R. G. Meadows (Auth.) - Electrical Communications - Theory, Worked Examples and Problems-Macmillan Education UK (1976)

ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRICAL
COMMUNICATIONS
Theory, worked examples

and problems
R. G. MEADOWS
M
@ R.G.Meadows 1976
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without
permission.
First published 1976 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in New York Dublin
Melbourne Johannesburg and Madras
SBN 333 18182 4

ISBN 978-0-333-18182-9 ISBN 978-1-349-02588-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-02588-6
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This paperback edition is sold subject to the condition that it

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condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
mNTENI's
Preface XI
1. SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM RESPONSE 1
1.1 Theory summary 1
1. Introduction 1
2. Fourier Series Frequency Spectra of Periodic Signals 1
(a) Real form of the Fourier series
(b) Exponential or complex form of the Fourier series
(c) Normalized power of a periodic signal:

Parseval's theorem
3. Fourier Transforms: Frequency Spectra of

Aperiodic Signals 4
(a) Development of Fourier transform from

Fourier series
(b) Normalized energy of a non-periodic

signal: Rayleigh's theorem
4. The Determination of System Response using

Fourier Transforms 6
5. Cross- and Auto-correlation of Signals 8
(a) cross-correlation
(b) Auto-correlation
1.2 WOrked Problems 10
1.3 Exercise Problems 19
2. NOISE 25
2.1 Theory SUmmary 25
1. Thermal Noise 25
2. Shot Noise 25
3. Available Signal and Noise Powers 25
v
4. Available Power Gain and Equivalent Noise Bandwidth 26
5. Noise Temperatures 27
(a) Standard ambient temperature, T0
(b) Effective noise temperature of a source, TS
6. Noise Factor or Figure 28
7. Noise Factor and Temperature of Cascaded Networks 29
2.2 Worked Problems 30
3. AMPLITUDE AND ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS 38
3 .1 Theory Summary 38
1. Amplitude Modulation 38
(a) Double sideband amplitude modulation
(b) Suppressed carrier and single sideband modulation
2. Angle (Frequency and Phase) Modulation 40

(a) Frequency and phase modulated waves
(b) Bandwidth of an f.m. wave
3. Frequency Division Multiplexing 42
3.2 Wbrked Problems 43
4. PULSE AND PCM MODULATION 60
4.1 Theory Summary 60
1. Pulse Amplitude and Pulse Time Modulation 60
(a) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
(b) Pulse time modulation (PTM)
2. Sampling and Recovery Theorems 61
(a) Sampling theorem 1
(b) Sampling theorem 2
VI
3. Pulse Code Modulation 62
(a) Quantization
(b) Companding
(c) Coding and decoding
4. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 64
5. TRANSMISSION LINES AND 1'7AVEGUIDES 79
5.1 Theory Summary 79
1. Transmission Line Equations 79
2. Steady State Solutions 80
3. Parameters of Terminated Lines 82
(a) Reflection coefficient
(b) Input impedance
(c) Standing waves and voltage standing wave ratio
4. Field Solutions for Coaxial Lines and Waveguides 88
(a) Coaxial lines
(b) Parallel plate stripline
(c) Rectangular waveguides
(d) Circular waveguides
6. ANTENNAS 107
6. 1 Theory Summary 107
1. Antenna Parameters 107
(a) Power gain, G, and directive gain, GD
VII
(b) Radiation pattern
(c) Beam-width and side-lobes
(d) Radiation resistance, Rr
(e) Effective aperture, Ae
(f) Effective length, le' of a linear antenna
2. Power Density, Radiated and Received Powers 109
(a) Power density of an electromagnetic wave:

Poynting's theorem
(b) The total power radiated by an antenna, PT
(c) The total power received by an antenna
3. Antenna Arrays 110
(a) Radiation pattern of an n-element,

equally spaced, linear array
(b) Beam steering
4. Aperture Illumination and Far-field Patterns 112
7. SHORr WAVE, MICROWAVE AND RADAR SYSTEMS 128
7.1 Theory SUmmary 128
1. Propagation via the Ionosphere 128
(a) The system
(b) Refractive index
(c) Critical and maximum useable frequencies

for a given ionospheric layer
(d) Maximum range
2. Line of Sight and Microwave Communication systems 129
(a) Power transmitted over a free space

line-of-sight link
VIII
(b) Interference between direct and reflected waves
(c) Block diagram of a microwave radio link
(d) Signal-to-noise ratio at receiver
3. Radar Systems 131
(a) Free space radar equation
(b) Block diagram of a pulse radar system
(c) Frequency modulated, continuous wave

(f.m. - c.w.) radar
(d) Doppler radar
(e) Measurement of range and velocity using

triangular f.m. - c.w. radar
ANSWERS 149
APPENDICES 173
A.l Trigonometric Identities 173
A.2 Fourier Series 173
(a) Expansions for some useful functions
(b) Series for signals with symmetry
A.3 Fourier Transforms 175
(a) Properties
(b) Table of transform pairs
A.4 Table of sine and Si Functions 177
A.S Bessel Functions 177
(a) Values of Jn(x) for n = 0 to 6
(b) Zeros of Jn (x) and Jn' (x)
(c) Series approximations for Jn(x)
IX
PREFACE
This book has been designed to provide students, who are

following courses in Electronics, with summarized theory notes,
worked examples and exercise problems in the important field
of Electrical Communications.
Each chapter is divided into three basic sections
1. The first section gives a brief review of the

relevant theory and summarizes the important
results.
2. The second section contains fUlly worked examples.
3. The third section consists of problems, to which

answers are given at the back of the book.
The contents of the book have been chosen to cover the majority
of communications topics normally met by students in University,
Diploma, Higher National Certificate or equivalent courses of
study.
XI
1
SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM RESPONSE
1.1 THEORY SUMMARY
1. INTRODUcriON
Electrical signals are time-varying currents and voltages. However,

for analysis purposes it is usually much more convenient to transfer
from a time to frequency domain description. This chapter considers
these transformations and the response of electrical systems
utilizing the Fourier series and the Fourier transform.
By means of Fourier analysis most periodic signals may be

resolved into a convergent series composed of sinusoidal terms,
each with a definite frequency and phase. This process provides
information concerning the frequency structure of the signal and
therefore the bandwidth which may be required to transmit or
process the signal. Further, if a periodic signal is applied to a
linear system, each frequency component of its Fourier series can be
considered as acting independently and normal a.c. analysis may be
used to find the steady-state response for each component in turn.
The complete response is then found by summing the individual
component responses.
For signals of a non-periodic nature transfer from a time to

frequency domain description is made by means of Fourier transforms.
The Fourier transform provides similar information regarding the
energy distribution of a signal as a function of frequency and by
working in the frequency domain the response of systems to non-
periodic signals may be obtained.
2. FOURIER SERIES : FREQUENCY SPEcrRA OF PERIODIC SIGNALS
(a) Real form of the Fourier series

A periodic signal f (t) of period T may be expanded* as a uniformly
convergent series consisting of the pure sinusoids of various
amplitudes but harmonically related frequencies f, 2f, 3f ••• nf
in the form :
f(t) = ao + al coswt + a2 cos 2wt + ~cos nwt +
+ bl sinwt + b2 sin 2wt + bnsin nwt +
L
00
(~cos nwt + bnsin nwt) , w = 21Tf = 21T/T (1)

n:O
*If the signal has symmetry both the Fourier series and the
evaluation of the coefficients may be simplified, see table 1,
appendix A 2.
1
The Fourier coefficients may be evaluated using
ao = l.
t1+T
T t1
f<t>dt f
1Lf
t1+T
f(t)cos nwt dt
T t1
2 Jt1 +T
bn = - f(t)sin nwt dt (2)
T t1
Note that the lower limit of integration t 1 may take any value.
Normally integration limits are taken from 0 to T or -~T to +~T.
By combining sinusoids of the same frequency (1) can be written

in the form :
00
f(t) I:
n=O
CrfOS (nwt - <fln) (3)
where c 0 cos ¢0 =a0 ••• the amplitude of the d.c. component
cn=lta~ + b~) ••• the amplitude of the nth harmonic

¢n=tan- 1 Cbn/an) ••• the relative phase of nth
harmonic (4)
The coefficients Cn are known as the spectral amplitudes and a plot

of en versus frequency as the spectral ampxitude frequency
spectrum.
(b) E:x:ponentiaZ or aompZex form of Fota'ier series

The Fourier series of a periodic function may also be expressed in
exponential form on substituting in (1) :
cos nwt = ~ ( e jnwt + e-jnwt ) 1 sin nwt= 21i (ejnwt- e-jnwt)
i.e. f(t) = 1: [~<~-jbn)ejnwt

n:O
+~(~+jbn)e-jnwt J
f:n:O [dneinwt +d_ne-jnwt J
I:
CD
= ~einwt (5)
n:-c:o
(6)
Note also~= ~(~-jbnll d_n = -(~+jbnl
so ldnl =jd-nl= ~/(a~+ b~) =~en 1 d0 = c 0
Thus 1 whereas the spectral amplitude frequency spectrum is

single sided for the real Fourier series it is double sided in the
above case 1 each spectral line at frequency nf being replaced by tw<
2
spectral lines of half amplitude (i.e. ~~~ = ~en) at nf and -nf.
The amplitude and phase spectra of the square wave of fig. l.l(a)
are shown for the real and exponential Fourier series description
in figs. l.l(b), (c) respectively.
DO dl 0
1.0
v(t)
0 DH
(a) Square wave: v(t) 0.5 + ~(coswt- t cos3wt + t cosSwt - ••• )
co 1 .
o. 5 + ~ ( - sin mr )e -Jnwt
LJ00 mr
, __ 2
Amplitude en Phase
"If
0 w 0 w
(b) Line spectra based on the real form of Fourier series
J.
Phase
-sw -3w -wo w 3w sw • -3w

-sw 3w sw •
(c) Line spectra based on the exponential form of Fourier series
Fig. 1.1
(c) NormaLized power of a periodic signaL: ParaevaL'a theorem

If a periodic voltage or current f(t) is applied to a resistance
of one ohm, then the instantaneous power dissipated in the
resistor is f(t) 2 and the mean, or average, power
s = .!. 1T~ (t~ 2dt
*
T 0
[T
f(t>[~ ~einwt] dt
co
= 0
=L
to
-co
[
dnXTliT
0
f (t) e-i(-1)nwt dt J
co
co
2:
-oo
~d-n 2: ldnl 2
_,
3
CD
= c~ + :E ~c~
n:1
(7)
s is known as the total normalized power of the signal,

normalized being used because of the one ohm impedance level. S is
also the mean square value of f(t), thus the r.m.s. value of the
signal f(t) is :
frms = I [ f I~ 1 2] = l[c~+ t ~c~ J =I~~+ ~f (a~+b~)J (8)
The normalized power associated with the real series spectral

component at nw0 is
~cn 2 = 1~1 2 + ld-nl 2 = 2Jdnl 2

the latter result being a consequence of there being 1~12 and
1dLn12 contributions in the exponential series due to spectral
components at nw0 and -nw0 • Thus, a plot of ~cn 2 or 1~1 2
versus frequency would represent the normalized power spectrum of a
signal.
We may also define a power spectral density function G(W)

describing the distribution of signal power with frequency of a
periodic signal :
(lO
G(W) = L27rldnl 2 xo(W-nWo), w0 repetition angular frequency,

n=-oo
satisfying
S =2.!.1";;(W) dw=lmG(W)df (9)
11" -m -m
The normalized power in a real frequency range W1 = m1 w0 to
w2 = m1 w0 may then be expressed as :
S(w 1~w~ w2 ) =l 1-w,G(W)dw+2;r11WaG(W)dw =2;r21"'"G(W)dw

11" wa "'• w,
(10)
Note, as considered later, that the power spectral density

function G (W) and the autocorrelation function R(T) of a periodic
signal are Fourier transform pairs.
3. FOURIER TRANSFORMS : FREQUENCY SPECTRA OF APERIODIC SIGNALS
(a) Developnent of Fourier transform from Fourier series

By the use of Fourier series we have seen that periodic signals
may be expressed as a sum of spectral components having finite
amplitudes and separated by discrete frequency intervals of
f 0 = 1/To, T0 = period of signal. To extend frequency analysis to
non-periodic signals, we utilize the Fourier transform.
To introduce the transform we may consider the 'period' T of a

non-periodic signal as being very much longer than the signal
duration. As T-oo the spacing 1/T of the spectral components
becomes infinitesimal and the frequency of the components changes
4
to a continuous variable. In the limit the line spectrum merges
into a continuous spectrum.
Using the exponential Fburier series results (5) and (6) we have
for a periodic function f(t)
"" dneinw,t
f (t) = :E
-oo
where n_ =
-n Tlf ~T f(t)e-inw,t dt
-~T
and so f(t) = "£[!. f

-oo T
~T
-~T
f(t)e-inw0 t] einW0 t (11)
Assuming next that f(t) tends to an aperiodic signal, i.e.

T = 2'11/l.llo is much greater than the duration of the signal, we may
replace w0 by cSw, nw0 by w and T by 2'11'/ow and (11) becomes :
f(t) = i: [
-oo
2; f +'11'/cSwf(t)e-iwt dt J eiwtow
-'11'/0W
Further on taking the limit as cSw-o we have
f(t) =2~~~[[""t(t)e-iwt dt JeiWtaw
= !.1
2'11'
-oo
""F (W) eiwt chi (12)
where F (W) = £""f (t) e-jwt dt (13)
F(W) is the Fourier transform of f(t), and equation (12) is the

inverse Fburier transform.
The properties of Fburier transforms and a table of transform

pairs are given in appendix A3 ,together with a table of sine x,
sinc2x, Si(x) function values.
(b) Nozrmalized energy of a non-pe'I'iodic signal : Rayleigh 'a theo't'em

In the case of periodic signals Parseval's theorem showed that
normalized power may be expressed as the sum of powers due to the
individual spectral components. Fbr non-periodic type signals we
may express normalized energy in an analaqous way.
Consider a non-periodic signal voltage or current f(t) applied

to a one ohm resistor. The total energy E dissipated in the
resistor is :
E ~l:00(t)]2dt
~;.7t~~ ~j<w> eiwt chi J
dt
5
E is the normalized energy of the signal and (14) is an expression
of Rayleigh's theorem.
The normalized energy contained in a frequency range f to f+df

is:
IF(w)l 2 is termed the energy spectral density function of the

signal and defines distribution of signal energy with frequency.
The normalized energy contained in the frequency range f 1 to f 2 ,

including both positive and negative frequencies is :
(15)
4. THE DETERMINATION OF SYSTEM RESPONSE USING FOURIER TRANSFORMS
The response of a system or network may be obtained by a frequency

domain analysis, providing of course the Fourier transform pairs
exist and can be evaluated. The procedure is summarized below :
(i) The Fourier transform Vi(W) of the input signal vi(t) is

first found
(ii) The transfer function of the system or network H(W) is
evaluated. For R-L-C networks H(W) may be determined using
standard a.c. theory, i.e. R,L,C are represented by impedance
elements R,jwL, 1/jwc.
(iii) The frequency and time domain responses, V0 (w) and v0 (t) are
then given by :
(16)
6
where F-l denotes the inverse transform operation.
l
E:rample 1
Vi(W)
l Linear amplifier
H(W)
i------{__ _ ___...t--......e
v0 (t)
V0 (W)
Fig. 1. 2
If the voltage gain of the amplifier of fig. 1.2 is
H(W) = Vo(W)
Vi(W)
and if the input is an exponential pulse, vi(t) e-at for t~O,

Vi(t) =0 t<O, we have:
1
a+ jw
H,... 1
and _....__ X---
1 +jW/Wc a+jw
:::: [ w:+jw - a~j~J

using partial fractions.
On taking inverse transforms,
v0 (t) =HoWe [e-Wct -e-at J

a-we
Example 2 : Impulsive ~esponse

If an impulse vi(t) = o(t) is applied at the input of a network
whose transfer function is H(W), then since the Fourier transform
of o(t),
Vi (W) = £6 (t)e-jwt dt = 1
the transform of the output voltage v 0 (t),
V0 (W) = H(W) 1
.!..1
X
and v 0 (t) = h(t) =

211"
;(w)eiwt dw (17)
-OJ
7
In the case of example 1,
H(li3 = HoWe
Wc+jW
&&ample 3 : Use of convolution theoroem to detel'mine output roesponse

we may utilize the convolution theorem to find the output v0 (t)
from its transform V0 (W) = H(W)Vi(W).
The general statement of the convolution theorem (see table AP 2 1

appendix A3 ) is :
= ~~ ('t')v2 (t-'t')d't' (18)

-co
where v 1 (t), Vl(W) and v 2 (t), v2 (w) are transform pairs.

Thus if we identify v1 (T) with the input signal and v2 as the
inverse transform of H(W), i.e. the impulsive response of the
network,we have on substituting into (18) :
v (t) = v0 (t) = J
] i ('t')h (t-'t') d"t' =/.l,i (t--r)h (-r) d"t' (19)
Applying (19) to solve example 1, we have
"[' ~ 0 h("t') =0 I "['< 0
5. CROSS- AND AUTO-CORRELATION OF SIGNALS
(a) cross co~lation

The measure of similarity between signals is quantified by the
cross-correlation function. The average cross-correlation function
between two signals v 1 (t) and v2(t) is defined as
8
if v 1 (t) and v 2 (t) are periodic and both of the same fundamental
period T0 then :
if v 1 (t) and v 2 (t) are non-periodic signals of finite energy, then
T is a parameter which effectively varies the time shift between

the signals. Signals for which R12 (T) = 0 for all Tare referred
to as uncorrelated.
If the normalized power of v 1 (t) is s 1 and v2(t+T) is s2, then

the normalized power s 12 of [ v 1 (t) + v 2 (t+T)] is :
Likewise for finite energy signals, the normalized energy E12 of

[ v 1 (t) + v 2 (t+T)] is :
El2 = El + E2 + 2Rl2(T)
where E1 , E2 are the normalized energies of v 1.(t) , v2 (t).
(b) Autoco:rTe Zation

If vl(t) = v 2 (t), R12(T) becomes R(T) the autocorrelation function:
R<T> = lim ~f~Tv<t>v<t+T)dt

T-+oo l-~T
=~
0
f t+T0
t
v(t)v(t+T)dt for periodic signals
~: v(t)v(t+T)dt for finite energy signals.

R(T) has the following properties :
(i) R(o) = S or E the normalized power or energy of the signal
(ii) R(o) ~ R(T)
(iii) R(T) R(-T)
(iv) R(T) = F -l[G<w>J ••• the power spectral density function
9
G(w) and the correlation are a Fourier transform pair
(periodic signals).
R(T) = F-l[E<w>J •• the energy spectral density function
E(w) = IF<w>l2 and the correlation function are a Fourier
transform pair (finite energy signals).
Property (iv) is a statement of the Wiener-Kinchine theorem.
1.2 WORKED PROBLEMS

1. The symmetrical square wave of fig. 1.3 is applied to the input
of the operational amplifier whose voltage gain (transfer function)
is given by :
Vo
H (W)
Vi R+l/jWC
The Fourier series of the square wave is
Determine an expression for the output voltage v0 (t)
r
c
Fig. 1.3
So"lution
The voltage gain at a harmonic frequency w=nw 0 (n=l,3,5 •• ),
where
I{R2+1/(nw0 c>2}
and theW-domain output voltage,
corresponding to the time varying solution,
10
v0 n = IH(nw 0 ) I Vin cos(nw 0 t + ~nl
where Vin amplitude of nw 0 component in the input square wave,
4
i.e. v. =-
l.l 'TT
Thus the individual solutions are,
for w0
IH (W0 ) I = __R_f_ _
/(R2+ljw2c2)
0
- IH< 3w0 l l ! cos(3W0 t+~3)

3TI
and so on.
The resultant output voltage is the sum of the individual

responses, so
2. Determine the real and exponential Fourier series for the

rectangular pulse train of fig. 1.4 Calculate the total
normalized power and the voltage amplitudes and normalized power
of the harmonic components up to the first spectral zero.
If the pulse train is passed through an ideal band-pass filter

with a pass-band 15 kHz to 33 kHz, determine an expression for the
output voltage (neglect any delay in the filter) and calculate the
percentage of power in this signal relative to that in the input
pulse train.
v(t)
25 ~s
2-}~ ,.
-12.5
...
12.5
JI D +-125-
~ t ~s
Fig. 1.4
Solution
The pulse train is an even function and therefore contains no sine
11
terms. OVer the interval t o to ~T (T=l25Vs,T=25 vs) the
signal is defined by :
v(t) 2 V , O~t~~T v(t) 0 , ~T< t< ~T
00
Thus
v(t) :E~cos nwt W = 21T/T
n:O
where 2.1..
T
2 ~~T 4[~Tv(t)
and an = T v(t) cos nwt dt = T cos nwt dt
-~T 0
J J
~T
= #[ 2cos nwt dt = ~[sin

T nw
nwt
~T
0
= 4T [sin (~nw't")
T ~nwT
00
so v<t> =
21"
T +
41" ~
T L...J [ sin(~nWT) cos nwt]
(~nwT)
n:1
= 0 _4 + 0 8 sin(0.21T) coswt + 0.8 sin(0. 41T)

• (0. 21T) cos2wt
(0. 47T)
sin(0.67T) cos 3wt + 0 _8 sin(0.81T)

+ 0 •8 (0.67T) (0.81T) cos4wt +···
since T/T = 25/125 = t; note Sw component is zero since sin (7T) 0
Alternatively using the exponential Fourier series form,
00
v(t) L:~~nwt
J n=-oo
~T ~T
where d0 = ~ v(t)dt = ~~ 2 dt = ;T
-~ -~T
~ = lf
T
-~T
~T
v(t)e-jnwtat
12
2T sin(~WT) eJnwT/2 -e-jnwT/2
=- , since = sin(lomwT)
T ~nwT 2j
...
Thus v(t) = 0.4 + L;o.4 sin(0.2'11ll)
(0.2'11ll)
e jnwt
n=-..,
A table of the spectral amplitudes ~and~ and their squares

is drawn up below
f = n/T a a2 d d2
n n n n
d. c. 0•4 0•16 0•4 0•16

8kHz 0•748 0•560 0•374 0•140
16 kHz 0•606 0•367 0•303 0•092
24 kHz 0•404 0•163 0•202 0•041
32 kHz 0•187 0•035 0•094 0•009
40kHz 0 0 0 0
The total normalized power of the pulse train,
S·1 =T !./ -~T

