangular/ polar chart by rotating 360
degree.
5. Replace the test antenna with a standard antenna at the same frequency and plot the
maximum amplitude level on the chart. Compare the level with the test antenna
radiation pattern and calculate the gain.
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APPLICATION
Fig 8.5: Acquisition controller setup for pattern measurement
Fig 8.6: Anechoic chamber with the antenna
This is the actual setup for the testing of the antenna. We can see that the dipole antenna is
mounted on a turn-table acting as a receiver. A standard gain Horn antenna acts as the
transmitter for the measurement of the radiation patterns. The radiation intensities at
different frequencies in azimuth and elevation planes are plotted here.
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APPLICATION
9. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
9.1
SHORT DIPOLE
Fig 9.1: VSWR plot

Bandwidth-1.9GHz (VSWR: 2 for 4 to 5.9GHz). We can see that fabricated hardware has
got good bandwidth in comparison to simulated model.
Fig 9.2: Return Loss (dB)

Return loss clearly shows the bandwidth portion has return loss less than -10 dB
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APPLICATION
RADIATION PATTERN (2D)
Fig 9.3: Azimuth Plane Patterns with reference to standard antenna at (a) 4.5GHz, (b)
5GHz
Above pattern shows the comparison of azimuth plane patterns with standard gain horn
antenna at frequencies 4.5 GHz and 5 GHz
Fig 9.4: Azimuth and Elevation plane Patterns

In the azimuth plane, we see the omnidirectional coverage, and in the roll and piitch plane
we see the nulls along the axis of the dipole as is expected.
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APPLICATION
9.2
LONG DIPOLE
Fig 9.5: VSWR plot

Bandwidth-1.1GHz (VSWR < 2 for 4.25 GHz to 5.35GHz). The bandwidth obtained on
fabrication is more than simulated.
Fig 9.6: Return Loss (dB)

Return loss clearly shows the bandwidth portion has return loss less than -10 dB
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APPLICATION
RADIATION PATTERNS (2D)
Fig 9.7: Azimuth Plane Patterns with reference to standard antenna at (a) 4.5GHz, (b)
5GHz
The azimuth pattern shows higher gain at 5GHz than 4.5GHz due to frequency
dependency of gain.
Fig 9.8: Azimuth and Elevation plane Patterns
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APPLICATION
In the azimuth plane, we see the omnidirectional coverage, and in the roll and piitch plane
we see the nulls along the axis of the dipole as is expected.
10.
CONCLUSION
The design and development of printed dipole antenna in C-Band has been carried out.
The design process involved a new and innovative technique of DC grounding. The DC
grounding technique imparts to the antenna a great deal of compactness and also
enhances its performance.
The following observations with respect to DC grounding technique have been made:1) DC grounding helps to reduce the size of the dipole by 15%.
2) This technique also increases the bandwidth by approximately 36%.
Enhanced bandwidth is achieved without parasitic elements, only by optimizing the
feeding balun, thus providing greater bandwidth while maintaining structural simplicity.
The fabricated antenna has been experimentally tested and found to at par with the
simulated results. It has been encapsulated in a compact and aerodynamically shaped
radome.
The developed antenna has the potential to be used as a compact and light-weight Omnidirectional antenna for aircraft systems.
P a g e | 55

APPLICATION
11.
FUTURE SCOPE
The concept of DC short can be used to:

1)
Reduce size of large antenna:
Typically, UHF dipoles have large size, limiting their use on an aircraft. By using the
technique of DC grounding, as we have already seen, we can reduce the length of the
dipole and make it more compact. This technique when used in conjunction with other
size reduction technique could result in a compact UHF antenna, which can readily be
used for airborne applications.
2)
Increase antenna bandwidth:
Some antennas have inherently small bandwidth (narrow band antennas). But their utility
is subject to the condition that they need to have a certain minimum bandwidth to ensure
safe performance. In such cases, the proposed concept could come handy, increasing the
bandwidth significantly, and rendering the antenna useful.
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APPLICATION
REFERENCES
1. Constantine A. Balanis, Arizona State University, Antenna Theory: Analysis and
Design , 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. Ramesh Garg, Prakash Bhartia, Inder Bahl, Apisak Ittipiboon, Microstrip Antenna
Design Handbook , Artech House.
3. Randy Bancroft, Microstrip and Printed Antenna Design, Noble Publishing
corporation Atlanta, GA
4. R.C. Johnson editor,Antenna Engineering Handbook,McGraw-Hill Inc, 3rd
Edition
5. D. M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, Wiley, 1998.
6. R. Hartman and Jack Berlekamp, Fundamentals of Antenna Test and
Evaluation, Microwave Systems New and Communications Tracking, June 1988
7. Lei, J., et al., An omnidirectional printed dipole array antenna with shaped
radiation pattern in the elevation plane, Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and
Applications, Vol. 20, No. 14, 1955 1966, 2006.
8. H. R. Chuang and L. C. Kuo, 3-D FDTD design analysis of a 2.4 GHz
polarization diversity printed dipole antenna with integrated balun and
polarization switching circuit for wlan and wireless communication
application, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 51, No.
2, 2003.
9. G. S. Hilton, C. J. Railton, G. J. Ball, A. L. Hume, and M. Dean, Finitedifference
timedomain analysis of a printed dipole antenna, 19th Int. IEEE Antennas and
Pro- pagation Conference, 1995, pp. 7275.
10. D. Edward and D. Rees, A broadband printed dipole with integrated balun,
Microwave J, 1987, pp. 339344.
11. X. Li, L. Yang, S.-X. Gong, Y.-J. Yang, and J.-F. Liu A COMPACT FOLDED
PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR UHF RFID READER, Progress In
Electromagnetics Research Letters, Vol. 6, 4754, 2009
12. SI.PRIYO DEY. C K AANANDAN, P MOHANAN AND K G NAIR, FMM Novel
Wide Band Printed Dipole Antenna, IEEE TECHNICAL REVIEW. Vol 10, No.
3, 1993
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APPLICATION
13. M C Bailey, Broad-band half wave dipole. IEEE Trans. Amara Propagat, vol 37,
pp 410-412, Apr 1984.
14. Z. G. Fan, S. Qiao, J. T. Huangfu, and L. X. Ran A MINIATURIZED PRINTED
DIPOLE ANTENNA WITH V-SHAPED GROUND FOR 2.45 GHZ RFID
READERS, Progress In Electromagnetics Research, PIER 71, 149158, 2007
15. Constantinos VOTIS, Vasilis CHRISTOFILAKIS, Panos KOSTARAKIS
Geometry Aspects and Experimental Results of a Printed Dipole Antenna, Int.
J. Communications, Network and System Sciences, 2010, 3, 204-207
16. Reto Zingg Printed Dipole Antenna, University of Colorado at Boulder
17. Roy lV. Lewallen Baulns:What They Do And How They Do lt
18. Broadband Dipoles (http:/ / www. antenna-theory. com/ antennas/ broaddipole. php)
Antenna-Theory.com
19. Baluns for 88108 MHz B. Beezely (K6STI) http:/ / www. ham-radio. com/ k6sti/
balun. html
20. Dipole antenna Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546716888
P a g e | 58

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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

A radio antenna is usually defined as - An antenna is a transition device, or transducer,

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

AIM OF THE PROJECT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

C Band operation with 800MHz bandwidth

Omni-directional radiation pattern

Integrated 'balun' and DC grounding

Compact , encapsulated and aerodynamic shape

MOTIVATION FOR THE PROJECT

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION METHODOLOGY

The flow can be represented as

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

Fig 1.1: Flow chart project implement methodology

ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

2. DIPOLE ANTENNA THEORY

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

DIPOLE ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS

Fig2.1: Schematic of half-wave dipole antenna

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

Fig2.2: The basic half wave dipole

Fig2.3: three half wavelength wave dipole antenna

DIPOLE RADIATION MECHANISM

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

Fig2.4: Polar diagram of a half wave dipole in free space

Fig2.5: Field distribution in E and H plane.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

DIPOLE FEED IMPEDANCE

effects may also need to be considered.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

2.4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE DIPOLE FEED IMPEDANCE

HALF WAVE DIPOLE

R rz ' cos .This is margin for the phase.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

The margin for amplitude is given below.

Fig2.7: Current distribution in half wavelength dipole

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

finally approximated as above formula. Using far field approximation it reduces to

k I e ( x ' , y ' , z' ) e jkr

I e ( x' , y ' , z' ) e+ jkz' cos dz '

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

The pattern multiplication for continuous sources is analogous to the pattern

For the dipole average pointing vector is given by

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

The radiation intensity can be calculated as

The total power radiated can be written as

This on integration gives

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTED DIPOLE ANTENNA FOR AIRBORNE

Now since Ci ( 2 ) =.02

D0 ( dB )=20 log1.643=2.15 dBi

The corresponding maximum effective area is

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, CMRIT