~T
v2 (t) dt = T !.! ~T
-~T
2 2dt = 1!_
T = 0.8
The normalized power up to 40 kHz (the first zero) ,
S(Q-40 kHz) = a0 2 + ~ { a 1 2 + a 2 2 + a32 + a42} or
= 0.722 (i.e. 90.3' of total power)
If the pulse train is passed through an ideal band-pass filter,

pass-band 15 kHz to 33 kHz, only those components at 16, 24, 32 kHz
will be transmitted with zero loss, all other frequencies will be
cut-off.
Thus the output voltage,
v 0 (t) = a 2cos 2wt + a 3 cos 3Wt + a 4 cos 4wt
= 0.606 cos 2wt + 0.404 cos 3Wt + o.l87 cos 4wt,

w=2~ x 8 k rad/s.
Normalized power of this signal,
s0 = ~Ca22 + a32 + a 4 2) = 0.283
13
35.3%
3. Determine the Fourier transform of the r.f. pulse
v (t)
0
and sketch its energy spectral density function. At what

frequencies is this function zero?
Solution
v (t)
~. -w c o wc w
(a) Cosine pulse train (b) Energy density spectrum
Fig. 1. 5
The Fourier transform of the cosine pulse is
V(W) !
=
co
-co
'Wt
v(t)e-J dt
(1)
On integration (1) becomes
V(W)
~ [e -j (W-Wcl t +
-j (W-Wc)
[sin (w-wc)T/2 sin (W+Wc)T/2]

+
L <w-wc> (W-Wc)
14
+ (2)
The energy spectral density function which describes the

distribution of the pulse's energy with frequency is lv<w>l 2 •
A sketch of the latter is shown in fig. l.S(b).
lv<w> 12 "' ~T2 Isin~ cw-wc>-rr

~(W-Wc)T
for positive frequencies
"' ~T2 I sin~ (w+wc> T

~(W+wc)T
2
for all negative frequencies
since for all positive frequencies the second term in (2) is

negligible, and.for all negative frequencies the first term is
negligible (assuming fc >>1/T)
lv<w>l 2 =o when ~(W+wc)T =~ n~ , n = 1, 2, 3 •••

so the corresponding frequencies of zero energy density are
f = fc ± n/T and f = -(fc ± n/T)
4. Determine the total normalized energy and the Fourier transform

of the exponential pulse,
t~O vi(t) =0 t < 0
This pulse is applied across the input of a high-pass R-C

filter as shown in fig. 1.6. Determine the energy spectral
density function of the output voltage v 0 (t) and show that if
a= 1/RC the total normalized energy of v 0 (t) is half that
contained in vi(t).
vi(t)
c I
t
'1
I
vi(t) v0 (t)
t
l
0
Fig. 1.6
Sol-ution
The total normalized energy of the pulse is
15
= [ ;~ e -2atJ: 1
2a
The Fourier transform of the pulse is
Vi(W) =~~ [~-at

·wt
~vi(t)e-J dt = e e -jwt dt
0
= i<x> e- (a+jW)tdt = [ e- (a+jw)tr

-(a+jw)
1
a+jw
0
The transfer function H(W) of the R-C filter is
H(W) = Vo(W) R jWRC
Vi(W) R+l/jWC l+jWRC
and hence the transform output voltage
jwRC X --:.....;1"-;-~
(l+jwRC) (a+jW)
Thus the energy spectral density of the output signal,
and if a = 1/RC,
lv (w) 12 = w2
0 (a2+w2)2
so the total normalized energy of the output signal for this case,
E
0
= .!_
2~
f<x>lv0 l
(W) 2 dW = .!.2~ f<x>
~ -oo
1
2~ J: [a2~2 - a2
(a2+ w2) 2
J dJJ
t~f~ dW
a2+w2
1
2~
-a1 [ tan
-1
a
w
[ = -
1
2~a [ ~
2
~
- - (- -)
2 ]= ta
16
On substituting w= atane and remembering l+tan2e= sec2e,
ciu= CL sec28d8,
= - -112
21TCL
1T
1T
1
cos 2 8d8= -4CL
-2
1
Thus
4a
5. (a) Find the autocorrelation function R(T) for the saw-tooth

pulse shown in fig. 1.7(a).
(b) Fig. 1.7(b) shows the basic circuit blocks of a cross-

correlator. Determine the output signal when the saw-tooth and
square wave periodic signals shown are applied at terminals 1
and 2, respectively, i.e. determine their cross-correlation
function.
v(t)
(a)
v,(t)
~t
-
Time
Multiplier r... averaging
circuit
- Variable
time delay
circuit, T
(b)
Output
Fig. 1.7
17
I r·(t' -~
So~ution
K;7l
v(t}
----~------------~--------~--....
0 T t -~---4~------~------~~_...
0 T 2T
t
Kr"::1
-~-q..------~1....-----.
-~ 0 T-1:
t
(a} (b)
Fig. 1.8
(a) From fig. l.8(a) which shows v(t) and v(t+T) we see that
t
v(t) = ~ v(t) =0 otherwise,
V (t+T) = !_(t+T)
T -T ~ t ~ T-T
= 0 t > T-T , t < -T
Thus the autocorrelation function of the saw-tooth pulse,
R(T) /
oo
00
_ v(t)v(t+T)dt = K2
iT-T
0 *X ~(t+T)dt
3
(l/3T-l::!T +l/6 ~)K2 for T ~0
Since R(T) R(-T) we have in general,
(b) Since the time delay block introduces a delay of T seconds,

the second input to the multiplier is v2(t-T), see fig. l.8(b).
18
The output from the multiplier Vl(t)v2(t-T) is then time averaged.
Considering the period 0 to T we have :
V2(t-T) = -i O< t~T
= +1
= -1 ~T +T < t~T
*
Thus the time average output from the time averaging circuit is
R(-T) = l T v 1 (t)v2 (t-T)dt
liT
= -
T
0
t
-(-l)dt
T +T
1 r~T+Tt
JTT(+l)dt +-
T
liT
~T+T
t
-(-l)dt
T
T 1
--+-
4 T
1.3 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the output voltage v 0 from the multiplier shown in
fig. 1. 9 where the input signals are
Vm = J\mCOS WuJt
and plot its spectral amplitude versus frequency graph. Plot also
the same graph for the case,
vm vo
Multiplier
i v,
Fig. 1.9 for problems 1 and 2
19
2. Determine the output voltage v0 from the multiplier of fig. 1.9
fbr the case when
How could the signal Am cos Wmt be recovered from Vo?
3. Determine the Fourier series for the half-wave rectifier waveform

shown in fig. l.lO(a) and sketch its spectral amplitude versus
frequency graph. Calculate also the d.c., fundamental, second and
third harmonic voltage amplitudes developed across the output
terminals A B of the R-C network of fig. l.lO(b) for the above
waveform connected across the input.
R A
~
Vmsinwt
I I 'B
(b)
Fig. 1.10 for problem 3
4. Determine in both real and complex forms the Fourier series

for the offset square waveform shown in fig. 1.11.

5. Determine the Fourier series for the pulse train shown in
fig. 1.12. Calculate the spectral amplitudes for the first five
harmonics fbr the case T =SO lJS, T = 10 lJs and determine the
percentage of the total power of the wave contained in (i) the d.c.
component (ii) the range 0 to 80 kHz.
6. A sinusoidal voltage v(t) = 8 sinwt is applied across terminals

A B of the diode clipping circuit of fig. 1.13. Assuming that the
diodes are ideal, determine the amplitude of the fundamental
component of the output voltage developed across c D.
i IT4V
volts A• •C
r-- r-- r--
j4v
B• •D
• ~T 0 "T T 2T 3T
Fig. 1.12 for problem 5 Fig. 1.13 for problem 6
20
7. (a) Find the Fourier series for the impulse train of fig.l.l4(a).
The strength of each impulse is V and its repetition frequency is
Ws = 21T/Ts.
(b) Fig.1.14 (b) shows a signal produced by sampling a cosine
wave vl = Vmcos Wmt with the above impulse function. Determine
the Fourier series of the signal and sketch its frequency spectrum.
Ill
s (t) v (t)
) 11111111111
0 T5
Lt
(b)
8. The r.f. pulse train shown in fig. 1.15 is fed into a spectrum
analyser which displays spectral amplitude as a function of
frequency. Sketch the expected display and calculate the relative
amplitudes of the lines at 1 MHz , 0. 9 7 MHz , 1. 04 MHz.
Fig. 1.15 R.F. pulse waveform for problem 8

carrier frequency, fc = wc/21T = 1 MHz
9. The pulse train of fig. 1.16 is fed into an L-C circuit as

shown. This circuit is tuned to a frequency of 3/T hertz at which
its Q factor is Q>>l. Estimate the amplitude of the output voltage
across c.
0 T
:3J··
10. The two square waves shown in fig. 1.17 are fed into a
multiplier whose output is passed through a low-pass filter which
21
rejects all harmonics of the multiplier output. Determine the output
of the filter for cases where the delay T~ltr.
What is the autocorrelation function R(T) of square wave v1(t)
and what is the physical meaning of R(o).
Vt (t)
11. Find the Fourier transforms of :

(a) vl(t) =cos Wet
(b) v (t) = vm (t) cos wet, given that the transform of vm (t)
is Vm(W).
12. Determine the Fourier transforms of the rectangular pulses

shown in fig. 1.18. Derive an expression for the energy of these
pulses contained in the frequency range lfl ~ 1/T hertz expressed
as a fraction of the total pulse energy.
1-01----..,
-"---+--....1...-+ t 0+-----'--... t
- ~T 0 T
13. Determine the Fourier transform of the cosine squared pulse
v (t) = cos2 (1Tt/T) , It I ~ ~T
= 0 ltl > ~T
and sketch its amplitude-frequency spectrum. ~termine also the

ratio of energy density at d.c. to that at f = - 1/T hertz.
14. Determine the normalized power of the signal
v (t) = cos w0 t + ~cos 2 w0 t + lois in 4 w0 t

This signal is applied at the input of the low-pass R-C filter of
fig. 1.19 which has a 3dB frequency of 2w0 , i.e. frequency at which
output voltage across C falls to 1/../2 of its value at w approaching
22
zero. Calculate the normalized power of the output voltage.
--TTc
I.
15. Calculate the rise time (defined as the time taken for the
output voltage to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value) for the
RC circuit of fig. 1.19 when a step voltage is applied at its
input.
16. A 1 V pulse of duration T seconds is applied to the high-pass

CR network of fig. 1.20. If the amplitude of the output signal
is to be within 10% of the input pulse amplitude, determine the
limiting value of the network time constant.
17. Determine the output voltage v0 (t) of the circuit of fig. 1.21
for a unit impulse voltage function applied at its input. Calculate
also the total normalized energy contained in v0 (t).
18. The frequency spectrum of a signal v(t) is constant over the

frequency range -wM to +wM as shown in fig. 1.22. By utilizing
the convolution theorem or otherwise determine the frequency
spectrum of the signal v2(t).
lv<w> I
~
--L---Y-l__.__ w
-wM 0
19. (a) Determine the autocorrelation function R(T) for the

sinusoidal wave
v =A cos<wct +~)
23
(b) Determine the cross-correlation function R12 CT) of the
signals
20. Determine the autocorrelation function R(T) of the saw-tooth

pulse shown in fig. 1.23. What is the value and physical
significance of R(o).
21. White noise, which has a uniform power spectral density,

G(W) = ~K is passed through the low-pass R-C network of fig. 1.24.
Determine
(a) the power spectral density of the output noise,
(b) the autocorrelation function of the output noise.
G(W)
~
-w +W • I .
22. Determine :
(a) the Fourier transform of the triangular pulse shown in
fig. 1.25 (a),
(b) the autocorrelation function of the rectangular pulse
of fig. 1.25 (b).
Using the result of (a), determine the energy spectral density

of the rectangular pulse of fig. 1.25(b).
volts A volts
24
2
NOISE
2.1 THEORY S~Y
1. THERMAL NOISE (JOHNSON NOISE)
The mean square noise voltage at the open-circuit terminals of

a resistance of R ohms at a temperature of T degrees Kelvin
generated in a bandwidth of B hertz is :
vn2 = 4kTBR k = 1.38 x lo- 23 J/K ••• Boltzmann's constant (1)
Equivalent circuit models of a resistor incorporating the effect

of thermal noise as voltage and current sources are shown in fig.2.1
or
Fig. 2.1
The two-sided (i.e. -f and +f) power spectral density of thermal
noise,
G(f) = ~(vn2/B) = 2kTR v2 Hz-l (2)
is constant over all ranges of frequency up to the order of 1o12 Hz

and it is because of this uniformity that thermal noise is referred
to as white noise.
2. SHOT NOISE
Shot noise arises from the random variation of electron or hole

current in thermionic and semi-conductor devices. For the
temperature-limited thermionic diode, the mean square value of shot
noise current variation generated in a bandwidth B is :
is2=2eiB _ 19 (3)
where I =mean or d.c. current, e = 1.60 x 10 C •• electron charge
3. AVAILABLE SIGNAL AND NOISE POWERS
The available signal power is the maximum power that can be
25
delivered to a load from a signal source of fixed non-zero
impedance. For example the available power from the voltage source
of fig. 2.2 is
(4)
occuring when the load ZL = z; = R8-jx 8 is matched to the source.

Extending this concept to the thermal noise generated by the source
resistance Rs assumed to be at a temperature of T K we have for the
available noise power,
v 2 __ 4kTBRs2
Pn=_n_x Rs kTB (5)
(2Rsl 2 4Rs2
V~=4kTBR 5
Signal source Load

Fig. 2. 2
4. AVAILABLE POWER GAIN AND EQUIVALENT NOISE BANDWIDTH
(a) The available power gain GA of a 2-port, such as amplifier or

filter, is the maximum power gain of the 2-port when the source
sees a matched load looking into the input of the network and the
output of the 2-port also sees a matched load, i.e.
G = available output power
(6)
A available input power
(b) To simplify noise calculations we may define an equivalent
noise bandwidth Bn of a 2-port as :
Bn = ~
maxJo
roo G(f)df = kmaxJor ,H(f) l2df
00
(7)
where G mid-band available power gain

max
G(f) = available power gain at frequency f

Hmax'H(f) =maximum voltage gain,and voltage gain at f
assuming matched conditions.
26
5. NOISE TEMPERATURES
(a) Staniia:rod arribient tempemtu:roe~ T 0

In noise calculations and measurements a standard ambient temperature
T0 = 290 K(l70C) has been agreed. kT0 = 4.0 x lo- 21 w-s.
(b) Effective noise tempe:roatu:roe of a sou:roce~ Ts
T = Available noise power delivered by source in bandwidth B

S kB (8)
This definition applies to any white-noise source. For thermal
sources Ts is a physical temperature for non-thermal sources (e.g.
galatic or sky noise) it is a measure of available noise power
Pn=kTsB delivered by the source. For example if the available
noise power delivered by an antenna to a receiver is Na, then the
effective antenna noise temperature Ts=Na/kB.
(c) Effective noise tempemtu:roe of an ampUfie:ro~ TA
TA = Available noise power output due to generation within amplifier

GAk Bn (9)
GA available power gain, Bn = noise bandwidth of amplifier.
SOurce Amplifier Matched

si
Ts N.
si
I
GA , Bn
TA
-N
so
0
load
matched
Fig. 2.3
As an example of the use of noise temperatures in system signal-to-

noise calculations, consider the matched connection of a source of
noise temperature Ts delivering a power Si to an amplifier of power
gain GA and noise temperature TA, shown in fig. 2.3.
Input noise to amplifier, Ni = kTsBn

Input signal-to-noise ratio, Si/Ni = Si/kTsBn
OUtput noise delivered to matched load,
so output signal-to-noise ratio,
So = GASi Ts
(10)
N0 GAkBn(Ts+TA)
If the system is not matched S0 ,N0 ,si and Ni will all be reduced.
However the above result for S0 /N0 still holds, since the mismatch
27
factors cancel out as the power r ios are taken at specific terminals.
(d) Noise temperature of a resistive attenuator at T0

If the attenuator or generally a lossy 2-port such as a transmission
line is at a temperature T0 and reduces the signal power by a
factor L, i.e. GA=l/L, its noise temperature is :
(11)
e.g. if a transmission line has a 1 dB loss, i.e. 10 log L 1,

L = 10°'1 1.259
(1.259-1)290 75.1 K
6. NOISE FACTOR OR FIGURE
Noise temperatures are normally employed to describe low noise

amplifiers and devices for which TA<< T5 • When this is not the
case the noise factor or figure F is usually employed.
Available noise power at 2-po~t output (12)

F Available noise power output if 2-port were noiseless
the source being at the standard ambient temperature, T0 =290 K.
i.e. F
N0 being the available power output, GA the power gain and Bn

the noise bandwidth of the 2-port.
Note as
(since T5 =T0 and where TA = noise temperature of 2-port)
(F-l)T0 (13)
Further if we use F rather than TA in noise calculations the

result expressed by (10) becomes :
(:~) (14)
and if the source temperature in fig. 2.3 is T5 =T0 , then
28
and F (15)
7. NOISE FACTOR AND TEMPERATURE OF CASCADED NETWORKS
-
Source Power Gain Gt Power Gain G2 Power Gain Gn
Ts No
Noise factor Ft Noise factor F 2 Noise factor Fn
kTsBn Noise temp T 1 Noise temp T2 Noise temp Tn
Cascade of N sections, effective noise bandwidth, Bn

Fig. 2.4
Consider a number N of matched sections in cascade. The individual

available powers gains, noise temperatures and noise factors
(referred to T0 ) are
The overall power gain of the system is G = G1 G2 ••• GN, and the
system noise bandwidth is Bn• If a source of noise temperature T8
is connected to the input, then the total noise output of the
system,
where Te (16)
is the effective noise temperature of the complete cascaded system.
Alternatively expressing the noise output in terms of the

individual noise factors :
GkTSBn + GkBnT0 (F1 -l + F2-l + F3-1 + ••• )

Gl G2G3
29
Now if the source were at T8=T0 ,
No = GkBnT0 (Fl + F2-1 + F3-1 + ••• )

Gl G2G3
Thus the effective overall noise factor of the system
(17)
and the noise output for a source at Ts is

(18)
2. 2 WORKED PROBLEMS
1. Calculate
(a) the noise factor and the effective noise temperature of the
microwave receiver shown in fig. 2.5, including the effect of the
input line,
(b) the available signal output power from the antenna which will
provide a signal-to-noise ratio at the detector input of 20 dB.
The noise bandwidth of the receiver is 4 MHz.
Antenna To detector
\I/ noise temp.
Ts = 14 K
Si
Low-noise Travelling wave Mixer and i.f.
Low-loss amplifier tube amplifier amplifiers
line 1-- Noise temp. 1- Noise factor, ~ F4 = 12 dB
L1 = 0.4 bB T2 = 4 K F3 = 6 dB G4 = 60 bB
Gain,G2=30 dB Gain,G3=20 dB
Fig. 2.5
Solution
(a) The noise factors of the individual sections of the receiver
from antenna to detector are as follows:
for the low-loss line, F1 = L1
where 0.2 = 10 log 1QL1 , so L1 10°" 02 = 1.0471
for the low-noise amplifier, F2 =1 + T2/T0 , T0 = 290 K
so F2 = 1 + 4/290 1.0138
for the travelling wave tube,F 3 = 6 dB
which on converting dB into a number ratio gives
F3 = 10°" 6 = 3.9811
30
for the mixers and i. f. amplifiers,
F4 12 dB and as a number
F4 = 101 " 2 = 15.8490
The overall noise factor from antenna output to detector input,
F2-1 F3-1 F 4-l

F Fl + + +
Gl GlG2 GlG2G3
where Gl 1/Ll 1/1.0471 0.9550
G2 10 3 (30dB), G3 = 100 (20dB)

(1.0138-1) + (3. 9811-1) + (15. 849-1)
so F = 1.0471 +
0.9550 o.9550xlo3 o.9550xlo3xlo2
= 1.0471 + 0.01445 + 0.00300 + 0.000155 1.0647
and the effective receiver noise temperature
Te = (F-l)T0 = (1.0647-1)290 = 18.76 K
(b) The availab~e noise power output from the receiver, made up
of G k Ts B due to the antenna source and G k Te B due to noise
generated within the receiver is :
G G1 G2G3G4 the overali receiver gain and

B 4 x 106 Hz the receiver bandwidth •
If Si is the available signal power output from the antenna, then

the available signal output from the receiver is
So = G si and output signal-to-noise ratio,
so = G si si
No GkB(Ts+Te) kB(Ts+Te)
100(20 dB),then si = lOOkB(Ts + Te>
100 X 1.38 X l0- 23 X 4 X 106 (14+18.76)

-15
180.9 X 10 W = 0.181 pW
2. Fig. 2.6 shows an equivalent circuit of a noisy amplifier of

open-circuit voltage gain A. The noise generated within the
31
amplifier is represented by the noise sources vn 1 • vnz and vn 3
in the input circuit and the amplifier is assumed no~seless
with the same gain and bandwidth Bn as the noisy amplifier. Assuming
that there is no coherence between the noise sources and the load
RL is matched to the amplifier output determine,
(a) the available signal-to-noise ratio at the noisy amplifier input

(b) the available signal-to-noise ratio at the output
(c) the noise factor of the amplifier
(d) the value of source resistance Rs which minimises the noise
factor.
Noiseless
amplifier
o.c. voltage
gain = A
Bandwidth = B
n
Source,T0 K B
Fig. 2.6
Sol-ution
(a) Available signal power from source,
available noise input power,
Hence available input signal to noise ratio,
(b) The input signal voltage at terminals A-B in fig. 2.6 is
32
and the open-circuit output voltage,
Hence the available power output,
The total input noise voltage to terminals A-B is composed of
Rs Vn2 due to vn 2
Rs+Rc
Vn3 = I (4kT0 BnRn>
and the mean square value is
2 Rc2 4kT0 BnRs + ~ 4kTcBnRc

vn + 4kT0 BnRn
<Rs+Rc) 2 <Rs+Rc> 2
i.e. vn 2 is the sum of the squares of the 3 noise sources since the
sources are not coherent.
Thus the available noise power at the amplifier output,
and the available signal-to-noise ratio,
So = Rc2 vs2
No 4kBn {Rc2RsTo + Rs2RcTc + Rn<Rs+Rc)2Tof
(c) Applying the definition for noise factor,
F since the source is at the standard
temperature T0 (T 0 =290K) we have
33
F Rc 2RsTo + Rs 2RcTc + Rn (Rg+Rc) 2To
2
Rc RsTo
1 + Rs Tc + Rn
(d) To find the value of Rs which minimises F, we differentiate

F with respect to Rs and equate to zero, i.e.
- Rn (Rs+Rc) 2 + 2Rn (Rs+Rc) 0
Rc2Rs2 Rc2Rs
which on solving the quadratic for (l+Rc) finally yields

Rg
2. 3 EXERCISE PROBlEMS
1. (a) Determine the mean square thermal noise voltage generated

in a bandwidth of B hertz across terminals A-B of the resistive
circuit shown in fig. 2.7(a).
(b) Determine the mean square noise voltage generated in a
bandwidth of B hertz across terminals C-D for the network of
fig. 2. 7 (b).
The temperature of both circuits is T degrees Kelvin.

A
R2
(a)
B c (b)
D
34
2. In an experiment to measure the noise factor of an amplifier, a
resistor matched to the amplifier input was connected across the
input. The temperature of the resistor was T 0 K. The power output
from the amplifier was then noted, the power measuring equipment
being correctly matched to the amplifier output. The temperature
of the resistor was then raised to T 2 K such that the power output
from the amplifier doubled in value. Determine in terms of T 0 and
T 2 the noise temperature and factor of the amplifier. What is the
minimum temperature that the resistor must be able to withstand if it
is envisaged that noise factors of the order of 3 dB are to be
measured?
3. Fig. 2.8 shows the circuit diagram of a noise source incorporating

a diode operating under temperature limited conditions. Calculate
the r.m.s. shot noise voltage developed across the 6 kQ resistor,
in a 20 kHz bandwidth, when the mean diode current is set at 1 mA.
The diode noise source is connected to an amplifier of resistive

input impedance equal to 6 kn • With the diode current switched
off the output noise power from the amplifier is noted on the
power meter P. The diode current is then set at a value i such
that the output power registered on P is increased by a factor of x.
From these observations deduce an expression for the noise factor F
of the amplifier. Ambient temperature of amplifier T0 = 290 K.
~o---.---1
+ a.c.choke
H.T.
Noise
figure,

4. Calculate the equivalent noise-bandwidth of the R-C circuit shown
in fig. 2.9. Determine also the mean square noise voltage developed
across C. The circuit is at a temperature of T degrees Kelvin.
5. Show that the mean square noise voltage due to thermal noise
developed across the R-L-C circuit of Fig. 2.10 is given by :
4kTR i"" df
where T is the circuit temperature in degrees Kelvin, k is Boltzmann's
35
constant, Q = R/w0 L is the circuit Q-factor and f 0
resonant frequency of the circuit.
Determine also for the case of a high Q circuit the mean square
noise voltage developeq over the bandwidth f 0 ± f 0 /2Q.
6.
l0f:·l
(a) A signal generator of r.m.s. e.m. f. 10 ~V and 50 r2 internal
resistance is connected to an r.f. receiver of 2 MHz bandwidth.
If the signal-to-noise ratio at the output is 10 dB calculate the
noise factor of the receiver. Assume matched conditions and that
the ambient temperature is 290 K, i.e.
-21
kT0 = 4.0 X 10 J.
(b) An antenna has a noise te!Jilerature of 15 K and is connected
to a receiver which has an effective noise te!Jilerature of 180 K,
a midband gain of 100 dB, and a noise bandwidth of 1. 2 MHz.
Calculate the available noise power at the receiver output.
7. Determine the overall noise factor and te!Jilerature of the

receiver system shown in fig. 2.11 Both stages see white noise
and are at the same ambient te!Jilerature of T0 =290 K. If a pre-
a!Jillifier of power gain 20 dB and 6 dB noise factor is inserted in
the system immediately after the antenna, determine the new noise
factor of the system.
R.F. and I.F. Amplifiers

Gain = 80 dB
Noise factor 10 dB

8. Fig. 2.12 shows the receiver system for a low-noise microwave
satellite ground station. Determine the overall noise te!Jilerature
of the system. If antenna source temperature is 25 K, determine
the available signal power required at the antenna terminals to
provide a 20 dB predetection signal-to-noise power ratio.
Travelling wave
Parametric amplifier tube amplifier
waveguide Gain = 20 dB Noise factor = 8 dB
0. 3 dB Noise te!Jil. = 24 K Bandwidth = 30 MHz
36
9. Fig. 2.13 shows an equivalent circuit of an amplifier including
noise sources. These sources are referred to the amplifier input.
The noise contribution of the load resistor RL is neglected.
Determine (a) the available noise output power within a bandwidth
B Hertz,
(b) the available power gain of the amplifier,
(c) the noise factor of the amplifier.

10. Fig. 2.14 shows the equivalent circuit of a noisy amplifier,
represented by equivalent noise generators at the input of a
noiseless amplifier giving the same power gain. All sources are at
the standard ambient temperature of T0 K and may be taken as
independent. Determine an expression for the noise factor of the
amplifier in terms of these sources. Calculate also the optimum
value of source resistance Rs required to maximise the signal-to-
noise ratio at the output of the noisy amplifier.
Noiseless
amplifier
Bandwidth
B Hertz

11. An antenna having a noise temperature of 580 K is matched to a
pre-amplifier having a noise factor of 2.5 dB and an available power
gain of 8 dB, which in turn is matched to a receiver having a noise
factor of 7 dB and r.f. bandwidth 10kHz. If the received signal
power is 0.2 pW, calculate the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver
output.
37
3
AMPLITUDE AND ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS
3.1 THEORY SUMMARY

In analogue modulation systems the information or baseband signal
is transmitted by causing this signal to vary either the amplitude,
frequency or phase of a higher frequency carrier. The most common
form of carrier is a sinusoidal wave of the form :
v(t) = A(t) cos[wct + <jl(tl]
and if the modulating signal varies linearly
A(t) then this leads to amplitude modulation
<jl(t) then this leads to phase modulation
~ then this leads to frequency modulation

dt
1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION
(a) Double sideband amplitude modulation (DSB-AM)

In DSB-AM the information signal vm(t) varies the amplitude of the
carrier, such that
= Vc {l+mvm(tl}
where Vc, b are constants and
m b/Vc is known as the modulation depth, assuming
IVm (t) Imax=1.
Thus a double sideband, amplitude modulated carrier takes the form
Vc { 1+ mcos<.Umt } cos wet when vm (t) = coswmt (1)
A diagram of the DSB-AM wave (1) is shown in fig. 3.1. Note,

to avoid distortion m <1.
Further, expanding (1) we have :
38
showing that a DSB-AM wave has frequency components at the carrier
we, at Wc+Wm (the upper sideband) and at Wc-wm (the lower sideband).
Fig. 3.2 shows the frequency spectrum of a DSB-AM for the case when
the modulating signal consists of a range, WL to wM, of frequency
components.
v(t)
--
m=0·5 m:Q·9 m> I

Fig. 3.1 DSB-AM carrier
Spectral Spectral
amplitude amplitude
0
f;:fM fcf~cftfL fJfM frequency
(a) (b) bandwidth = 2 fM
Fig. 3.2 Frequency spectra of (a) modulating signal

(b) resulting DSB-AM wave
The normalized total power PT, carrier power Pc and sideband

power PSB for the DSB-AM wave (1) and (2) are,
so that the ratio of useful sideband power containing the signal

information to the total power transmitted is :
31 , since m~l.
(b) Suppressed carrier and single sideband amplitude modulation

To conserve power and bandwidth double sideband, suppressed
carrier (DSB-SC) and single sideband (SSB) systems have been
developed. DSB-SC and SSB waveforms (for the case of a modulating
signal coswmtl take the form :
39
VDSB-SC
In vestigial sideband systems one full sideband but only a part of

the other is transmitted. Frequency spectra for DSB-SC, SSB and
vestigial sideband signals are shown in fig. 3. 3
The recovery of the modulating signal in suppressed carrier and

single sideband systems requires the insertion at the receiver of a
carrier of the correct amplitude, frequency and phase.
lu
Spectral
amplitude
Wc-w.. "'c
(a) signal (b) DSB-SC (c) SSB (d) vestigial sideband
Fig. 3.3
2. ANGLE (FREQUENCY AND PHASE) MODULATION
(a) Frequency and phase moduLated waves

The instantaneous frequency of the wave, vc
= we + 1 d<f>
21r 21T dt
If.the signal Vmcoswmt is to frequency modulate a carrier, then
~ (3)
dt
where f 0 is known as the frequency deviation (f0 ~ Vm>•
On integrating (3) we obtain
40
and thus the form for a frequency modulated (f.m.) carrier is
(4)
where M = f 0 /fm is known as the modulation index.
The carrier, vc = Vccos(wct+~) is said to be phase modulated

by the signal Vmcoswmt if
where M is the peak phase deviation (M o: Vm),
so a phase modulated wave has the form,
vc Vc cos{wct + M cos wmt} (5)
and its instantaneous frequency,
1
f' =In ~t [wet + M coswmt]
(b) BandJuidth of an f.m. wave

Whilst the instantaneous frequencies of the frequency and phase
modulated waves (4) and (5) lie within the range fc±fo, the spectral
components of these waves are not restricted within a 2f0 bandwidth.
Using the Fourier-Bessel expansion results of
we may expand the f.m. wave
as a harmonic series :
v = J 0 (M) coswct - J 1 (M) [cos <wc-wm) t - cos (We itllm) t]
41
- J3 (M) [cos (wc-3Wml t - cos (Wc+3Wml t] + •••
showing that the carrier amplitude is J 0 (M) and the sideband

amplitudes at Wc±nwm, n = 1, 2, 3 •• are Jn(M).
Tables of the Bessel functions J 0 (M) to J 6 (M) are given in

appendix AS. 98% of the power is contained in the first (M+l)
sideband pairs and so a good estimate of the bandwidth B of an
f.m. wave is
B ~ 2(M+l)fm = 2(f 0 +fm)
3. FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
Signal 1 Sub-carrier Band-pass filter

0- w modulator 1 w1 to (w 1 - wm)
m
v1 cosw 1 t
Signal 2 Band-pass filter Final modulator

0- w w2 to (w 2 - wm) and
m
transmitter
v2 cosw 2t
Signal 3 Band-pass filter
0- w w3 to (w 3 - wm) To common
m transmission
channel
Transmitting section
FDM-SSB
input
-
Band pass filter
(we - w1 ) to
(W c - W1 - Wm) -- Sub-carrier
receiver
8w1
- Signal
1
- -
si gnal
Band-pass filter
L_ Broadband _..,. Sub-carrier
receiver (We - W2) to Signal
amplifier (We - W2- Wm ) rece~ver
2
e w2
... Band-pass filter

(we - w3) to
(we - w! - wm)
r- Sub-carrier
receiver 1-- Signal
e
3
WJ
Receiving section
Fig. 3.4
Multiplexing is the use of a common transmission channel to
42
transmit several individual signals simultaneou sly or virtually
simultaneou sly.
In amplitude and angle modulation frequency division

multiplexin g (FDM) multi-chann el transmissio n is achieved by
translating each of the signals from their baseband frequency
range to a defined frequency slot close to its individual carrier.
A 3-channel SSB-FDM system is shown in fig. 3.4 with the 2-stage
frequency translated spectra shown in fig. 3.5.
(a) Frequency spectra of original signals
•w
(b) Frequency spectra after first (c)Output after modulation of final
stage of frequency translation carrier. Transmitter transmits
(i.e. after signals modulate lower sidebands only
sub-carrier s)
Fig. 3.5
3.2 WORKED PROBLEMS
1. Fig 3.6 shows the block diagram of an AM scrambler

communicati ons system. Determine the output voltage v 0 from the
High-pass Low-pass
V; filter filter
Multiplier
A We= wl B We= wl c
cos(w 1 + w,..lt
Transmitter section
High-pass Low-pass
v
Multiplier filter 5 Multiplier filter
cos(w 1 + w )t
Receiver section
Fig. 3.6
43
transmitter section when the input voltage vi = coswt, w<wr4<w1
Show that this signal may be recovered using the receiving
section. Sketch also the frequency spectra at points A,B,C for
the case of an input signal which has the frequency spectrum shown
in fig. 3. 7
--~~~w
0~~-------- WM
Fig. 3.7
Solution
Output from first multiplier in transmitter section,
v 1 = vi cosw 1 t = coswt cosw 1 t = ~ {cos (w1 +W) t + cos (w1 -w) t}
Output from high-pass filter (which removes the (w 1-w) component)

is
Output from second multiplier
Output from low-pass filter (which removes (2w 1 +W+WM))component is
Consider v 0 applied to the receiver section :
Thus the input signal is recovered.
44
Fig. 3.8 shows the frequency spectra at points A,B,C for the
input signal frequency spectrum of fig. 3.7
Spectral
amplitude
At point A At point B At point C

Fig. 3.8
2. Estimate the bandwidths required for the following :
(a) A narrow band f.m. system transmitting a sinusoidal signal of

frequency ~ which produces a frequency deviation of the carrier
of O.lfm• calculate also the relative amplitudes of the carrier
and significant side-band pairs.
(b) 24 telephone signals, each signal band limited between 300 to
3400 Hz with effective guard bands of 0.9 kHz between adjacent
channels, SSB modulation being used together with frequency
division multiplexing.
(c) An f.m. broadcasting system transmitting signals in the range
0 to 15 kHz with a maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz. (Use the
table of Bessel function values given in appendix AS and e~loy the
criterion that over 99% of the power is to be contained in the
required bandwidth for a 15kHz modulating signal).
So"lution
(a) The form of the f.m. carrier transmitted is
(1)
where We = carrier angular frequency
f 0 /fm = 0.1, since the frequency deviation £ 0= o.lfm
Expanding (1) we have,
45
on remembering for small angles, cos x ~(l-~x 2 ) , sin x ~ x.
Thus relative amplitudes are,
for carrier 0.9975
0.05
0.00125
and since the relative power is proportional to the square of these

values, the sidebands at We ±2Wm contribute only 2 x(l.25 x 10- 3 ) =
3.125 x 10- 6 and may be neglected. Hence the required bandwidth
is 2 fm•
(b) Since SSB modulation is used only one sideband per channel
is transmitted. Each channel therefore occupies a frequency slot of
(3.4 - 0.3) + 0.9 = 4 kHz
Thus the total bandwidth required for 24 channels is
24 X 4 = 96 kHz
(c) assuming sinusoidal modulation the form of the f.m. wave

transmitted is
v (2)
where M f 0 /fm is the modulation index, fo = 75 kHz
(2) may be expanded in the form of a Fourier series :
+ •••
Thus for the case fm = 15 kHz, M 75/15 5 and the relative

voltage and power amplitudes are
for the carrier c -0.1776 ' {Jo(5l}2 0.0315
-o. 3276 ,2{Jl(5l} 2 0.2146
46
for wc±2wm J2 (5) 0.04657 ,2{J2(5)}2 = 0.0043
for Wc±3wm J3 (5) 0.3648 ,2{J3(5)}2 = 0.2662
for wc±4Wm J4(5) 0.3912 ,2{J4(5)}2 = 0.3061
for wc±swm J5<5> 0.2611 ,2{J5<5>}2 = 0.1364
for wc±Gwm J6(5) 0.1310 ,2{J6(5)}2 = 0.0343
and the fraction of the total power contained in the first 6

sideband pairs is
0.9933
Hence over 99% of the total power contained in the f.m. wave is
present in the first 6 sideband pairs and the required bandwidth
2 X 6 X 15 180 kHz
3. A signal Acos wet suffers additive interference with a signal

Ncos <wc-+wN)t. Determine the resultant amplitude and frequency
deviation of the combined signals, assuming A»N. Determine also
the normalized power output when the combined wanted and interference
signals are processed by :
(a) an a.m. receiver of sensitivity such that when it receives a
signal modulated to a depth m = 1, its demodulator gives 1 V peak
output,
(b) an f.m. receiver such that when the frequency deviation of the
incoming signal is f 0 , its demodulator gives an output of 1 v.
Hence show for the above interference that the f.m. receiver is
superior to the a.m. provided fo/fM > 1 where fM corresponds to the
maximum frequency of a baseband signal passed by the post detector
amplifier stages.
SoLution
The combined signal,
47
When A>> N :
The instantaneous frequency deviation of the combined signal is
1 ~ = NWN
21T dt
21TA
hence the frequency deviation is NWN/21TA = NfN/A
(a) The a.m. demodulator will be insensitive to any phase variation

and provide an output equal to the a.c. variation in the envelope
amplitude v, i.e. (N/A)coswNt• Thus the output amplitude Vam and
normalized power Pam are given by
N 2 N2
vam =-
A ' Pam = ~v am = 2A2
(b) The f.m. receiver will ignore any amplitude variation and the
demodulator will produce an output proportional to the frequency
deviation NfN/A. Further since a deviation of f 0 produces 1 v,
the voltage amplitude Vfm and normalized power Pfm outputs are
pfm =
If the f.m. receiver is to be superior over the whole of the baseband

frequency range 0 to fM, then
, i.e. 1
4. A carrier wave coswct is modulated by the signal
v m(cos wt + cos 2wt)
48
Determine expressions for the form of the modulated carrier for
(a) double sideband amplitude modulation,

(b) frequency modulation (assume 1 V signal amplitude produces a
frequency deviation of K hertz),
(c) phase modulation (assume 1 V signal amplitude produces a phase
deviation of M radians).
In (a) show that if distortion is to be avoided m ~ 8/91 in (b)

determine the maximum changes in frequency about the carrier
frequency1 in (c) determine the instantaneous frequency of the
carrier.
Solution
(a) For DSB-AM the carrier amplitude should vary as
A = (1 + m coswt + m cos 2wt)
and thus the expression for the carrier is
v058 = (1 + m coswt + m cos2wt)coswct
If distortion is to be avoided A~O at all times. The minimum value

of A may be determined by equating dA = o, i.e.
dt
dA
-mwsinwt - 2mwsin2wt
dt
= -mwsinwt { 1 +4 coswt} =0 , as sin2wt 2sinwt coswt
This equation is satisfied when
sinwt =o , i.e. wt = o, n, 2TI •••
coswt = -~ (note cos2wt = 2 (-~) 2 -1 - Za )
and the corresponding values of amplitude are :
A 1 + 2m (Wt = 0, 2TI, 4TI. • • ) , A = 1 (Wt TI, 3TI, ••• )
A (1 - ~m - lam) =1 - am
9
when coswt = -~
Clearly the latter corresponds to the minimum value, so if A ~0
1 - 2... . . 0
a~ 'f$ , m~g
8
49
(b) The instantaneous frequency of the carrier, v cose(t), is to
be in this case :
f' =!. de f 0 + K(m coswt + m cos2wt)

211" dt
so e
sin2wt
+~
sinwt sin2wt
w0 t + Km ( - - f - + ~
and the carrier, v
The maximum variation in frequency f' corresponds to the maximum

and minimum values of K(m coswt + m cos 2wt), which may be found
from :
£t { Km(coswt + cos2wt)} = o
Virtually the same problem was solved in (a) so using these results
we obtain,
[Km (coswt+cos2wt>] max Km(l+l)=2Km ••• occuring at wt =0 1 211", •••
[Km(coswt+cos2wt)J min = Km(-~-la)=- ~ ••• occuring at wt = cos -l (-~)
9
Thus the carrier frequency changes to +2Km down to - ~ about f 0 •
(c) For the case of phase modulation the total phase of the carrier,
v =cos e<tl should vary as
e w0 t + M{ m(coswt + cos2wt)}
thus v cos[w 0 t + Mm(coswt + cos2wtl]
The instantaneous frequency of the carrier,
de we Mm
dt = 2if - 211" (W sinwt + 2wsin 2wt)
f0 - Mmf(sinwt + 2 sin 2wt)
50
3. 3 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. A double sideband suppressed carrier signal v = Vm(t)coswct

is to be demodulated using the circuit shown in Fig.3.9(a). Signal
vm(t) contains frequency components in the range 0-wm where wm<wc,
as shown in fig.3.9(b). Determine the voltage output vl from
the multiplier and sketch its spectral amplitude pattern. Hence,
determine the minimum and maximum values allowable for the cut-off
frequencies of the low pass filter for the recovery of the Vm(t)
signal. For what value of $ is the amplitude of the output voltage
v 0 (i) a maximum, (ii) zero?
Spectral
amplitudes
Low pass
of vm(t)
Multiplier filter
vl =cos (wet+$) 0:+---~W:':-m- w

(a) (b)
2. Fig. 3.10 shows the basic elements of a demodulator for a radio
telegraph system. Determine and sketch the output voltage waveform
v0 for (a) the case where the re-inserted carrier is We i.e. ~We = 0,
(b) when ~fc = + 20 Hz.
The input signal is vi
Low-pass filter
1-----1 0-100Hz 1---
~ = cos(wc + ~c)t

3. A single sideband signal A cos(wc+wm)t is demodulated by adding
a local carrier 3A coswct, after which the combined signal is passed
through an envelope detector. The latter provides an output voltage
proportional to the amplitude of the input signal excluding any
frequency variation at the carrier or like frequencies.
Determine (a) the voltage output from the demodulator,
(b) the amplitude of the second harmonic (2Wml content of the latter
and the ratio of fundamental to second harmonic content in dBs.
4. A double sideband amplitude modulated signal

v = A (1 + m coswmtl cosw t is passed through a filter which removes
the lower sideband. c If the resulting signal is applied to an
envelope detector, determine :
(a) an expression for the detector output voltage,
(b) the ratio of the fundamental to the second harmonic contained
in the latter.
51
5. The transmitted power from an a.m. transmitter is measured at
Pc watts when the carrier is unmodulated, and PT when modulated
by a constant amplitude sinusoidal signal. Derive an expression
for the modulation depth m.
If the transmitted power = 40 kW when a modulation depth of
m = 0.8 is used, determine :
(a) the power contained in the sidebands,
(b) the transmitted power if m is reduced to o.s.
6. The dissipation loss in the power amplifier of a DSB-AM

transmitter is PL watts, when the depth of modulation is m. The
efficiency of the power amplifier is n1 and that of the modulator
is n2• A block diagram of the transmitter is shown in fig. 3.11.
Determine :
(a) the total power transmitted PT, the carrier power Pc and the
power in the sidebands P 5 •
(b) the signal power input PM to the modulator.
7. Fig. 3.12 shows a block diagram of a DSB-SC demodulator system

in which the synchronous carrier v 3 is generated from the incoming
signal. We is the carrier frequency and coswmt represents the
modulating signal. Determine expressions for :
(a) v 1 , v2 and v 3
(b) the output voltages v4 and v 0
vi= cosWmtcoswct Squaring v, Band pass filter v2 Divide by 2

circuit centred at 2wc
a. Fig. 3.13 shows an oscilloscope trace of an amplitude modulated

wave. Determine, in terms of Amax and Amin
52
(a) the unmodulated carrier amplitude, and
(b) the modulation depth.
~volt•
9. The series diode envelope detector circuit shown in fig. 3.14

is used to demodulate the amplitude modulated signal
(1 + 0.6 v(t))coswt where v(t) is a square wave of period Tm
whose amplitude varies between 0 and 1 v. Sketch the voltage
output from the detector for the cases :
0.2 RC
5 RC
Fig. 3.14 for problems 9 & 10
10. The amplitude modulated signal v = A (1 + m coswmtl coswct is to

be detected using diode detector circuit of fig. 3.14.
By comparing the rate of decay in the C-R network with the rate
of change of the modulation envelope, show if the output voltage
is to follow this envelope at any time t 0 that
RC ~ 1 + m cos~t 0
wm M sinwmto
Hence or otherwise derive an expression in terms of R, c, Wm 1 for
the maximum value of modulation depth m which may be satisfactorily
demodulated.
11. An amplitude modulated wave v(t) = A[l + vm<tHcoswct is applied

to a square-law detector which has an output voltage v 0 to input
voltage vin characteristic given by v0 = a vin2• This
characteristic is shown in fig. 3.15. Note that the signal is
applied to the detector together with a de bias of V volts. The
output from the detector is then passed through a low-pass filter
which removes spectral components near and above we as well as de
terms. Determine the output from the filter and show that the
I
distortion is small provided vm (t) 1. I«
53
~~~------L-----~v~
-v-
12(a)Fig . 3.16 shows a block diagram of a circuit generati ng a single
sideband signal. The upper sideband is selected by both of the
band-pas s filters. If a base band audio signal containi ng spectral
componen ts from 300 to 3400 Hz is applied at the input determin e
the frequenc y range of the final single side-ban d signal transmit
ted.
Oscilla tor Oscilla tor

f = 100 kHz f1= 10 MHz
Input
t
Balance d Band-pa ss
• Band-pa ss SSB
modula tor 1- filter j. Mixer~ filter
signal
Fig.3.1 6 for problem 12(a)
(b) Fig. 3.17 shows an alternat ive method of generati ng a SSB signal.
If the input signal is vm(t) = coswmt and the carrier is
vc(t) = coswct determin e the output voltage when the final network
M is (i) an adder, (ii) a subtract er.
7r/2 Phase
shifter
FIG.3.17 for problem 12(b)

13. Fig. 3.18(a) shows a block diagram of a synchron ous demodula
tor
suitable for demodul ating SSB and DSB-SC amplitud e modulate d
signals. Fig. 3.18(b) shows the spectral power density spectrum
of white noise accompan ying these signals.
(a) If the input is a SSB signal of the form A cos (Wc+Wm)t where
the baseband signal contains frequenc y componen ts in the range
54
0 to WM and has a power of S. watts, determine the ratio of signal-
to-noise power at the output~of the demodulator. Sketch also the
spectral noise power versus frequency spectrum at the output from
the multiplier and at the output of the baseband filter.
(b) If the input is a DSB-SC signal of the form
A cos(Wc-wm)t+A cos(Wc+Wm)t where the baseband signal contains
frequency components in the range 0 to wM and has a power of Si
watts, determine the signal-to-noise power ratio at the demodulator
output, and sketch the spectral noise power spectrum at the
multiplier and baseband filter outputs.
Inputs Band-pass filter Low-pass

(a) SSB (a) we to we + wM filter
(b) DSB-SC (b) we - w to wc

(a)
G(W) Spectral noise

power density
±K
- w ---------::01-1----------- w
(b)
frequency f/f0
_,
"' ~
c~ "'"'
~- c
~ " ~
e g "<>~
~
0 0~·
~0 "'
0 "' ~
<;
<>
9 ? ~
·:>
c ~ 9 9

14. A DSB-AM signal v(t) = (l+m coswmtlcoswct is transmitted over
a channel which has a non-linear phase-delay versus frequency
55
characteristic. If the phase delays of the carrier, upper and
lower sidebands are ~c• ~u• ~1 determine an expression for the
detected voltage output from the channel, detection being made
using an envelope detector. Under what condition would there be
zero distortion in the detected voltage?
The phase delay v frequency characteristic, plotted in fig. 3.19,

shows the maximum limits of phase variation versus frequency of an
ionospheric communications channel. If a DSB-AM signal of carrier
frequency 10 MHz and modulation frequency 3 kHz is transmitted via
this channel, calculate the maximum signal attenuation which may
occur at the detector output due to differing phase delay, assuming
m2«1.
15. Fig. 3.20 shows a circuit diagram of a simple balanced modulator.

Assuming that the diodes are ideal and that their biasing is
controlled solely by the carrier (i.e. Vc»Vm) determine an
expression for the form of the output voltage v 0 • Show also that
v0 contains DSB-SC components at (2n+l)Wc~• n = 0,1,2,3 •••

16. A vestigial-sideband signal may be expressed approximately by
If such a signal is demodulated using a diode detector, determine

the form of the detected signal. If m is fixed and assuming m2<<1
and that d.c. components are removed, sketch the detector voltage
amplitude versus frequency characteristic over the range 0 to 5 MHz,
given f 1 = 1 MHz. Sketch also the characteristic of an equalizing
network which could be used to provide a uniform voltage output over
the range 0 to 5 MHz.
17. The circuit shown in fig. 3.21 shows the essential components
of an f.m. oscillator employing a varactor diode. The diode presents
a capacitance given by :
Co= 10(0.5 +VB)-~ pF

where VB is the reverse bias voltage.
Calculate the value of VB required to tune the oscillator to

150/TI MHz and the frequency deviation produced by a modulating
56
signal of 150 mV peak amplitude. Assume that the d.c. blocking
capacitor C has a negligible and the r.f. choke L has an infinite
reactance at the oscillation frequency.
J :J: Clr---'L=
11----11 +
Bias voltage plus
0· 5 pH,L----l..L.-_18_p_F___.~jL--C-0_ _ _ _ _modulating signal
18. A frequency modulated current output from a transducer is of

the form, i = Im sin (Wet+ K cosWmtl
Determine its peak phase and frequency deviation.
If this current is passed through an inductor L, determine an

expression for the voltage produced across the inductor and show
that it is of the form of a DSB-AM wave. Determine the modulation
depth of the latter.
19. Sketch the spectral amplitude versus frequency graph of the

phase modulated waveform, v =A cos<wct + 0.1 sinwmtl and calculate
the amplitudes of the carrier and first three pairs of sideband
components.
J
n
(M)"' .!.
nl
(M/2) n J
20. Calculate as a percentage of the total power in the f.m.
waveform v =A cos(wct + 5 coswmtl, the power contained in the
sidebands.
21. In f.m. radio broadcasting a frequency deviation of 75 kHz is

used and the highest audio frequency transmitted is 15 kHz. Using
the Bessel function table of appendix AS sketch the spectral
amplitude frequency spectrum of an f.m. wave up to the sixth
sideband pair for the case of a 15 kHz modulating signal. Determine
also the percentage of power contained in (a) a 30kHz, (b) a 150
kHz bandwidth about the carrier.
22.(a) Fig.3.22 shows a block diagram of a circuit used to generate

a narrow-band modulated wave. If the carrier voltage vc = sinwct
and the modulating signal vm= M sinwmt, determine an expression
for the output voltage v0 and show that this represents a phase
modulated wave, assuming M2<<l.
(b) If the modulating signal vm is passed through an integrator

before being applied to the balanced modulator, determine the new
value of v0 and its instantaneous frequency, again assuming M2<<1.
57
~TI Phase shifter
Carrier
v
c
Balanced modulator
Input (Multiplier)

23. Fig. 3.23 shows a block diagram of an f.m. modulator. Determine:
{a) the frequency and phase deviation of the output signal v 1 from
the adder (given K = 40IT , Wm = 200TI) 1
(b) the carrier (central) frequency, and frequency and phase
deviation of the output signal v 2 from the first frequency multiplier
(c) the carrier frequency and frequency deviation of the output
signal v 3 from the mixer.
If the crystal oscillator frequency f 1 = 200 kHz, the local

oscillator frequency f 0 = 10.7 MHz, and multiplier 1 consists of
six frequency doublers in cascade, whilst multiplier 2 consists of
one frequency trebler in cascade with four frequency doublers,
determine the carrier frequency, the frequency and phase deviation
of the final output voltage v0 •
Crystal Local
oscillator
f
Frequency I.F. amplifier
multiplier at difference
X m1 frequency
Frequency
multiplier 2
X m2
Input signal
K sinwmt Output V0

24. Fig. 3.24 shows a block diagram of a phase comparator. The
low-pass filter has a cut-off frequency of 2w and it is assumed
that the frequency spectra of ¢l(t) and ¢ 2 (t) contain no components
above 2w. Determine the output voltage v0 from the comparator.
If v 1 is a phase modulated signal v 1 =A sin(wct +O•lsinwmt) and
¢2 = O, show that the circuit may be used to recover the modulating
signal.
Low-pass filter
Multiplier
0 - 2W
58
25. Fig. 3.25 shows the block diagram of a phase-locked loop f.m.
demodulator consisting of a phase comparator and a voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO). The VCO generates a constant amplitu?e sinusoidal
voltage v2, the frequency of which is controlled by the input signal
v 1 , i.e. the instantaneous angular frequency of the VCO output is :
and its output voltage,

v2 = B cos(Wct + K~v1 dt)
Suppose an unmodulated carrier A sinwct is applied to input
terminal 1 and that the VCO is adjusted to the same frequency and
has a phase shift of TI/2 relative to this carrier. Determine the
output voltage, v0 • If a signal A sin(wc+wmlt is now applied at
1, determine v0 •
Low-pass filter
Multiplier
0-2wc
I v2 I
vco I
I ~
26. Specify the frequency components and estimate the bandwidth
required for the transmission of the following :
(a) a series of d.c. pulses of constant amplitude and pulse duration
of 5 ~s with a pulse repetition frequency of 20 kHz,
(b) a series of r.f. pulses of constant amplitude at 10 GHz with a
mark-space ratio of 1:1000 and a pulse repetition frequency of
10 kHz
(c) a f.m. wave at 100 MHz with a deviation of 75 kHz produced by
an audio signal of 10kHz,
(d) a phase modulated wave at 100 MHz with a phase deviation of
5 radians produced by an audio signal of 5 kHz,
(e) 24 telephone speech signals, each signal bandlimited between
0.3 to 3.4 kHz with effective guard bands of 0.9 kHz, using SSB
modulation and frequency division multiplexing.
59
4
PULSE AND PCM MODULATION SYSTEMS
4.1 THEORY SUMMARY

1. PULSE AMPLITUDE AND PULSE TIME MODULATION
In a.m. and f.m. systems a complete signal is transmitted

continuously with time. It is, however, also possible to convey
the full intelligence associated with a signal by transmitting
discrete samples of the signal rather than the complete signal.
(a} Pul-se ampl-itude modulation (PAM}
In PAM systems these samples are constant duration pulses whose
amplitudes are directly proportional to the instantaneous signal
amplitude at the time of sampling. Examples of flat-top and natural
sampling are shown in fig.4.1.
~A ..
vfrisignal ~sample
_ &._lL_
pulse
'lJV q
(a} Flat-top sampling (b) Natural sampling

Fig.4.1
In the simple PAM modulator shown in fig. 4.2 a PAM train is
generated by multiplying the signal v(t} by a unit amplitude pulse
train. The PAM output is,
where s (t} = .!.Ts [ 1+2
T 2T 2T
Thus vPAM =T v(t} + T v(t} A1 cos wst + T v(t} cos 2wst + •••
s s s
and if the frequency spectrum of v(t} is that shown in fig.4.3a
containing components in the range o to fm' the spectrum of vPAM will
be of the form shown in fig.4.3b.
v(t}
~. v(t}
~·-+------·t
s(t}
""
1n n n n n.; <t> /'--_ ___,
.. T~T~
Fig.4.2
60
b 00
Spectral amplitude Spectral amplitude of VpAM
0
ti_, fm C fs-fm fs fs+fm 2fs
• f
(a) (b)
Fig.4.3
(b) Pul-se time rrr;du.Zation (PTM)
In PTM systems the signal varies a feature of the timing of the pulses
in a pulse train. In pulse duration modulation (PDM) the signal
sample controls the pulse duration, i.e.
T = 1"0 { l+kv(t)} (2}
In pulse position modulation (PPM) the signal samples varies the

time delay or positions of the pulses, i.e.
/:, = 1:, 0 { l+lv(t) } (3)
PDM and PPM waveforms are shown in

v (t)
(b}
Fig.4.4
2. SAMPLING AND RECOVERY THEOREMS
(a) Sampling theorem 1.

If a signal v(t) is band-limited with frequency components between
0 and fm and is sampled at regular intervals separated by times
Ts~l/2fm, then the samples v(nTsl n = 0,1,2,3 ••• uniquely determine
the complete signal waveform, and v(t} may be reconstructed from
these samples without distortion.
(b) Sampling theorem 2.

If a signal v(t) is band-limited between fL and fM, then the minimum
sampling frequency is
61
(c) Reaovery theorem
If a band-limited signal, 0 to fm, has been sampled at a rate fs of
at least 2fm and the samples are forms of impulses whose areas are
proportional to the magnitudes of the signal at the various instants
of sampling, then the signal may be reconstructed by passing the
impulse train through an ideal low-pass filter of bandwidth 0 to B,
where fm < B <fs-fm•
For a band-limited signal, fL to fM, a band-pass filter of band-

width fM-fL may normally be used to reconstruct the signal.
In practice where the sampling time T is finite (e.g. in flat-top

sampling) some distortion, known as aperture distortion, occurs on
reconstruction. This distortion is small provided T << 1/fm.
3. PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
A.M., f.m. and pulse modulation systems are termed analogue systems,
since the carrier or pulse train is varied in either amplitude,
frequency or timing by the modulating signal. PCM is an example of
digital modulation. In PCM systems the signal is first sampled and
then coded by a sequence of binary digits before being transmitted.
The basic circuit blocks of a PCM system are shown in fig.4.5
Analogue to digital Digital to analogue
converter converter
Common
Signal channel
Transmitter Receiver
Fig.4.5
(a) Quantization
In the quantization process a discrete value of the pulse amplitude
is obtained by comparing the pulse with a scale having a finite
number of intervals and then outputting an amplitude equal to the
level on the scale closest to the original signal amplitude. An
example of the quantization of a signal to one of 8 levels is shown
in fig.4.6
step size VPAM vq
S=lV...L_ 3 · 5
-.-- 2·5
1·5
-
7lf~ II
·5
.7lf lf lr\ II II II
t t
- - - ·5
---1·5
'-J..L II
---2·5
---3·5
Quantization PAM signal Quantized
levels PAM signal
Fig.4.6
62
The difference between adjacent quantization levels is known as
the step size or quantum s. The quantized and original signals
differ in a random manner and this difference is known as quantization
noise. The maximum error is ±~S and the mean square error or
quantization noise is Nq= s2/12 .
The signal-to-quantization noise power ratio, S0 /Nqr for an M

level quantized signal (assuming equiprobably distributed signals)
is given by
S /N
0 q
if the quantized signal is subsequently encoded by n binary digits

per sample. For PCM telephony M = 128, n = 7; for digital colour
t.v. transmissions M = 512, n = 9.
(b) Companding
If the step size S is uniform, small amplitude signals will have
a much poorer S0 /Nq value than larger amplitude signals. This
ratio, however, may be increased for smaller amplitude signals by
passing the original signal before quantization through a non-linear
network which provides preferential gain to lower level signals.
Such a network is known as a compressor.
The inverse operation whereby the compressed signal is restored

to its original form in the receiver is performed by an expander
circuit. The combined process of compression and expansion of a
signal is known as companding.
(c) Coding and decoding

In PCM systems the signal is first sampled, quantized and then rather
than transmitting the quantized signal directly, the latter is coded
This process is known as encoding and in practice the quantization
and encoding is accomplished in a common circuit. In binary PCM the
quantized amplitudes are coded by a sequence of binary digits (i.e.
bits). A table showing this coding for a 4 bit, 16 level system
is shown in fig. 4.7.
At the receiver the encoded signal is first separated from the

noise. Such an operation entails for a binary-coded PCM waveform
the recognition of either positive pulses (binary 1, say) or
negative pulses (binary O). The clean encoded signal is then
passed through a digital-to-analogue converter - the decoder - which
reconstitutes the quantized PAM signal. Finally the original
analogue signal is recovered by passing the PAM signal through a
low-pass filter.
63
Level Binary A form of pulse Representation by
no. no. representation voltage levels
0 0000 0
-v
1 0001
rt_ I o+v
-v
2 0010
_____n_ FL
3 0011
_nn_
4 0100
__n_ :::Fl
5 0101
___JlJL ---J
r--1 r-
L...---1
6 0110
____fLfl_
:::J t::=
7 0111 _J1JlJl_ :::J
8 1000 .Il --, 0
+V
-v
9 1001 JL___J1_ =i F
10 1010 .ILJL_ l__r--1
L-....1 L..-
11 lOll JLJliL =t:J

12 1100
Jill_
13 1101 JULJL I I
14 1110 JlJ1.JL L
15 1111 JlJUUL +V
0
Fig. 4.7
4. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TOM)
In pulse and PCM modulation systems multiplexing of several signals

is achieved by sampling the individual signals at different times
and allocating a definite time slot for the transmission of each
sample on the common channel. This process whereby each signal
shares the common channel on a time basis is known as time division
multiplexing (TOM).
An example of a TDM-PCM system for the transmission of 24

telephone speech channels is shown in fig.4.8a. The system time
allocation diagram is shown in fig.4.8b.
64
Channel 1 Hybrid
2-wire input transformer
Low-pass Sampling
0-4 kHz
filters
Speech signals to 2
respective hybrid
transformers
24 From line
(a)
Channel 1. Channel 2. Channel 24
,....__-~
speech Signalling Framing
encoded sample digit pulse pulse
12 5 1J s -------------+
(b)
Fig.4.8
4.2 WORKED PROBLEMS

1. The signal v(t) "' 4cos w t + 2cos 2w t + 2cos 3w t is to be
converted into a PAM train b? multiplyin~ v(t) by un~t amplitude
impulse train: s(t) "'~(~+cos wt +cos 2wt + ••• ) where
T
T "' 2n/w is the period of the impulse train. The signal is to be
reconstituted from the P~l train by passing through a low-pass filter
(a) If v(t) is to be revovered without distortion determine the

minimum value of w and the minimum band-width of the low-pass
filter;
{b) if v(t) is sampled at 5w and passed through an ideal low-pass
filter with a cut-off frequen~ of 3w0 determine the expression
for the output signal.
Solution
{a) The minimum value of the sampling frequency,
w "' 2 x{maximum frequency component in v(t) } "' 2 x 3w0 6w
0
65
The minimum band-width of the low-pass filter
= 0 to 3w0 (maximum frequency component in signal).
(b) PAM waveform obtained by sampling v(t) at 5w0 is
VPAM = [v(t) s(t) JW=5Wo

[3..c~+cos5w o t+coslOWo t+ ••• )J
= [4coswo t+2cos2wo t+2cos3w o tJ
T
+ •••••
and expressing product terms in the form
cos x cos y = ~ [cos (x+y) + cos (x-yl], we have
+(cosBw t+cos2w t)+2(cosllW t+cos9w t)+(cosl2w t+cosBw t)

0 0 0 0 0 0
+(cosl3w t+cos7w t)+ •••

0 0
J
Now since the low-pass filter will pass components of w < 3w0 ,
the output wayeform is
2. The PAM signal of fig.4.9a is quantized into M levels, where M

is a large and an odd integer. The quantization levels are
symmetrically spaced about zero and the step size S is uniform and
small compared with the total amplitude range of the signal.
Assuming that the signal is uniformly distributed over ±~s about
66
a given level regardless of its statistical distribution over the
complete range, show that
(i) the mean square error voltage between the original and
quantized signals (the qauntization noise) is given by N =S 2/12
q
(ii) the mean signal-to-quantization noise power ratio is given by
So = 3M2 x2
N
q
where x 2 = the normalized mean square signal voltage (i.e. amplitudes

of quantized pulses divided by ~MS so all pulses lie between ±1 V
limits).
Determine also S /N for

0 q
(a) a uniformly distributed signal (see fig.4.9b)
(b) a signal with a triangular probability distribution (see fig.4.9c)
Estimate the m~n~mum bandwidth required to provide S0 /Nq ~ X

for an N-channel PCM system, in which each channel is
band-limited 0 to fm and sampled at the minimum rate.
volts
Quantization
levels
(a)
A.
P Probability
~
Normalized
voltage
(b) (c)
Fig. 4.9
Solution
(i) The error between the original and quantized signals, e, lies
in the range -~s<e<~s and since it is assumed that for a given
level any value in this range is equiprobable, the probability of
the error lying in the interval e to e+de is de/S.
Thus the mean square error voltage,
J
~s
2e N e
2 de
-
q -~s s
(ii) The maximum signal amplitude is ~ (M-1) S"' ~MS (as M is large),
67
and so the mean square signal voltage is (~Ms) 2 x2. Further since
power is proportional to voltage squared, we have
(a) The mean square quantized signal voltage output S0 is found by

summing the mean square voltages at the M levels, i.e. 0, ±s, ±2S,
••• ~(M-l)S and dividing by M, since each level is equiprobable
and remembering 'L:n r 2 n

= 6(n+l) (2n+l) , we have
1
2s2 M-1
s0 M X 12 (~M+~) (M)
= s 2 (M2-l)/12"' s 2M2/12 as M is large
Alternatively applying the result S0 /Nq -- 3M 2 x 2 directly, we have
x2 = J+lp x 2 dx
-1
where p = ~. the probability distribution function of a uniformly

distributed signal, so
2X
~ [1x3 J:: =3
1
and s /N 3M2 X ,h M2
0 q 3
(b) In this case the probability distribution function and the

normalized mean square signal voltage are
p = u-lxl>
68
2X J+l
(l-lxl>x2 dx 2 {1 (x2 -x 3 )dx
-1
2 [t x3 - ~ x4 J: 1
6
so S /N 3M 2 X,!_ ~M2
0 q 6
An estimate of the minimum bandwidth B may be found by

determining the maximum permissible bit duration T (i.e. assuming
100% duty cycle) allowable in the PCM wave train
T = 1/ [total number of bits transmitted per second J

and since to preserve the approximate shape of a square pulse of
duration T, a bandwidth ~(1/T) is required
B - ~ (1/T) =~ [number of bits transmitted per second J

Now the number of bits transmitted per second
= (no. of channels)X(sampling frequency)x(no. bits to code each

sample)
Since each of the N channels is bandlimited 0 to fm'
Sampling frequency = 2fm
To achieve the signal-to-quantization noise ratio S0 /Nq ~X means

that the number of quantization levels M required must be such that
3M
22
X ~X
or M ~ Q where Q = l{x; (3 x 2 )}
Therefore the number of bits n required to code each sample is

found from
so n log 2 ~ log Q , n ~log Q/log 2
i.e. n is the first integer greater than log Q/log 2.
Hence the gross bit rate for the N-channel PCM system is
N X 2f X n
m
69
and the minimum bandwidth,
2
B- ~ (NX2f Xn) Nf n where n ~ !:!log (X/3 x )/log 2
m m
3. Three 5 MHz band-limited signals are to be transmitted using PCM.

Calculate the maximum sampling period and the maximum time the
commutator could dwell on sampling each channel. If the system
is to be designed to have a signal-to-quantization noise power ratio
of at least 50 dB, determine the minimum number of quantization
levels required and the gross bit rate of the complete system,
assuming that one bit per sample is also transmitted for signalling
and synchronization purposes.
Solution
The minimum sampling frequency, f 8 = 2X5 10 MHz
and thus the maximum sampling period,
In 0.1 ~s all 3 channels must be sampled, so that the maximum time

the commutator could dwell on each channel is
O.l/3 = 0.0333 ~s = 33.3 ns
If each of the signals is quantized into one of M levels, the

signal to quantization noise ratio,
S /N
0 q
= 3M2 i
For equiprobable distributed si~als S0 /Nq = M2 , since the
normalized mean square voltage x2 = 1/3. For sine waves S0 /Nq
1.5 M2. To proceed with the problem we really require further data
concerning the statistical distribution of the signals. However,
since this is not supplied it is reasonable to take S0 /Nq- M2.
In a binary PCM system, M = 2n where n is the number of binary

digits required to code sample into one of M levels.
Thus if S0 /Nq is to be better than 50 dB, i.e. 105 , then
S /N
0 q
= M2 = 2 2n ~ lOS
so 2n log 2 ~ 5 , n ~ 5/(2 log 2) = 5/.602 = 8.3

and the minimum number of coding bits per sample,
n =9
corresponding to M 512 quantization levels.
70
In 0.1 vs the three channels are sampled and the number of bits
transmitted in the PCM wave is 3x(9+1)=30, one bit per channel
sampling being included for signalling. Thus,
the gross bit rate = 30/0.1 = 300 megabits per second.
4. PAM time division multiplexed signals are transmitted over a

communications channel which may be approximately represented by
the low-pass R-C network shown in fig.4.10. The 3 dB cut-off
frequency of the network f =w /2'11" = 1/ (2'ITR C) may be regarded as
an estimate of the channelcb~dwidth. If the sampling time per
individual signal is T and the guard time between adjacent channels
is TG, determine an expression for the output voltage in channels
1 and 2 when a d.c. voltage of amplitude V is sampled in channel 1
and there is zero signal in channel 2. Assume T, TG » R C. Compute
also the time integral of voltage I12 overlapping the channel 2 out-
put time slot.
As a measure of cross-talk distortion between adjacent channels,

a cross-talk factor K12 may be defined as the ratio of the area I 12
due to the sample signal of channel 1 extending into the channel
2 time slot to that of the desired signal area I2 in channel 2.
Evaluate K12 when d.c. signals of amplitude V are sampled in both
channels 1 and 2.
Estimate the channel bandwidth required for a 24 channel telephone

system where a 70 dB cross-talk level is to be achieved. Each
channel is band-limited 0 to 4 kHz and sampled at 8 kHz. The
duration of each sample pulse is 4 vs and the remainder of its time
slot is allocated as guard space.
volts
Fig. 4.10
Solution
Output
volts
r-...
\
~G 1 I
""~ I
I
I
-
'-.......
Channel: Channel: X
1 2 : 3 4 5 6
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.11
71
For the period O<t<T the output voltage in channel 1,
Vol
= V(l-e-t/RC)
"' V at t=T , since T >> R C

For the guard time period T<t<T+TG
Vol
= V e-(t-T)/RC
The output extending from v01 overlapping into channel 2,
vo2
= (V e-TG/RC)e-(t-T-TG)/RC
and the time integral of this voltage,
The cross-talk factor,
since the desired signal area, r 2 = VT

On introducing the channel bandwidth by substituting for RC=l/wc,
1 e-TGWc (1)
W T
c
72
For the 24 channel system sampled at 8 kHz (i.e. sampling period
125 ~s) the time slot for each channel is
125/24 = 5.21 ~s
and as 'r
If the cross-talk is to 70 dB (10 7 ) down, then K12 which is a
voltage ratio is set at /lo-7 = 3.162xlo-4
Equation (1) provides the link relating K12 to bandwidth.

Rewriting (1) in the form
[K~~'r} e
-x
(2)
x=-rw
G c
and solving (2) graphically, as shown in fig.4.llb we have
X = 5.2
so wc 5.2/1.21Xl0- 6 = 4.30 Mrad/s
and the channel bandwidth f = 684 kHz

c

1. The spectral amplitude frequency spectrum of a band-limited
signal is shown in fig.4.12. This signal is sampled at a frequency
f 8 • Sketch the frequency spectrum of the sampled signal for the
cases when (a) fs=2fM , (b) f 8 =2.5fM , (c) fs=l.Sfw In which
cases can the original signal be recovered and how may recovery
be accomplished.
Spectral
amplitude

2. 960 signals each band-limited to 4 kHz are sampled at the
minimum rate and then time-division multiplexed. Determine the
to form pulses of duration 'r

sampling frequency. If the resulting sample impulses are stretched
so as to obtain a 50% duty cycle
(i.e. the pulse fills one half a time slot allocated to a sample),
determine the value ofT.
73
3. Determine the minimum saJ11Pling frequency required to transmit
the following signals as PAM wave trains
(a) a 0 to 4 kHz band-limited signal,
(b) a 200 to 205 MHz band-limited signal,
(c) a 3.9 to 8.9 kHz band-limited signal.
A signal, band-limited between 100 to 101 MHz, has the frequency

spectrum shown in fig.4.13 and is saJ11Pled at the minimum rate to
produce a PAM wave train. Sketch the frequency spectrum of the
PAM train between 0 and 5 MHz. What is the bandwidth of a low-pass
filter which may be used to recover the original signal?
Spectral
amplitude
OL-----1..L.00_1..J.0_1_ f MHz
4. A signal v(t) =cos w0 t + cos 3w0 t + cos Sw0 t is sampled by an

electronic commutator in which the SaJ11Pling time may be regarded
as virtually instantaneous. Determine the minimum sampling
frequency and an expression for the saJ11Pled waveform when saJ11Pled
at this rate. Sketch also the spectral amplitude versus frequency
spectrum of the SaJ11Pled waveform. What is the minimum bandwidth
of a band-pass filter which could be used to recover this signal?
5. A band-limited signal v(t) with a frequency spectrum V(w) shown

in fig.4.14a is sampled by the periodic pulse train of pulse width T
and repetition frequency fs>2fM, shown in fig.4.14b. Sketch the
frequency spectrum of the resulting PAM signal and determine the
maximum amplitude of the spectral component centred on nw5 •
/\4~'
~w (a)
Fig. 4.14 for problem
6. Fig.4.15 shows a four-channel TDM system used to multiplex the

signals: v 1 =cos w0 t, v 2 =cos 2w0 t, v 3=cos w0 t, v4=cos 4w 0 t.
(a) If each channel is sampled at the same rate, determine the

minimum sampling rate and the commutator speed in revs. per sec.
and the minimum cut-off frequencies of the low-pass filters.
(b) Design a mechanical commutator which will permit each of the
74
four channels to be individually sampled at their respective
minimum sampling rate.
~---.Low-pass
Common ----,Low-pass
transmission
medium Low-pass
Low-pass

7. Fig.4.16 shows the block diagram of a 3 channel PAM-TOM system.
The input signals shown in fig.4.17 are band-limited 0 to fm,
where fm<~fs, fs = 1A3T>being the sampling frequency. Each channel
is sampled in the sequence 1,2,3 beginning with channel 1 at t=O.
Sketch the following signal waveforms
(a) the multiplex PAM signal transmitted
(b) the decommutator outputs vl' v2' v3
(c) the low-pass filter outputs Vol' vo2' vo •
3
Channel
1~ J I o- "'m
~Low-pass filter
rVo,
21'"T_r_a_n_s_m_i_t_t_e_r.,r
~-))~Low-pass
~- I o-wm
filter
rvo2
T ·~L:o:w:_:p::a:s:s::;;;;::~
Jc
3 !
v,
o-wm
filter
rvo3
c, c2
t
.~r:: 't
a. The PAM signal and linear ramp waveform of fig.4.18a are fed
into an adder network. The adder output, i.e. the sum of the two
input voltages is then fed into a comparator network shown in
fig.4.18b. The reference level of the comparator is 1.8 V and has
the following input-output characteristic
for input signals vi < 1.8 V , v0 =0 V
v = 1
0
v
Sketch the comparator output voltage v0 versus time graph for the
above case and show that v0 is a pulse duration DJ:>dulated (PDM) wave.
75
1~ D D. Comparator
-r~
0 (a) (b)
9. A PAM signal is to be quantized so that the pulse amplitudes may

only take integral values between 0 and 8 v. If amplitudes 7.1,
5.2 and 1.9 V are fed into the quantizer, calculate the output
amplitudes. If this quantized output is then encoded by binary
digits, determine the binary representation of the quantized output.
10. The signal shown in fig.4.19 is sampled and the sample pulses
a,b,c,d,e quantized to the nearest of the 16 quantization levels
shown, Determine the quantized amplitudes. The quantized pulses
are encoded by binary digits. Determine the binary representation
of the 5 amplitudes. If a binary 0 is transmitted as a -1 V level
and a binary 1 as a +1 v level, sketch the PCM signal transmitted.
Assume 100% duty cycle for each bit and that the time to transmit
each encoded sample is equal to the sampling repetition period.
v
=12
-15
==10
+--...,.......,...,..,.:.......u.-....1..1....---JU-.. t - 8
-6
=2
=
-4
0
Quantization
levels
Fig. 4,19 for problem 10
vo
Difference~~_JLow-pass
- amplifier filter
cos<wc-w 0 )t
Fig. 4,20 for problem 11
11. A binary signal vm=±V frequency modulates a carrier to produce

a frequency-shift-key ed (FSK) signal
76
v =A oos(Wc+wD)t for v +V
m
= A cos (Wc-WD)t for v -v

m
Determine the output voltage v0 from the difference amplifier

in the circuit of fig.4-20 when vi=A cos(wc-wnlt and show that such
a circuit may be used to demodulate a FSK signal.
12. A PCM-TDM system is to handle three video channels, each

band-limited to 5 MHz. The signals are sampled at the minimum
rate and quantized into one of 512 levels. Binary coding is used
and one bit per word (coded pulse) is included for signalling and
synchronization. Sketch a block diagram of a suitable system and
calculate the sampling frequency, the maximum permissible bit
duration and the gross bit rate.
13. Ten 0 to 100 Hz band-limited signals are sampled at the

minimum rate and then transmitted on a TDM system as PPM signals.
The pulse width of the individual pulses is o. 2 ms and the time
delay for zero modulating signal amplitude is 0.25 ms. Calculate
the maximum permissible change in pulse position.
14. The pulse duration of the symmetrical PDM wave shown in fig.4.21
varies as
T = T0 (l+m cos wmt)
and the pulse position of the PPM wave varies as
~ = ~
o
(l+m cos wmt)
Derive expressions for these waves and comment on their frequency
spectra.
v
77
15. A PPM signal, band-limited to 5 kHz, is composed of equal
amplitude pulses of 1 ~s duration whose duration relative to the
time of sampling may be delayed from 2 ~s to 5 ~s. Determine the
maximum number of such signals which could be time division
multiplexed.
16. A PCM-TDM telephone system is to handle 24 speech channels

each band-limited to 4 kHz. The signals are sampled at the
minimum sampling frequency and quantized into 128 levels. One
bit per time slot is incorporated for signalling and synchronization.
Determine the sampling frequency and gross bit rate. Calculate
also the maximum permissible bit duration time and estimate, stating
any assumptions made, the bandwidth required for the transmission.
17. A 5 MHz signal is to be transmitted using PCM. Calculate the

minimum sanpling frequency. If the signal-to-noise ratio at the
receiver input is to be at least 50 dB, estimate the minimum number
of quantization levels required. Assume that there is zero error
at the receiver due to thermal noise.
18. Sixty 4 kHz band-limited signals are to be transmitted using

PCM. Calculate the minimum sampling rate and the maximum time the
commutator could dwell on sampling each channel.
If the system is to be designed to have a signal-to-quantization
noise power ratio of at least 40 dB, determine the minimum number
of quantization levels required, and the corresponding gross bit
rate of the complete system.
19. Suppose that the channel characteristics of a PCM system can

be represented by the ~C network shown in fig.4.22. Suppose also
that the input has been at -v volts (i.e. the 0 level) for a long
period so that v0 = -v and then suddenly the input changes to a +V
for T seconds, the bit duration. If the receiver can recognize
JT
a '1' provided the 0 v0 dt is positive, determine the limitation
imposed on the value of the channel bandwidth quantified by
Wc=l/(RC) rad/s.
D •
• •
20. 24 PAM time division multiplexed signals are to be transmitted
over a communications channel represented approximately by the
low-pass RC network of fig.4.22. The 3 dB cut-off frequency
fc=l/(2~RC) may be regarded as the channel bandwidth. Calculate
the value of fc if the cross-talk level between adjacent channels
is to 60 dB. Each channel is sampled at 8 kHz and the duration
of each sample pulse is 3.5 ~s.
78
5
TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES
5.1 THEORY SUMMARY
1. TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS
G6z
Generator Load
0 z
(a) A transmission line connecting (b) Approximate equivalent circuit
generator to load of a short length of line,6z•A
Fig. 5.1
The equations defining the behaviour of a uniform transmission line

with distributed parameters :
R = series a.c. resistance per unit length of line of both conductors
L series inductance per unit length of line of both conductors
C shunt capacitance between the line conductors per unit length
G shunt conductance between the line conductors per unit length
are
Clz = _
Clv [Ri+~ti]
a
(1) Clz -- -
Cli [Gv~ddtv] {2)
which in the a.c. steady state, i.e. assuming v=V(z)ejwt,i=I=I(z)ejwt

reduce to
dV
dz
=- ZI (3) di = - YV
dz
(4)
where v, V = voltage between line conductors at plane z

i, I current flowing in line conductors at plane z
z (R+jWL) series impedance of line per unit length
y (G+jWC) shunt admittance of line per unity length
On eliminating I from (3) and (4), or V from (3) and (4) we obtain
-ZYV=O (5) - ZYI =0 (6)
79
2. STEADY STATE SOLUTIONS
The general solutions of (5) and (6) are
v = v+e-yz + v-eyz (7)
I (8)
where y =/(ZY) is known as the propagation constant of the line
[z] v+
zc =I -Y = -+
I
is the characteristic impedance of the
line, and v+, v-, I+, I- are constants which may be evaluated when
the conditions at the load and generator ends are given.
y and Zc may be expressed in terms of the distributed parameters

of the line as follows
y = /{CR+jWL) (G+jWC)} ::: CX+jf3
is known as the attenuation constant; units, nepers per unit length
is known as the phase constant; units radians per unit length
LZC = 21 [ tan -l{wL}

R -tan-1 {we}]
G
For low-loss r.f. lines WL>>R WC>>G and the following approximations
apply
The full time-varying solutions, corresponding to cosine or

sinusoidal sources can be found by taking the real or imaginary
80
parts of V(z)ejwt, I(z)ejwt, e.g. for a cosine variation
v(t,z) = Re(V(z)ejwt)
(9)
The v+ and v- terms in (7) and (9) may be interpreted as the

incident and reflected wave components making up the total voltage
across the line. Likewise with the I+ and I- components in (8).
The incident wave component in (9) propagates down the line in the
positive z direction at a velocity vp, known as the phase velocity
= ~ = 2nf = fA
vp e 2n/A
(10)
with an amplitude decaying with distance according to e-az The

reflected wave propagates in the negative z axis direction at the
same velocity and with the same exponential decay in amplitude.
In the case of the loss free line and the 'distortionless' line
(condition RC=LG)v = 1//(LC) and is constant for all frequencies.
However, in general, vp depends on frequency and signals at different
frequencies will travel at different velocities on the line. Thus
if a group of waves whose frequencies lie between w+dw is considered,
then the resultant amplitude envelope of the group, which carries
the energy contained in the signals, travels down the line at a
velocity vg different from vp, vg is known as the group velocity
dw
vg(w) =dS (11)
I I (z) I(l) IT
s
•
vs V(z) V(l)
•
VT
l 1
0 z 1 0
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.2
If we are given the sending end values of voltage and current,
i.e. v 8 and Is at z = o, then on substituting into (7) and (8) we
have
81
On solving these equations and substituting back into (7) and (8) for
v+ and v-, the solutions may be expressed in the hyperbolic forms of
V(z) Vs=sh yz - Zcis sinh yz (12)
I (z)
sinh yz (13)
-vs Zc + Is =sh yz
Similarly if the receiving end values VT and IT are known, then
v (1) VT cosh yl + ZeiT sinh yl (14)
I (1) (15)
In this case 1 denotes the distance back along the line from the
receiving end termination, as shown in fig. 5.2(b).
3. PARAJ.jETERS OF TERMINATED LINES
(a) Rejteation aoeffiaient
To generat_o_r__4_________
-- z_c--------------~~~T~[) Load
1 z
Fig. 5.3 0
Consider the =nditions at the load end of a line terminated in an

impedance ZT ~ Zc· For convenience let the z axis origin coincide
with the plane of this load. Then the general solutions
v- e+yz
Zc
+ -
reduce to V(O) = v++v-, I(O)= ~ at the load, z = 0;
Zc
but the ratio of voltage to current at the plane of the load equals
the load impedance, thus
v+ + v-
zc -+- -- (16)
v - v
We define the ratio of the reflected wave voltage V- to the incident

wave voltage v+ at the load as the reflection coefficient,
Po =IPolejcpo
82
Thus from (16)
hence (17)
is non-zero unless ZT=Zc
The ratio of the reflected to incident voltage waves at any distance

1 from the load is
p (l) =[::::~:]
z=-1
(18)
(b l Input impeda:nae
The input impedance of a length 1 of line terminated in an impedance
ZT is
V(l)
zin = I(l)
where + yl -yl
V(l) = V (e +p e ) ••• the line voltage at 1
0
v+ yl -yl
I(l) =-- (e -p e ) ••• the line current at 1
zc 0
and - ZT-Zc is the reflection coefficient at the load.

P 0----
ZT+Zc
On substituting the above expressions for V(l) and I(l) we obtain
yl -yl
z. z e +poe (19a)
~n ce yl -p e -yl
0
-2yl
z l+p 0 e l+p(l)
(l9b)
c1 -2yl zc 1-p(l)
-poe
-2yl
where p (1) =p 0e is the reflection coefficient (ratio of the
reflected voltage wave to the incident voltage wave) at 1 from the
termination.
83
To obtain a general formula for zin in terms of ZT,y,zc we
sUbstitute p 0 =(ZT-ZC)/(ZT+Zc) into (19a), then
yl -yl
zin z (ZT+ZC)e +(ZT-ZC)e
c yl -yl
(ZT+ZC)e -(ZT-ZC)e
ZTcoshyl + zcsinhYl
(20)
= zc ZTsinhyl + Zccoshyl
It is often common practice to specify impedances in transmission

line problems as a fraction of ZC' the characteristic impedance of
the line. If this is done the impedances are known as normalized
impedances and are written in small type. The normalized input
impedance of a terminated line is then given by
ZT
- + tanhyl
z = zin = _z.;:;.c______ z'l'+tanhyl
(21)
in ZC ZT l+zTtanhyl
1+ -ztanhyl.
c
where zT = ZT is the normalized load impedance.
zc
For loss-less and low-loss lines for which al is sufficiently small to
be neglected, y=jS and tanhyl = tanh jSl = j tanSl. For these cases
(20) reduces to
ZT+ZCtanSl
(22)
zin = zc Zc+jZTtanSl
Now since tan Sl is a periodic function, zin is also periodic. That

is
z. (l)=Z. (l+~m}.), m=l,2,3,4 •••
1.n 1.n
In particular if 1 = ~mA
zT+jZctan mrr
zin<~IIIA)=Zc Zc+jZTtan mrr = ZT (23)
Thus a single or multiple half wavelength of line acts as a 1:1
84
transformer. A single half wavelength of line is often referred to
as a half wave transformer.
Also if 1=(2m+l)\A, m=O,l,2,3 •••
11"
tan 6l=tan 4(2m-l)._
(24)
Thus a quarter wavelength or an odd number of quarter wavelengths

of line acts as an impedance 'inverter'. A single \A section of
line is often referred to as a quarter wave transformer. The \A
transformer finds important applications as an impedance matching
device.
(c) Standing waves and voUa.ge standing UlaVe ro.tio
(a) (i) Phasor addition of

lfA• 310
H H
Distance from load
in fractions of A
11'4 H 0
v+e ill 1 + v-e·i1•1 (ii) Variation of V(l) with 1
(b) (i) Phasor addition of

r•eif 1 + re-i• 1 (ii) Variation of I(l) with 1
Fig. 5.4
The voltage and current solutions on a mismatched line terminated
in zTnC at a distance 1 from the load are (neglecting loss in the
line, i.e. y=j6)
(25)
85
(26)
where
is the reflection coefficient at the load.

The resultant amplitude of line voltage and current may be found
by the phasor addition of the incident and reflected wave components
as shown in figs. 5.4(a) and (b) respectively
lv<ll I (27)
(28)
The voltage amplitude has a maximum amplitude V and the current

a minimum amplitude I . at positions on the liW~where
llll.n
27Tm, m=O,l,2,3 •••
i.e. when D- 27T (29)

~-'- A.
and (30)
Also when cos(281-~ 0 ) -1, 281-~ 0 =(2m+l)7T
(31)
the voltage and current amplitudes are respectively at their minimum

and maximum values
(32)
The variation of voltage and current amplitudes with distance 1

as defined by (27) and (28) give rise to what is known as a standing
wave pattern on the line. The term standing wave qualifies the fact
that the positions of voltage and current maximum and minimum always
occur at the same positions on a loss-less line. A pure standing
wave occurs on the line when IPol=l, in which case V . =I . =0.
m1.n m1.n
If !Pol# 1 a partial standing wave is said to exist on the line.
When I Po I =0, i.e. ZT=ZC' there are no standing waves set up since
no reflection occurs at the load. In this case maximum power is
86
transferred to the load and this is the condition we wish to achieve
in practice.
A standing wave on a line may be quantified by 2 parameters. The

first fixes the position of the standing wave pattern relative to
the termination. This may be found experimentally by locating a
voltage minimum, for example. The second parameter is used as a
measure of the degree of mismatch p:roduced by the load, and this
parameter is known as the VoZtage Standing Wave Ratio, normally
abbreviated to v.s.w.R. and denoted by the symbol s. It is defined
as
V I
S max Illax (33)
= vmin = Imin
On substituting for vmax and vmin using (30)and (32) we have
s - .!:!:.l.e.J_ (34)
- 1-IPol
s-1
= S+i' (35)
Also at positions on the line where the voltage is a maximmn, the

corresponding current is a minimum and we have
since (2Bl-$ )=2mrr, e-j( 2 Bl-$o>=l and therefore the effective input
impedance l~king in at these positions along the terminated line is
(36)
i.e. at positions of voltage maximmn the input impedance is s times

the characteristic impedance of the line.
Likewise, at positions of voltage minimum the current is at a

maximum and the effective input impedance at these positions is
v vmin l-[p 0 l
zin = I = -I-- = zc -~JL.!.. (37)
max l+IPo I
87
4. FIELD SOLUTIONS FOR COAXIAL LINES AND WAVEGUIDES
(a) CoaxiaZ Zines
-•- H field lines

~ E field lines
-Surface wall
currents
Fig. 5.5 TEM mode in a coaxial line

The field solutions for sinusoidal transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
waves in a coaxial line are
H<j>
I
--e
j(wt-f3z) E =vlH.J _I_ ej (wt-f3z) (38)
21Tr r [e: 21Tr
where I = peak amplitude of current on line conductors

f3 = wl(~e:) ••• the phase constant
e: = e:re:o , ~ = ~r~o ••• electrical constants of inter-
conductor dielectric.
The mean power flow along a matched coaxial line is
(39)
The wave impedance, Zw' and characteristic impedance of the line are
Zw =H: =1~] ' zC = Y

I
=Inn
l e;j
1
21T
loge a
b
ohms (40)
(b) PazoaUeZ pZate stroipUnes
-•-H field lines

~ E field lines
Fig. 5.6 TEM mode in parallel plate stripline

The solutions for sinusoidal TEM waves in parallel plate stripline
(neglecting fringing effects) are
E
=y ej(wt-f3z) H =.!. ej(wt-f3z) (41)
y b X a
88
where V = peak amplitude of voltage between conductors
I = peak amplitude of current flowing in conductors
8 = ro/(~E) ••• the phase constant
The mean power flow, wave and characteristic impedances are
p = ~f.bf.a IEyllaxldxdy = ~v I watts (42)
(43)
(c) Rectangular waveguides
~~~
wall
currents
~/-•
Fig. 5.7 The H10 or TE 10 fundamental mode of rectangular guide
TEM waves do not exist in rectangular and circular waveguides. B
or transverse electric (TE) modes and E or transverse magnetic (TM)
modes propagate in these guides provided
A < Ac f > f
c
=
where A wavelength of a TEM wave of frequency f propagating in
an identical medium to that filling the waveguide.
A=~) c = 2.998x 108 m/s

r r
Er' ~r relative permittivity, permeability of dielectric

filling guide
Ac cut-off wavelength
fc c/Ac ••• cut-off frequency
The solutions for H or TE modes in rectangular waveguides are
H
z
=A cos .!!!!L
a
x
cosby
mr e j (rot - Sz)
2
jA mAC sin!!!!!. x cos n'IT ej (rot - Sz)
a "i)Y
'2a.Tg
89
2
jA nAc cos U: x sin ~ y ej (wt - Bzl
2bAg
E (44)
X
where ZH -
- ~
B -- ~.;!!..
A E • • • the H wave impedance (45)
A guide wavelength, B= 2TI/A ••• phase constant

g g
••• the cut-off relationship (46)
Ac L
~(m2a)2 + (n2b)2] -~ . ..cut-off wavelength (47)
m = 0,1,2,3 • • • • I n = 0,1,2,3 •••

The solutions for E or TM modes in rectangular waveguides are
nn j(wt-Bzl
E
z
A sin!!!:!!. x
a
sin by e
mA2
D11T nn j(wt-Bzl
E
X
-jA ___.!:.
2aA g
cos - x
a
sin by e
2
E
y -J -=.
"AnA sin- x
a
D11T nn
cos "'i)Y e
j(wt-Bzl
2bA
g
H H (48)
X y
ZE = !e: = ~ .;[~]
g
••• the E wave impedance (49)
The cut-off wavelengths for Emn and Hmn modes with the same m,n
integers are identical.
(d) Ciroau"l-cw wa:veguides
The solutions for H or TE modes in circular waveguide are
90
(a} H11 or TE 11 fundamental mode of circular guide
-•--H field lines

- E field lines
- Surface wall
currents
(b) H01 or TE 01 , The low-loss cicular electric mode

Fig. 5.8
H A cosm<fl J (k r} ej (wt-Sz}
z m c
A
H -j _£A cosm<fl J , (k r} ej (Wt-Sz}
r Ag m c
mA2
c
H<f> j A sinm<fl J (k r}ej(Wt-Sz}
27frA m c
g
E 0 (50}
r
where ZH = T = ~ 1[¥] ... the H wave impedance (51}
s 27r/A
g
Ag guide wavelength
k
c A cut-off wavelength
c
1 1 1
••• cut-off relationship (52}
}._2 = A2 - A2
g c
Jm ••• Bessel function of first kind order m, Jm' its derivative
m = 0,1,2,3 •••
91
Values of the cut-off wavelengths of Hmn modes in a guide of radius
a are obtained from the roots t of Jm' (kca) = o, i.e. Ac=2~a/tmn
mn
Tables of zeros of Jm' are given in appendix AS.
The solutions forE or TM modes are
E = A cosm<j> J (k r) ej (wt-Szl
z m c
A
E
r -j r-c A cosm<j> J , (k r)ej(wt-Szl
m c
g
mA2
c
E<j> = 2~rA A sinm<j> J (k r)ej (wt-Szl
m c
g
H = 0 (53)
z
where ZE = !e: = AAg 1[~] ... the E wave impedance (54)
Values of the cut-off wavelengths of Emn modes in a guide of radius

a are obtained from the roots u of J (k a) = o, i.e. Ac=2~a/umn
mn m c
Tables of zeros of Jm are given in appendix AS.
5. 2 WORKED PROBLEMS
1. In the circuit of fig. 5.9 a generator of son internal impedance

and operating at 1 GHz feeds a 75 n load via a coaxial line of 50 n
characteristic impedance and an inter-conductor dielectric of
relative permittivity Er=2.25. Determine,
(a) the reflection coefficient at the load and the v.s.w.R. on the
line,
(b) the characteristic impedance of a ~A line which when inserted
between the load and SO!I1line effects matching,
(c) the position and the reactance of a series stub line which
could also effect matching.
Generator 1·8 m Load

Fig. 5.9
If the generator delivers 10 W when operating into Son, calculate
92
the power supplied to the 75r2 load and the values of maximum voltage
amplitude on the line, before matching is effected.
Solution
(a) The reflection coefficient at the load,
zT-z c
p = Z""+Z
T c
where ZT = 75 S"'2, the load impedance, Zc=50S"'2, the characteristic

impedance of the feed line.
Thus
75-50
p = 75+50 0.2
and the v.s.w.R. on the feed line,
1+0.2
= 1-0.2
= 1.5
(b) The input impedance of a length 1 of line of characteristic

impedance Zc and phase constant B terminated in an impedance ZT
is
and if 1 =\A , Sl = ~/2, tanSl + oo , so Zin reduces to
zin = z!;zT
For matching, zin 50 n so the characteristic impedance of the

\A line,
zc 61.2 n
(c) For matching with a series stub we must determine the feed line
length from the load where Re (Z. ) = 50r2 , and insert there in series
with the line a stub of reactan~~ equal and opposite to Im (Z.~n) • Now
since ZT is resistive, we obtain on rationalizing
zc-jZTtanSl
z.~n X
zc-jzTtanSl
93
zc
z~+z;tan 2 Sl
z2z
so Re (Z. ) c T (l+tan2(31) zc
z~+z;tan 2 Sl
~n
when
Now f3 2Tr/A where the wavelength on the line
= 0.2 m
Thus the distance from the load at which the stub should be inserted
is
-1
1 = 2ATr tan
I
v (50/75) = 0.0218 m
The series reactance the stub should provide is
The power supplied to the load,
where P+ = incident power

= power supplied when generator matched to line and line
matched to load.
Thus P+ lOW and asp= 0.2

p lO(l-o.2 2 l = 9.6 w
Also P = ~<v2/75l
T
where
VT = voltage across load
= /(9.6xl50) = 37.95 v
94
Further since the load impedance is real and greater than the
characteristic impedance of the line, a voltage maximum occurs at
the load. Hence
maximum voltage amplitude on line 37.95 v

minimum voltage amplitude on line 37.95/S
25.30 V , as S 1.5
2. The r.m.s. values of current and voltage measured on a matched,

loss-less coaxial cable are 500 IDA and 20 V, respectively. The
dielectric between inner and outer conductors has a dielectric
constant e; = 2.25. Determine (a) the amplitudes of the electric
and magnetfc field at any point (r,~,z) on the line, (b) the mean
power density at any point and the radius at which this power
density is a maximum, (c) the wave and characteristic impedances
of the line.
Solution
(a) Assuming that TEM waves are propagating in the coaxial cable,
the magnetic and electric field components are
/2 I -j8z (mmf enclosed current)

H~ --e
21fr
E
r ={~r oJH~
8 8
(/e;E I~H for TEM waves)
where 8 wl (e; r e; o ~ o ) , I 0.5 A
Thus the amplitudes at any point (r,<f>, z) are
12xo.5 =~ A/m
~H~~ =21fr r
120IT 28.27
IE r I = 72:"25 IH~~ r
V/m
(b) The mean power density at any point in the cross-section of the
cable between inner and outer conductors is
1.5902 2
W/m
2
r
which is a maximum when r is a minimum, i.e. immediately adjacent
to the inner conductor.
95
(c) The wave impedance, zw = 1[~]= ~~orr = 251.3 n
r
The characteristic impedance,
zc v
I
where V =voltage between conductors,! current on conductors when

line is matched. Thus
z 20 4o n
c = o.s
3. The field components for an H10 mode propagating along the z

axis of an air-filled waveguide are given by,
H
z
c 7f
cos-x
a
H
X
jC x--
2a
sin -
a
x
7f
H
y
0
g
E
y
. TJ
-JC 2a E Js~n
~o . 7f
-x
a '
E
X
E
z
0
0
where a,b are cross-sectional dimensions, A guide wavelength,

g
A = free-space wavelength.
Determine an expression for the total mean power flow in the

waveguide. Determine also the maximum power that an air-filled
waveguide of 22.86 mm by 10.16mmmay handle if the maximum
permissible electric field strength before breakdown is 3000 kV/m
and the frequency of operation is 10 GHz.
Solution
The power density at any point (x,y) in the waveguide cross-section
is
watts per square metre
and thus the total power,
96
!. x dx
a
watts
Maximum electric field strength occurs at the centre of the

waveguide cross-section at x = ~a when sinTix/a = 1. Thus
IEylmax - C 2a
- A { __£
]..l
£
0
J
6
~ 3 X 10 V/m
if breakdown is to be avoided, and the limiting value of
and the maximum power,
A) 2
p
max X l20IT X ( los
81f a
-3 -3 -2
where a 22.86 x 10 m, b 10.16 x 10 m, A 3 x 10 m
-2 m
>. g 3.97~ x ~0
so p 1.047 MW
max
4. A circular air-filled waveguide of SO mm radius is operated in

the H01 circular electric mode. Determine (a) the cut-off frequency
of the H01 mode, (b) the other propagating modes that could also be
present in the frequency range up to and including the H01 cut-off
frequency.
If the waveguide is now completely filled with a dielectric of
relative permittivity £ = 2.2S and relative permeability ]..l = 1,
calculate the new H01 c~t-off frequency. To what radius sh~uld the
guide radius be changed if the cut-off frequency is to be the same
as in the air-filled SO mm guide?
Note that the variation with radial distance r of the <fJ component of
97
electric field intensity is E¢ = Jm' (kcrl for Hmn m:>des, E¢ = Jm(kcr)
for E m:>des, where kc = 27r/Ac is the cut-off wave number and
A , tW2 cut-off wavelength.
c
Solution
(a) The cut-off wave number kc of the Ho1 mode in a guide of radius
a is evaluated from the first root of
E¢ = J 0 ' (kca) = o
since E = o at the guide wall. From the Bessel function zero

tables ~f appendix AS we find the first zero of J ' to be 3.832, so
0
k a 3.832 0.08198 m
c
3xlo 8
and the cut-off frequency, fc =--A--- 3.659 GHz
c
(b) The cut-off wave numbers of Hmn m:>des are found from the nth
root of J '(k a) = 0; so for H11 : k a = 1.841 (fc=l. 758 GHz), for
H21 : kcam= 3~054(fc=2.916 GHz). Allcother modes have higher
values of kca which are greater than 3.832 (i.e. their fc>3.659 GHz),
and are therefore cut-off.
The cut-off wave numbers of Emn m:>des are found from the nth root
of Jm(kcal = 0; so for E01 : kca = 2.40S(fc=2.296 GHz), for Ell :
kca = 3.832(fc=3.659 GHz). All other E modes are cut-off in the
range below 3.659 GHz.
Thus the modes present are H11 , E01 , H21 and E11 •
If the guide is filled with a dielectric Er = 2.25, the new H01

cut-off frequency,
3xlo 8 3.659
fc' = 7ET"" = 12.25 2.440 GHz
r c
If fc' were to be 3.659 GHz the guide radius would be changed to

a' where a' is evaluated from,
f c' 3.659 X 109 va

27r '
c
27ra'
3.832 or A~ = 3 • 832
Thus,
a
a' 0.0333 m (33.3 mm)
IE r
98
1. A loss-less air-spaced transmission line of 50 !l characteristic

impedance connects a 500 MHz transmitter to an antenna of input
impedance 70 !l. The antenna radiates a mean power of 5 w. Calculate
(a) the voltage reflection coefficient at the antenna input and
the v.s.w.R. on the line,
(b) the positions and values of maximum and minimum voltage and
current on the line.
2. Determine the input impedance at 11', the reflection coefficient

amplitude, and the v.s.w.R. on line A for each of the transmission
line circuits shown in fig. 5.10.
line A ,. line A
,.
a b
c d
3. In the diagram of fig. 5.11 a 75 !lline feeds a 50 !lline
terminated at one end, at a distance 1 1 = 0.25 m from the feed
point, in a 100 !lload and short-circuited at the other a distance
12 metres. If the system is matched to the feed line at 50 MHz
determine, assuming all lines are loss-less,
(a) the phase velocity and wavelength on the 50!lline, (b) 1 2 •
son 100fl
1,-
4. Determine, with the aid of a Smith Chart, the power dissipated
in the load admittances Y2 and Y3 in the circuit shown in fig. 5.12.
Yc line 1
Fig. 5.12 for problem
99
IG = 10 A (rms), Yc = 0.02 s, and the characteristic admittances
of lines 1,2,3 are Yc, 2Yc, 3Yc respectively.
5. An air-filled waveguide operating at 3 GHz is terminated in a

normalized impedance of 0.5(1- j)n. Determine the reflection
coefficient at the termination, the v.s.w.R., and the position
nearest the termination of the electric field minimum. Determine
also the position and normalized susceptance of a shunt stub which
could be used to match the load to the waveguide. The cross-
sectional dimensions of the waveguide are 72.14 mm by 34.04 mm and
the mode of propagation is H10 •
6. Determine the characteristic impedance and position closest to

the load of the ~A line which will match the system shown in
fig. 5.13. Calculate also the power transferred from generator
to load with and without inclusion of the ~A transformer.
: :
son
~~L: son
-tA-
son : Q25+j30 n

7. Fig. 5.14 shows a diagram of a double stub tuner. Show that a
load of normalized admittance YL=gL+jbL may be matched my the
tuner provided O<gL<cosec 2 Sd. Derive also expressions for the
normalized susceptances b1 and b2 of the stub lines in terms of
gL, bL and tanSd for matching to be achieved. If d = ,A,
YL = 0.4-j0.3 calculate b 1 and b2 and check the results on a Smith
-d-
chart.

8. Show that the characteristic impedance z , the phase constant S
and attenuation constant a of a low-loss ling are given by
ohms
~R/Z
c
+ ~GZ
c nepers/m
100
where L,C,R,G are the distributed parameters of the line and
Qc = WL/R, Qd = WC/G.
A parallel-plate strip-line of SO r2 characteristic impedance is

to be made from copper strip of conductivity a = S.8xlo 7 S/m
and dielectric sheet of thickness 2 mm, relati~e permittivity 2.S6
and loss tangent 0.002. Calculate the required line width and the
loss of the line in dB/m at 1 GHz. The surface resistivity of a
metal plate, Rs =lew~ /2cr ).
o m
9. Derive approximate expressions for the attenuation constant a

and the phase constant S of a TEM wave propagating in an optical
fibre guide of complex permittivity € 1 = Er€ 0 (1-jtano) and
permeability ~ • Assume tano<<l. Calculate the attenuation in
dB/km for a TE~ wave in an optical fibre guide of material
€r = 2.S, tano = lo-8 at a frequency of 3 x 10S GHz.
10. Show that the input impedance of a low-loss line of length 1,

short-circuited at its far end is given approximately by
al + jsinSl cosSl
z zc 2 2 2
a 1 + cos Sl
where a, S, Z are the attenuation, phase and characteristic

impedance ofcthe line.
Determine also the input impedance and Q-factor of a short-

circuited line when (a) 1 = ~A , (b) 1 = ~A.
The equivalent lumped-circuit L and C parameters of a line resonant

at w0 may be evaluated from
W 0 L = 1/wo C = ~o [dwdXJw=w ••• for series resonant circuits

0
w0 c = 1/W L =
o
~Wo [dB]
dwjw=w0 ••• for parallel resonant circuit
where X input reactance, B input susceptance.
11. Determine the values of the L and C elements of the T network

shown in fig. S.lS(a) such that it may simulate the steady state
a. c. terminal behaviour of a uniform loss-less line of length,
l<<A, of characteristic impedance Zc and phase constant S.
Fig. S.lS(b) shows an example of a stripline filter composed of

short sections of high and low impedance line in cascade. The
101
characteristic impedances of the high, low impedance and feed lines
are Zh, Z1 and Zc respectively and where Zh~Zc>>Zl• Draw the
lumped equivalent circuit of the filter and (neglecting fringing
and other effects) estimate the values of the L and C elements •
• 0
a
(a)
12. Given that the field components of a TEM wave propagating in a
loss-less co-axial line are
H
H~ 0 sin(wt-Sz),
"' = 27Tr
find (a) the potential difference between the inner and outer
conductors,
(b) the total current on the inner and outer conductors,
(c) the mean power flow along the co-axial line.
The geometry of the co-axial line is shown in fig. 5.16
z
z
13. Determine the attenuation coefficient due to conductor losses

for a TEM mode in an air-filled coaxial line of conductor radii a,b
(outer), and surface resistance Rs ohms per square. Show for a
fixed outer radius that minimum attenuation occurs when x logex=l+x,
where x = ~· Calculate also the corresponding characteristic
a
impedance.
14. A sinusoidal time varying TEM wave is propagating along the z

axis of the parallel plate stripline shown in fig. 5.17 and supplies
a power of P watts to a matched termination. The electrical constants
of the dielectric between the plates are ~ and £=£ £ • Assuming
that field fringing effects may be neglect~d determln~ expressions
for the field components Ey(z,t) and H (z,t) in terms of the power P,
the constants ~ ,£ and wthe radian fre~uency of the wave.
0
102
15. A mode in rectangular waveguide of cross-sectional dimensions
a and b has an electric field given by
E = E = 0
X Z
Derive expressions for (a) the phase constant S, (b) the power
flow in the waveguide. The dielectric filling the waveguide has a
relative permittivity and permeability of Er and 1, respectively.
16. The magnetic field intensity of the Hmo mode in the rectangular
waveguide shown in fig. 5.18 is given by
Sa A IIliT IIliT
H j sin - x H o, H A cos - x
X IIliT a y z a
Determine the amplitude and direction of the surface current

density per unit width at
(a) the side walls x = o, x a for an H mode
mo
(b) the centre of the walls y o, y = b for the H10 , H20 and H30
modes.
y
z
17. A waveguide of dimensions 72.14 mm by 34.04 mm operates at
3 GHz in the H1o mode and transmits 100 kW peak power pulses to a
matched load. Determine the maximum electric field strength in
the waveguide during transmission periods. If the waveguide is used
to feed an antenna and the latter causes a V.S.W.R. of 1.08 to exist
in the waveguide, determine the maximum and minimum electric field
amplitudes on the feeder. Calculate also the peak reflected power.
18. An amplitude modulated wave of the form (1+0.3 cosw t)cosw t

is transmitted through an X-band waveguide of dimensionsm22.86 im
by 10.16 mm and of 150 m length. The mode of transmission is in the
H10 mode. Determine the phase delay of the carrier component and
the relative phase shift of the upper and lower sidebands, given
that fm=20 kHz,fc=lO GHz.
19. Show that an air-filled rectangular waveguide of cross-
103
section al dimensi ons a,b has an infinit e number of cut-off
frequen cies given by
f
mn
= :;__ { m2+(na) 2
2a b
}1:!
where c = velocit y of electrom agnetic waves in air,

m 0,1,2,3 ••• n = 0,1,2,3 •••
Hence find the modes which may propaga te in a guide of dimensi
ons
47.55 mm by 22.15 mm within the frequen cy range 3 to 14 GHz.
20. The wavegui de structu res shown in fig. 5.19 have conduct
ing
plates which extend axially into the guide cross section .
Determi ne
for each case the three wavegui de modes of the lowest cut-off
frequen cy
~:~;[J] t.b~-
-l:!a.. +l::!a-
L-::: rib
-a:2b -+t
(a) (b) (C)
21. By assumin g that
cosk 1 x e-jSz
{
H
z = -jSz
A cosk 2 (a-x) e t< x.:> a
determi ne the solutio ns for Hmo modes in the partial ly filled

wave-
guide shown in fig. 5.20 and verify that
k 2 sink 1 t
A k 2 tank 1 t -k1 tank 2 d,
- k 1 sink 2d
2 2
62
w e:o~o - k22 w e:~o-kl2
z
22. The solutio ns for the Ho1 mode field compone nts in an
air-fill ed
circula r wavegui de of radius a are
104
H J 1 (k r)
r 0 c
E4> J 1 (k r)
0 c
where kc is defined by the first root of J 0 1 (kca)=O. Determine

(a) the mean power flow of the H01 mode assuming matched conditions,
(b) the attenuation coefficient of the Hol mode if the surface
resistivity of the wall is Rs ohms per square.
N.B.
-Jl (x)
23. Show that the eigenvalues k for a coaxial line (inner and outer
conductor radius = a,b respecti~ly) supporting E and H modes
may be determined from the equations mn mn
J (k a) Y (k b) J (k b) Y (k a) ••• forE modes

m c m c m c m c mn
J I (k a) Y I (k b) J 1 (k b) Y 1 (k a) • • • for H modes
m c m c m c m c mn
where J , Y are Bessel functions of the first and second kind,

respect!fvel!J.
24. The E4> components of an Hmn mode and Emn mode in an air-filled
circular guide are given by
j kW)l cosm4> J 1 (k r)e-jSz H

m c mn
c
j mS sinm4> J (k r)e-jSz E
rk2c m c mn
2 2
where 13 =I Cw £ 1l -k )
0 0 c
105
Utilizing the Bessel function zero tables AP6,page 178 in the
appendix,determine for a guide of radius 8 mm
(a) the cut-off frequencies of the H01 and E23 modes
(b) the cut-off frequency of the fundamental mode and the frequency
limits between which the guide can be operated under single-moded
conditions.
(c) the maximum number of propagating modes that could be present
at an operating frequency of 30 GHz.
25. The general definition of Q~factor of an electrical system

may be defined as
Q = W0 Wm/P
where w0 = 27Tf0 is the radian frequency of excitation
Wm = maximum energy stored in the system
v = volume of system
H, E = magnetic, electric field components
P = mean power dissipated in system
R surface restivity of cavity walls, S = total surface of

cavity s
Ht = tangential component of magnetic field at cavity walls.
Using the above definition, determine an expression for the Q-factor

of the air-spaced co-axial cavity shown in fig. 5.21 when the cavity
is resonant, its length 1 = ~A.
+------l=~nA-------+
106
6
ANTENNAS
6.1 THEORY SUMMARY
1. ANTENNA PARAMETERS
X
~: (b)
Spherical coordinates r e.+ Antenna radiation patterns for a half-

'= azimuth angle wave dipole (axis parallel to z axis)
~=90-epngle of elevation (a)vertical plane (b)horizontal plane
Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6. 2
(a) Power gain.. G and directive gain.. G0
G(S,cp) radiation intensity from given antenna in direction e,p

radiation intensity from lossless isotropic antenna
with same power input
power density radiated from given antenna in direction e,cp

power density radiated from isotropic antenna with same
power input
where radiation intensity power radiated per unit solid angle in

direction e,cp
power density = power per square metre at far field
point e,cp
maximum radiation intensity
average radiation intensity
G
max G0 if antenna is assumed loss less, otherwise G0> Gmax
(b l Radiation patterns
A plot of radiation intensity versus the angular coordinates 8 or cp
is known as a radiation intensity pattern or diagram.
107
A plot of power density versus e or <Pis known as a power radiation
pattern or diagram.
If the maximum radiation intensity and power density are normalized

to unity the above radiation intensity and power plots are identical
and are then called antenna radiation patterns.
A plot of the magnitude of the electric field intensity versus

e or <P is known as the field intensity pattern.
Note that the reciprocity theorem applies to antennas and as a

consequence the transmitting and receiving radiation patterns and
gains are the same.
(c) Becurr-1JJidth and side-Zobes
Fig. 6.3 power radiation pattern of an antenna
The beam-width is the total angle between points on the main beam
where the radiation power density or intensity have fallen to one
half the maximum.
The side-lobe level = 10 log 10 Pmax/ps dB
where p and p = maximumradiation power densities of main beam

max s and side-lobe respectively.
(d) Radiation T'esistance ~

r
R
If P = total power radiated by an antenna and I = its r.m.s.

terminal feed current, then its radiation resistance Rr is defined
by the equation
P = I 2 Rr
(e) Effective apeX'ture~ Ae
The effective aperture of an antenna, Ae is that fictitious area

which acts as a total absorber to electromagnetic energy and absorbs
a power equal to that received by the antenna when the latter is
correctly matched •
108
where n = aperture or illumination efficiency
A = physical cross-sectional area of antenna
The power gain and effective aperture of a lossless antenna are

related by
(f) Effective length~ 1

e
~ of a Unea:ro antenna
where I(z) = current distribution along the antenna

I = peak current, 1 = physical length
An alternative definition based on the antenna receiving radiation

is
V = 1e E i.e. le = V/E
where V open-circuit r.m.s. voltage induced across antenna
terminals
E r.m.s. field amplitude of electromagnetic wave at antenna
2. POWER DENSITY, RADIATED AND RECEIVED POWERS
(a) Power d£nsity of an electromagnetic wave: Poynting's theorem

The power density of an electromagnetic wave of r.m.s. electric and
magnetic field amplitudes E and H in a medium of permittivity
€=€rEo and permeability ~~r~o is
p EH watts per square metre
for a transverse electromagnetic wave
(b) The total pOIVer radiated by an antenna~ PT
watts
109
where ES and H~ are the r.m.s. values of the radiation field
components of the antenna and S is a surface completely enclosing
the antenna. s is normally taken as a sphere.
(c) The totaL power> :r>eceived by an antenna

The total power received by an antenna (and transferred to a matched
load) of effective aperture Ae which intercepts an electromagnetic
wave of power density p and r.m.s. field amplitudes E and H is
Since p and A may also be expressed in terms of the power gains

Gr and GR of transmitter and receiver antennas and the distance r
between them
p A
e
we have
3. ANTENNA ARRAYS
An array consists of a number of individual radiators suitably

spaced with respect to each other. A linear array consists of
elements arranged in a straight line. A planar array is a two
dimensional arrangement of elements lying in a plane. Array elements
may be dipoles, slot, horn antennas •• etc. Arrays may be designed
to produce highly directive beams and possess the important
advantage that the beam may be electronicall~· steered.
(a) Radiation pattem of an n eLement~ equaHy spaced~ Unea:r> a:r>:r>ay
Fig. 6.4 An n-element parallel fed linear array
110
The n elements are spaced an equal distance d apart, and if each
element is fed with a progress! ve phase lag of o
radians, the phase
difference ljl of field components from adjacent sources at a far
field point in the ~ direction is
If each element produces a far-field strength in the ~ direction

of e (~}, then ignoring mutual coupling and scattering from adjacent
elements, we have for the resultant far-field strength
= e(~} sin(nW/2} ej(n-l)ljl/2

sin(ljl/2}
= e(~} sin(nljl/2}
sin(ljl/2}
showing that the far-field is modified by the factor sin(nljl/2)/sin(ljl/2}.

A plot of the latter for n=lO is shown in fig.6.5. Note that the
maximum value of sin(nljl/2)/sin(ljl/2} is n, occurring when ljl = o.
Since the corresponding power density, p (<b), at the far-field

point is proportional to the square of the electric field amplitude,
i.e. p(~)« e2(~) [sin(nljl/2)/sin(ljl/2)]2,
the normalized radiation pattern of the array,
2
where gi(~}« e (~}is the normalized radiation pattern of the
individual elements,
2
s~n (nljl/ 2 } is the normalized array gain factor, often
n sin2 (ljl/2} known as the array factor
111
sin(~nojo) ,n=lO
10 sin (~•>
•
•
.
2
0 +
Provided d ~ ~A, only a single main beam is generated and the
side-lobe levels are reasonably low.
If d > ~A, additional beams of intensity equal to the main beam

may be generated.
(b) Beam-steering
Fig. 6.6
The beam of an array may be steered electronically by varying the
phase angle ~. The condition for the main beam to be in direction
<Po is
2~
$ = ;r<dcos cp 0 )- ~ =0 , i.e. ~ = ;2~r dcos cp 0
and the corresponding array factor,
2
sin nljJ/2 _ sin 2 [n~d/A(cost-cospo>J
n 2sin 2$/2 - n2 sin 2 [~d/A (coscp-coscp 0 >]
112
(a) Huygen-FresneZ principle
According to this principle the electric field intensity at a point
P(r,e,~> due to an aperture illuminated by a field of intensity A is
E
1.1
= s AA
e -j(2'Tr/A)r
r dS
where S is the surface of the aperture containing the radiating

sources. For points close to the aperture the integral may be
reduced to a form known as Fresnel's diffraction pattern. For
points at a greater distance the integral may be simplified, since
we may assume that all waves reaching the far-field point from the
aperture are effectively parallel. This region, which occurs at
r > 2o2j>,. (D = largest aperture dimension), is known as the
Fraunhofer diffraction region and is the one of main interest in
antenna theory.
(b) Fax-field patterns in the Fraunhofer regions

The far-field electric intensity due to an illuminated aperture of
f.
constant phase sources at the point P, fig. 6.7, is proportional to
E = A ej2'Tr/A (lx+my) dS
where l,m are the direction cosines of the vector OP,

and A = A(x,y) is the aperture illumination field intensity.
y y p
b p
z
-iL
(a) (b) (C)
Fig. 6.8
For the one-dimensional aperture of fig. 6.8{a), the far-field
in the y-z plane is proportional to
= i ~L
Aye
-~L
( ) j2'Tr/Asin8y dy
as m = sin 8 and where A(y) = amplitude distribution of aperture

field
Note that the integration limits may be changed to ± 00 as A (y) = 0
for jyj>~L so in general
113
leading to the important result that E (8) and A (y) are in the form
of Fourier transform pairs. Thus the required aperture distribution
to give a desired far-field pattern of E(8) is proportional to
A(y) = f_: E(9)e-j 21T/AsinSyd(sin9)
For the rectangular aperture of fig. 6.8(b), assumed to be

uniformly illuminated, i.e. A = A0 a constant, the far-field pattern
takes the form
E
A ej21T/A(lx+my)d d
0 X y
A
sin ('IT/Ala) sin(1T/Amb)
ab ...;..-~.;.:...;.;.;;..;;;.-. cos a
I l cosax' m y
0 (1T/A) la (1T/A)mb
and for the circular aperture of fig. 6.8(c), the normalized field
pattern is
J 1 (~Dsin9)
E (9) 2 Bessel function of first kind,
(1T/A)Dsin8 ' Jl order l.
6.2 WORKED PROBLEMS
1. Determine the far-field electric intensity of a ~A and A

monopole antenna situated vertically above an earth plane as shown
in fig. 6.9 (a). Assume the earth is perfectly conducting, the
distribution of current on both antennas is i = I sin (21T/A l) and
that the electric intensity due to an element dl at the far-field
point (r,9) is
s
Direct
Reflected dE Direct
~wave
,,,,,,,,,,,,,'
~Reflected
I ' ,
Earth t ' <>a
r:.t.-
~~-
(b)
Image
antenna dE wave
(C)
(a)
Fig. 6.9
114
60 1T i sin 6 dl
dE
Ar
Sketch the field intensity patterns and determine the beam-widths

of the two antennas.
Solution
Field contributions at the far-field point are due not only to the
direct wave but also a ground reflected wave, as shown in fig.6.9(b).
The effect of the latter may be taken into account by the image
antenna.
Consider then the field at (r,6) due to an element and its

image at a distance 1 along the antenna. The image element field
has a path difference, AB = 2lcos 6 corresponding to a phase
difference W= 27T/A(2lcos 6). Hence the combined field due to both
elements, see fig.6.9(c) is
dRR 2 dE cos J,w
120 1T • 21T 21T

= ~ S1n 6 I sin T 1 cos <r 1 cos 6> dl
and the resultant field due to whole unipole,
ER = f dER = ~ I S1n 6
120 1T •
J(L0 sin 2A1T 1 cos c2; 1 cos 6) dl
where L l,A , A for half and full wave monopoles, respectively.
On using
sin 2: 1 cos c2; 1 cos 6)
J,{sin( 2A1T 1 + 2A1T 1 cos 6)+sinC 2 :t 1 - 2'A1T 1 cos 6)}
we have
f
0
L
21T 21T
sin T cos(T 1 cos 6)dl
21T
-cos T 1 (l+cos 6)
[
J, 21T
r<l+cos 6)
115
A when
21Tsin2e { l+cos (1r cos 8) }
L ~A
A
when L =A
27rsin28 { l-cos(21r cos 8>}
60 I l+cos(7r cos 8)
Thus ER (~A)
r sin 8
= 60 I 1-cos (27r cos 8)

r sin 8
The field intensity patterns are shown in fig.6.10 and the beam-
widths are 240 for the ~A monopole and 270 for the A monopole.
half-power
point at
8•66.
(a) ~).monopole (b) ). monopole

Fig.6.10
2. Four identical dipoles are spaced a distance d metres apart to

form the linear array shown in fig.6.11. The dipoles are fed with
equal amplitude currents but with a progressive phase lag of 5
radians. If the radiation pattern of the individual dipoles is
isotropic in the horizontal plane, determine an expression for the
far-field pattern of the array in this plane and the variation in 8
if the main beam is to be steered from the broadside ~ = 900 to a
~ = 750 position. Sketch also the field intensity diagrams for
~ = 9QO and 750 operation when d = o. 2 A, 0. 35 A for 0<~<1800 ~
and calculate the respective beam-widths.
Fig.6.11
SoLution
The phase difference of the field components from adjacent dipoles
at a far field point in the direction ~ is
-- ~(d
A cos 'i'~)- 8
116
Since the individual field intensity patterns are isotropic, Eo
say, we have for the resultant far-field electric intensity of
the array
e-j2'!1!ej2W
= E0 e-jw_ej~l/J
E ej3/2w sin 2w
0 sin ~w
Thus the far-field intensity pattern,
211"
IE<4>>1 = Eo lsin 21/JI
sin~
w = ;r<d cos $)- ~
IE<4>>1 is a maximum when W = 0
so for broadside operation we have ~ = 211" d cos 90° = o.

;r
and for 4> = 750 operation we have ~ = 211" d cos 750 radians.
;r
Hence if the beam is to be steered from 4> = 90° to 75°, ~ should
vary from o to 211" d cos 75° = 1.6262 d radians
-A r
The field intensity patterns are drawn in fig.6.12. The beam-
widths are as follows
$=90°
(a) d=Q-2A ,6= 0 (b) d=0·2A ,6=0·325 rad
(c) d=0·35~6=0 (d) d=0-35A,6 ..0·5692 rad

Fig. 6.12 Field intensity diagrams E($) v 4> for a 4 element array
117
d = 0.2 A 0 0 beam-width 125° - 55° 770
d
d = 0.2 A 0 1.626
r beam-width 108° - 34° 74°
d = 0.35 A, 0 0 beam-width 109° - no 38°

d
d = o. 35 A, 0 1.626
r beam-width 94° - 540 40°
3. Three identical dipoles, spaced ~A apart with their axes

perpendicular to the horizontal plane, form a linear array. The
dipoles are fed with equal amplitude currents but with a phase lag
of 8 radians between adjacent elements. The radiation pattern of
the dipoles is isotropic in the horizontal plane. Determine in
terms of the self and mutual antenna impedances the input
impedance of each dipole.
If the feed current amplitudes are 5 A r.m.s.,8 = ~n,

Z11 = 70 Q , Z12 = -(lO+j20) Q , Z13 = (5+jl0) Q calculate
(a) the power radiated by each dipole and the total power radiated
(b) the power gain of the array in the horizontal plane referred
to a half-wave dipole of self impedance 70 n.
Solution
The mesh equations relating the terminal emfs v 1 ,v2,V3 to the
terminal currents I1ri2,I3 of the 3 element array are
where since the elements are identical and the array is reciprocal,
Also as the currents are of equal amplitude but differ in phase by 8:
118
Thus the input impedance of the first dipole,
the input impedance of the second dipole,
and the input impedance of the third dipole,
(a) The powers radiated by each dipole are
where Re denotes taking the real part of the input impedance and
!1 1 ! 2 = !1 2 ! 2 = !1 3 ! 2 =52 = 25.
on substituting z 11 = 70 , z12 = -lo-j20 , z 13 5+jlO and 6 = ~TI,
+'a +'2o
e-J = ±j , e-J = -1 we have
z1 7o + j(lO+j2oJ-(5+jlOl 45 n
119
z2 = -jClO+j2o)+70+jClO+j2o) = 7o n
z 3 = -(5+jlO)-j(lO+j20)+70 = (85-j20) 0
Thus
Pl = 45X25 = 1125 W P2 = 70X25 1 = 1750 W,
P3 = 85X25 = 2125 w and the total power
P = P1+P2+P 3 = 5000 W
(b) The far-field intensity due to the array in the $ direction

in the horizontal plane is
sin f1/l
E($) = ki sin ~1/1
2~
where 1jJ .. T(dcos $)- 0 = r<'-ACOS
2~
$)- 2~ = 2~ (cos $- 1)
I = 5 A and k is a constant as individual elements are

isotropic.
The far-field intensity due to a half-wave dipole fed with the

same total power as the array is
E
HW =k I
o
where the supply current to the dipole is found from
Thus the power gain of the array with respect to the half-wave
dipole,
G($) I
EEHWCp) 12
=
25
71.'43
Isin !1/1 12
sin 12$
= 0.350 lsin ~(cos p-1) 12

sin w (cos $-1)
with maximum gain occurring when 1jJ = o, i.e. when cos $ = 1, $ =0

120
so G(o) ~ 0.350 X 32 m 3.15 (4.98 dB).
1. Calculate the total power radiated from the monopole antenna

shown in Fig.6.13 given that the far-field electric field amplitude
is
E
e = 120 A !!!:!....!
1f I(!:!.)
r
volts/metre
where h is the effective height and I is the r.m.s. terminal current.

£3[:1»Fig. 6.14 for problem 2(a)
2 (a) The current distribution on the vertical radiating conductor
of the capacitive topped antenna shown in Fig.6.14 is
I (y) = I sin { a(2h-y)} h«A

Determine the effective height of the antenna
(b) The current distribution of the half-wave dipole shown in

Fig.6.15 is
21f
I (1) = Im cos T 1
Determine its effective length
Fig. 6.15 for problem 2(b)

3. A '-A vertical monopole on the surface of the earth is fed
with a current of 10 A r.m.s. at a frequency of 2.2 MHz.
Given that the magnetic field due to a current element idl at

an angle of elevation e• and range r is
121
H(r,S) 1:1 ~cos
r
e•
Determine the electric field strength on the ground at a distance

of 10 km.
4. An antenna has a radiation resistance of 150 n and is fed with

a r.m.s. current of 5 A. If the power gain of the antenna, referred
to an isotropic radiator, equals 6 dB in a given direction, determine
the power density and electric field strength at a receiving antenna
60 km. away in this direction.
Given that the effective aperture of the receiving antenna is

1.5 m2 calculate the power received, assuming the antenna to be
matched to its receiver.
5. Assuming that the far-field electric field strength produced

by a current element of idl is
dE 60 'II' idl sin e

e h
where e and r are the polar co-ordinates (see Fig.6.16),show that

the total far-field electric field amplitude produced by a half-wave
dipole excited by a terminal current Im sin wt is
60I
m cos (1:1'11' cos 6)
E(S,r) = --r-- sin 6
Calculate also the power that should be fed into a half-wave dipole
to produce a field of 5 mV/m r.m.s. at a range of 30 km. in a plane
at right angles to the dipole axis. The radiation resistance of a
half-wave dipole may be taken as 73 n.
I(l)=Imcos(2•1/A)
l~Ee
•,t: w
4:)
current element half-wave dipole
6. An antenna has a radiation resistance of 70 n
and is fed with
a sinusoidal current of amplitude 4 A r.m.s. The power transmitted
in the direction of maximum radiation is 1.6 times that from an
omni-directional antenna radiating the same total power. Calculate
the power density, magnetic and electric field strength at a
distance of 60 km from the antenna in this direction.
122
An identical antenna is situated at this position and directed
towards the transmitter. If the effective lengths of each antenna
are 2 m, calculate the maximum power available to a receiver
connected to the second antenna, and the overall transmission loss.
7. The sides of a square frame antenna are each o. 3 m. long, the

number of turns = 10, and the total inductance of the antenna is
100 llH. The antenna is connected to a receiver having an input
impedance of 100 n and a voltage amplification from input to
detector d.c. output of lOs.
Calculate the field strength of a 1.2 MHz signal which produces
an output of 300 mV at the detector when the frame antenna is
aligned for maximum output. The Q factor of the frame antenna is
120 at 1.2 MHz.
8. A loop antenna situated in a vertical plane consists of 10 turns

each enclosing an area of 0.01 m2. The Q factor of the antenna is
120. An incident vertically polarised 1 MHz signal has a field
strength of 10 mV /m.
If the loop is rotated about a vertical axis and tuned to
resonance by a loss-less capacitor calculate the maximum voltage
across this capacitor and draw a radiation diagram showing the
relationship between the capacitor voltage and angular rotation
of the loop.
9. A half-wave dipole is located horizontally above the surface

of the earth at a height of 4 wavelengths. Calculate the directions
in the vertical plane between angles of elevation 6'=00 to 900 for
which the radiation is
(a) maximum
(b) zero
Sketch the field intensity radiation diagram for 600 ~9' ~ 900,
and calculate the beam-width of this lobe.
10. Two parallel half-wave dipoles situated in free space are

spaced A apart with their axes normal to the line joining their
mid points. The dipoles are excited by inphase currents of equal
amplitude.
Determine an expression for the far-field pattern and sketch
the field intensity radiation pattern of the array for
(a) the plane perpendicular to both dipole axes, and
(b) the plane containing both axes.
The far-field intensity due to a single half-wave dipole in free
space may be taken as
cos(~ cos 6)
E E
0 sin 6
where 6 is the angle from the dipole axis to the far-field point.
123
11. An antenna array comprises three vertical and parallel half-wave
dipoles with their centres in a horizontal straight line. They are
spaced ~ A apart and fed with currents of equal amplitude but with
a progressive phase difference of o radians between successive
dipoles.
Determine with respect to the horizontal plane
(a) the value of o for maximum gain in the $ = 45° direction,

(b) the value of o for end fire operation and the beam-width
between first nulls. Sketch the horizontal radiation diagrams for
both cases.
12. An array consists of five radiators (isotropic in the horizontal

plane) fed with equal amplitude currents having a progressive
phase difference of o radians and spaced ~ A apart in the same
straight line. Determine the value of o if the array is to be
adjusted for end fire operation and calculate the beam-width
between the first nulls for this case.
13. A broadcasting station employs two vertical antennas spaced ~ A

apart and energised by currents of equal amplitude but differing
in phase by 900. The individual radiation patterns of the antennas
are identical and isotropic in the horizontal plane.
Determine the far-field electric intensity and sketch the power
radiation diagram of the antenna system in the horizontal plane.
Determine also an expression for the electric field intensity if
there is a 10% inbalance in the amplitude of the currents fed to the
antennas, the phase difference remaining unchanged.
14. A half-wave dipole is suspended horizontally above the surface

of the earth at a height of one wavelength.
Determine the directions in the vertical plane for which the
radiation is
(a) zero, and
(b) a maximum.
Sketch the vertical plane radiation pattern.
15. TWo parallel horizontal dipoles spaced ~ A apart in a

horizontal plane are situated ~ A above the earth. The dipoles
are fed with currents of equal amplitude but differing in phase
by 900.
Determine the far-field pattern in the vertical plane and sketch
the radiation pattern in this plane.
16. A linear array consists of three vercical dipoles with centres

~ A apart
on a common horizontal axis. The dipoles are fed with
equal amplitude currents having a progressive phase lead of ~ tt
radians. The self-impedances zu, Z22• Z33 of each dipole and the
124
mutual impedances Z12, Z23• between adjacent dipoles and between
the first and third dipoles, Zl3r are
z33 = 7o n
c-1o - j3o> n
z 13 = (5 + jlol n
Calculate
(a) the input impedance of each dipole
(b) the fraction of the total power radiated by each dipole
(c) the power gain of the array, relative to a single dipole.
17. The array shown in Fig.6.17 consists of a driven dipole

together with a passive element to increase its directivity. The
self-impedances of the driven and passive elements are Z11 and Z22
respectively, and the mutual impedance is Zl2• Show if the total
power input to the driven element is P watts, that the r.m.s. current
fed to this element is
where z11
Derive also an expression for the far-field pattern of the array

and the power gain of the array referred to a half-wave dipole,
given that the self impedance of the latter is (R0 + jO) fl.

18. An array consists of two vertical dipoles with their centres d
apart on a common horizontal axis. The self and mutual impedances
of the dipoles are
125
If the r.m.s. feed currents are I 1 and I of equal amplitude but
with a phase difference of o radians, dete~ine
(a) the powers radiated by each element,

(b) the power gain in the horizontal plane with respect to a half-
wave dipole.
Take the self impedance of the reference half-wave dipole as purely

resistive and equal to R0 ohms.
19. Fig.6.18 shows two half-wave dipoles parallel fed from a

transmitter. Given that the self and mutual impedances of the half-
wave dipoles are
z 11 z 22 = 73 + j43 n
z 12 -(13 + j29) n
determine the input impedance of each element at 11' and 22 • •

If the reactive part of this input impedance is tuned out by
using series capacitances adjacent to 11' and 22' determine
(a) the value of this reactance,

(b) the characteristic impedance of the loa: A lines if the antenna
system is to be matched to the feed line 3 whose characteristic
impedance zo = 600 n.
20. The gain of a cosecant squared antenna as a function of

elevation angle 6'is given by
cosec 2 e'
G(6) =G for e' <e<e'
o m
0 cosec 2 e'
0
= 0 for all other values of e'
Derive an expression for the power received by a radar aystem

tracking a target of radar cross-section cr which is moving at a
constant height h at a range r, assuming 6'<arcsin(h/r)<6~. The
radar radiates a power of P watts and oper~tes at a wavelength of A.
Hence, show that the echo power received from a target of constant
radar cross-section at a constant altitude is independent of the
target's range from the radar, within the limits of e'specified
above.
126
21. A linear array of four identical elements is fed with currents
of amplitudes I, 3 I, 3 I, I having a progressive phase lag of o
radians. The elements are equally spaced a distance d metres apart
and individually have an isotropic radiation pattern in the
horizontal plane. Determine an expression for the far-field electric
intensity of the array in the horizontal plane. Determine also the
value of o for broadside and end-fire operations. If d = 0.35 A
calculate the beam-width for these cases.
22. A broadside array consists of a large number n of elements,

spaced d metres apart, and which individually have an isotropic
radiation pattern in a certain plane. Show that the normalized
power gain of the array in this plane is approximately
. 2 mr
g(cp) = ~ , x = T dcos cp
x2
Calculate also the beam-width of the main beam and the side-lobe
levels of the largest and second largest subsidiary beams.
23. Determine the normalized field patterns fOr the continuous

linear source of fig.6.19(a) for the cases when the aperture field
distribution along its length is (see fig.6.19(b)
(a) uniform A(y) = 1, IYI~~r.. r

(b) triangular : A(y) = l-2iyi/L , IYI~ ~L
(c) cosine A(y) = cos TTy/L r IYI~ ~L
-~L
z -lfJ,
uniform
_,tt., --~Loy
triangular cosine
(a) (b)
24. A parabolic dish of aperture diameter 3 m. is uniformly

illuminated by a primary feed antenna operating at a frequency
of 3 GHz. Determine the power gain of the dish and the beam-width
between the first nulls of the main beam.
127
7
SHORT WAVE, MICROWAVE AND RADAR SYSTEMS
7.1 THEORY SUMMARY
1. PROPAGATION VIA THE IONOSPHERE
(a) The system
Ionospheric
layer
ray
Fig. 7.1
(b) Refractive index~ n.
n = .,1 (l- BlN)
f2
where N = electron
density, electrons per cUbic metre, of
ionospheric layer
f = frequency of electromagnetic wave in hertz
(c) Critical frequency and rrw::irnurn usable frequency foro a given
ionospher-ic layer-
fMUF = seci fcrit hertz (flat earth approximation)
where Nmax = maximum electron density in layer

i = angle of incidence of critical ray at ionosphere
(d) Maximum r-ange
R ~ 2Re cos- 1 [~] metres

max Re + h
128
... .... Virtual height
of ionospheric
layer
\
'' \ ;:;t
/R. (radius of earth)
'\ //
Fig. 7.2
2. LINE OF SIGHT AND MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
{a) Power- tmnamitted over- a free space line-of-sight link
J
Transmitter ~·4------------ r -------------·rL Receiver
Antenna gain= GR
Antenna gain.. GT
Effective aperture= Ae= ~GR
Fig. 7.3
If the total power radiated by the transmitting antenna is PT, then
the power density at the receiver antenna is
PT
watts per square metre
PR GT 41Tr2
and the total power received, assuming the antenna is matched to

its receiver is
(b) Interoferoence beb,)een diroect and r-eflected 111aVes

T
Transmitter ~~~::::~~=:_i~=-~~~~~::~:
l R Receiver
I
:~-------------;~~~~
I
I
I
.......
I
Fig. 7.4
129
Path difference between direct wave TR and reflected wave TGR,
Received signal amplitude,
where ¢1 =~ (6r) = 41Thlh2

A :Ar
= amplitude of reflection coefficient at ground
(c) BZock diagram of a t;ypicaZ micl'OIIJave radio "link
Microwave Transmitter f(.-

carrier
antenna \(~
Transmitter
Low noise
r. f. amplifier
Receiver
Fig. 7.5
(d) SignaZ-to-noise ratio at receiver

R.F. amplifier
--
Input signal
Bandwidth B
power = PR Output signal S0 GAPR
Power gain GA
---+ Noise factor F
---+ Noise temperature OUtput noise
Input noise
TA = (F-l)T0
power "' kTsB N0 = GA(kTsB+ kTAB)
Antenna
Fig. 7.6
130
If the receiver antenna has a noise temperature of Ts K and the
first stage r.f. amplifier has a noise factor of F (or a corresponding
amplifier noise temperature of TA K, the signal-to-noise power ratio
at the output of this amplifier is
where k Boltzmann's constant 1.38 X lo- 23 J/K
B = bandwidth of amplifier
T0 290 K (standard temperature at which F measured)
PR = input received power
3. RADAR SYSTEMS
(a) Froee space radaro equation
(i) Equivalent echoing area or radar cross-section, cr
cr = area (simulating target) which absorbs all the incident

energy falling on it and re-radiates it equally in all
directions so that it produces the same signal at the radar
receiver as would the actual target.
(ii) The radar equation

PT
Power density at target = GT x -- watts per square metre
4'1Tr2
Power absorbed at target and re-radiated isotropically

GTPT
cr x - -2 watts
4'1Tr
CJGTPT 1 2
Power density at receiver antenna, p = - - - x - --2 W/m
R 4'1Tr 2 4'1Tr
Total power transferred to receiver (assuming matched conditions)

2
CJGTPT A GR
=---X--
T
16'1T2r4 4'1
••• the radar equation
131
where GT' GR =power gain of transmitter, receiver antennas;
A = wavelength; r = target range; PT = transmitter power
(iii) Maximum range of radar, rmax·
If PRmin is the smallest possible received signal power which

will give rise to a recognisable echo, the the maximum range
of the radar is
metres
In terms of the minimum ratio of output signal-to-noise

(So/N0 )min from the first stage r.f. or i.f. receiver amplifier
where T5 receiver antenna noise temperature, T0 = 290 K,

F receiver noise factor, B = receiver bandwidth
For many radar applications, especially with relatively noisy

receivers, the effect of an antenna noise temperature different
from T0 = 290 K is small and
PRmin =k T 0 B F (S0 /N0 ) min where kT0 4Xl0- 21 J
(b) BZock diagram of a pulse .m:dar system
Fig. 7. 7
(i) Modulator and transmitter waveforms
T:T ••• known as the mark-space ratio or duty cycle,
T normally - 0.1 to 1 ~s; T - 1 ms, 1/T = pulse repetition
frequency
Average transmitter power, P = .!.
T PT , PT = peak power.
132
oJlt -r-
[L •t
(a) Modulator waveform ~) Transmitter waveform
Fig. 7.8
(ii) Display type A and plan-position indicator (P.P.I.) display
e
c.R.o. screen
Circles of
quidistant -======~Rotating
range _ _....,... deflection
coil
d ..fl.JL
Received
R.o. pulses
(a) Type A display ~) PPI display

Fig. 7.9
(a) Type A display
Time delay between transmitted and received pulse, td=2r/c, so
range of target, r = l:!ctd' c = 3XlOB m/s.
(b) PPI display

A saw-tooth timing waveform deflects the C.R.o. spot radially
from the screen centre, and is synchronised with the transmitted
pulses so that the distance outward from the centre is
proportional to target distance. The angular direction in
which the C.R.O. spot is deflected is in exact synchronism
with the antenna rotation.
The received signals from the video amplifier, after d.c.
;restoration, are applied to the control grid of a c.R.O. Thus
when a pulse is received the spot is 'turned-on' and this spot
gives the range and azimuth of the target.
(c) F:roequency modu"lated~ continuous tJaVe (f.m.-c.w.) ra.da:l>
Fig. 7.10 Simple basic block diagram of an f.m.-c.w. radar
133
(i) System data
transmitted frequency, f 0 carrier frequency (fT with no

modulation
fR = received frequency
fB fT-fR ••• beat or difference frequency
f 0 = deviation frequency (maximum swing in fT)
fM modulator repetition frequency
r =target range, c = 3Xlo8 m/s ••• velocity of light
(ii) F.M. waveforms and range in terms of system parameters.
Transmitted Beat
Frequency
frequency
fo+'TZJ:
fo
fD
t
-TM=tM-
(a) Sawtooth f.m. Superposition of instant- (c) Beat frequency
(b)
signal transmitted transmitted and reflected fT-fR
signal frequencies for a
target at constant range
Fig. 7.11 Waveforms for sawtooth frequency modulation
cfB
For sawtooth modulation : r = - -
2f0fM
f
.Transmitted frequency
frequency
Fig. 7.12 Waveforms for triangular or symmetrical modulation
cfB
for triangular modulation : r = - -
Sf0fM
134
f
Transmitted frequency
...../
f +f •• Received frequency
0 D
f 0 ~~----~~--~~----~~----~t
f -f
0 D
of'
fT-fR
"'::7 ~ "'::7.c.t
Fig. 7.13 Waveforms for sinusoidally modulated f.m. radar
for sinusoidal modulation :r
(d) Doppler radar
(radial component)
···.r;r"g;Kvr
v,velocity
ve
(tangential
component)
Beat frequency Frequency meter
amplifier 1----1 calibrated in
terms of velocity
Fig. 7.14 Block diagram of a simple Doppler radar
Doppler frequency shift (non-relativistic) :
The difference between transmitted and received frequencies,
2v
fv=fT-f R =.....!.f
c o
f transmitter frequency
0
vr radial component of velocity, c = 3Xl08 m/s

fR = received frequency
Note there is no change in received signal frequency due to
the tangential component of target velocity.
135
(e) Meastatement of range and ve"locity using triangular f.m.-c.w.
radar
Frequency
Transmitted frequency
fo + fo
Received frequency
(assuming target
approaching radar)
fo- fo
Beat
:; ~ :kl \.. .-----

frequency
0 Fig. 7.15
If fr = difference frequency due to target at range r, assuming
v =0
fv = Doppler frequency shift, due to radial velocity of
target,
then the beat frequencies observed during the ascending and
descending cycles of ~dulation are, respectively :
f
a f
r - fv fd = fr + fv
so
f r = 1:! (fa+fd), fv .. 1:! (fd-fa)
and
cf cfv
r
r = 8f0 fM
v
r =u0
8.2 WORKED PROBLEMS
1. Determine, assuming a flat earth approximation :

(a) The shortest distance over which short wave transmission is
possible at 15 MHz employing an ionospheric layer with a maximum
electron density of 1.8xlol2 electrons/m3 at an effective height
of 200 km.
(b) The maximum usable frequency for transmission between two earth
stations 500 km. apart.
(c) The path difference for 15 MHz signals transmitted between two
stations 1000 km. apart when transmission occurs by one and two hop
reflections.
If, in the latter case, the electric field amplitudes at the
receiver for both modes of transmission are E and the phase
difference due to respective reflections is e, determine. an
136
expression for the resultant electric field strength at the
receiver.
Sol.ution
~
~OOkm
T Earth R T Lsookm-R
-tOOOkm---
<a> Fig. 7.16 (b)
Fig. 7.17
{a) Reflection will occur at the ionosphere, provided
n sin i >: n sin 9o0

air "" ionosphere
i.e.
sin i).:..; (1-SlN /f2 )
max
since the refractive index of air, nair=l and the refractive index
of the ionospheric layer, ni =./(1-SlN /f2 ).

on max
Thus the minimum value of i corresponding to the shortest distance

of transmission is given by
i = sin- 1 ./(l-81Nmax/f2 )=sin- 1./(l-81Xl.8Xl012 ;15 2xlo12 )=36.39°
and the shortest range (see fig. 7 .16a)
TR = 2h tani = 2X2ootan36.39° = 294.8 km
{b) For stations 500 km apart, transmission is achieved when
and the corresponding maximum usable frequency,
where the cirtical frequency, f = 9./N = 12.075 MHz

crit max
Thus f = 12.075 sec 51.34° 19.33 MHZ

MUF
(c) The path length for a 1-hop transmission (see fig.7.16b),

2 2
r 1 = TD+DR = 2.; (h +500 ) = 1077.033 km
137
and the path length for a 2-hop transmission,
r2 = TA+AB+BC+CR = 4/(h2+2502 ) = 1280.625 km
Thus the path difference,
The total phase difference between 2 and 1-hop waves at the

receiver is
20m
and referring to the phasor-diagram of fig. 7.17, we have for the

resultant electric field strength at the receiver,
2. A microwave radio link operating at 3 GHz feeds 10 W to a

parabolic dish which has a circular aperture of radius 1 m and an
illumination efficiency of 60%. Calculate the overall transmission
loss and the power input to a receiver which has an identical
antenna, and is situated in line of sight 80 km. away. Neglect
any path fading or ground reflection effects and take the filter
and feeder losses at each terminal end as 1. 5 dB.
SoZution
If PT is the total power radiated by the transmitter antenna and PR
that received, then
PR = (power density at distance r) x (effective aperture of

receiver antenna)
where AR = J\r effective aperture of receiver and transmitter

antennas
=~ X 1 2 X 0.6 = 1.885 m2
GT = gain of transmitter antenna = ~; J\r 2368.8
138
Hence transmission loss between transmitter and receiver antennas
and adding to this the terminal end feeder losses of 2xl.5 dB,
we obtain 72.56+3=75.56 dB for the overall transmission loss.
The power input to the receiver PR' is thus 75.56 dB down on
the 10 W fed to the transmitter antenna, i.e.
so p 1 = 0.278Xl0- 7 W
R
3. Derive the expression for the signal power PR received by a

radar system in terms of the transmitted power PT, the antenna gain
G, the target echoing area cr, wavelength A, and range r. Assume
that the same antenna is used for transmission and reception and
take the combined double path antenna feeder and free space
propagation losses as X dB.
A medium power tracking radar system, operating on 3 GHz, has a
common antenna for transmitting and receiving with a gain of 30 dB
relative to an isotropic radiator. The receiver section employs
a pre-amplifier of 2 MHz bandwidth and noise factor F (defined at
290 K). If the antenna noise temperature is 120 K, the total
feeder propagation losses are 3 dB and the transmitter peak pulse
power is 1 kW, determine the maximum permissible value of F which
will provide a 10 dB signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the
pre-amplifier for a target with an echoing area of 40 m2 at a range
of 25 km.
Solution
The solution to the first part is
watts
i.e. the radar equation (considered in the Theory summary), modified

by the factor lo-X/10 to take into account the feeder and propagation
losses.
In the problem
8 9
C1 40 m2 , G l0 3 (30dB), A 3x1o /3XlO = o.l m,
PT 10 3 w, r = 25Xl0 3 m ' X 3 dB, 10-X/lO = 0.50
2.58XlO-l 3 W
139
If the power gain of the pre-amplifier is GA, then the signal
output power, s 0 = GA x2.58 xlo-13 w.
The noise power input to the pre-amplifier over the bandwidth

B = 2x1o6 Hz, due to the antenna at a noise temperature
Ts = 120 K,is Ns = kT5B; and noise power output, Ns0 =GANs
If the pre-amplifier has a noise factor F, the amplifier itself will
contribute an output noise power of
NA = GA ( (F-l)kBT ) where T 290 K

0
so the total output noise power,
watts
and the signal-to-noise ratio at the pre-amplifier output,
0.9348l<lo4
120+(F-1)290
If (S 0 /N0 ) = lO(lOdB), then the corresponding value of
F = (0.9348Xl0 3-120)/290 + 1 = 3.81 (5.81 dB)
4. A low flying missile is in level flight over the sea and is

approaching a coast on which is situated a radar tracking station
working at 600 MHz, with a peak pulse power of 20 kW. The received
pulse from the missile is observed to pass through a maximum value
with a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB, when the missile is at a
range of 30 km. The station employs an antenna of gain 25 dB with
respect to an isotropic radiator and its radiated beam is
horizontally polarized. The radar antenna is situated 60 m. above
sea level and its receiver noise factor is 8 dB with a bandwidth
of 4 MHz. Determine the effective echoing area of the missile
and its height above sea level.
Solution
r::370km C Target
Radar~ !h
60~ I
: ......... e
I ..-
"
1 ......
... Fig. 7.18
Neglecting any ground reflection effects the received signal power
from the missile is
140
where k is a constant and E is the r.m.s. electric field of the
received pulse from the missile. If, however, we take into
account the ground reflected wave, then maximum received power
occurs when the direct and ground reflected waves are in phase
at the receiver. In this case, assuming the antenna gain for both
wave directions to be the same and that the reflection coefficient
amplitude at the sea is unity, the received electric field amplitude
is
E - E
R - direct
+ E
reflected
= 2E
and hence the received power,
p
R
= k(2E) 2 = 4PRI
Since we are given that the signal-to-noise ratio, S0 /No is 30 dB,

we have
So P
N0 = 10 =....!L
3
FkTB
as S0 = GAPR, N0 = GAFkTB (GA = r.f. amplifier gain of receiver)
and where F = 6.31 (8 dB), T 290 K, B = 4Xl06 Hz
Thus PR = 103 FkTB = l.OlOXlO-lO W
and the effective echoinq area of the missile,
as r = 30Xl03 m, G = 316.2(25 dB) or G2 = 105 (50 dB),
For a maximum value of received echo pulse, the path difference

between ground reflected and direct waves (see fig. 7 .18),
(CB+BA)-CA =~A (or generally (2n+l)A/2, n = 0,1,2 ••• )

allowing for the fact that the indirect wave suffers a 1r phase
change on reflection at the sea. If the missile is at a height
141
of h metres, where h«r, then the path difference is given to a
good degree of approximation as
2X60Xh
(see Theory s\lllllllary)
r
soh =_!_X ~A =~X

120 o. 25 62.5 m
120
Possible other solutions are 62.5(2n+l) metres, n=l,2,3 •••
5. A Doppler radar set observes a target which is travelling in a

straight line at a constant velocity. Show that the Doppler
frequency shift is given by the following formula
!:J.f = _-...;2~v=-2..;;t~~
A(R 2 +v2 t 2 )~
0
where
v target velocity
t time, taking t = o as the time of closest approach
R0 = target range at closest approach
Sketch the graph of !:J.f versus t and show that the target velocity
and range of closest approach can be calculated by estimating the
asyDFtotes of the curve and its slope at t=O.
SoLution
Rd,
Radar
Fig. 7.19
The Doppler frequency shift (difference between received and

transmitted frequencies) is
f - f = !:J.f = - 2 vR f
R T -- T
c
where vR = radial velocity, c = velocity of light, fT transmitter

frequency.
142
Using the geometry of the diagram of fig. 7.19, we have for the
range of the target at any time t,
The radial velocity may then be expressed as,
and so
tJ.f = 2vR f
-c- T
A sketch of the curve !J.f versus t is shown in fig. 7. 20
6f
-----------2vfr
c
--------- -- -------- -2~fx
Fig. 7.20
The asymptotic value of !J.f as t approaches plus or minus infinity

is
Moo =+ 2v
c
f
T
may be determined,
whilst the slope of the curve at t=O is
~d(!J.dtf) j
-2v2f
T
=~
t=O
so R
0
2~fT/ [ cld~~f) It=OJ may also be determined

1. Determine the skip distance for waves of frequency 4.8 MHz at
143
a time when the maximum of ionization in the E•region has a value
of 1x1oll electrons/m3, at a height of llO km.
2. On a certain day the critical frequency of the E layer is 4 MHz

at mid-day and l MHz at sunset. Calculate the change in the electron
density of the E layer and explain why it occurs.
Derive a value for the maximum usable frequency at an angle of

elevation e and estimate the range at mid-day if the height of the
E layer is 64 km and 9 =300. If 9 may be varied, estimate also
the maximum possible range for single hop transmission via the E
layer at mid-day. (Radius of earth = 6390 km).
3. Derive an expression for the critical frequency fcrit of radio

waves which can be reflected from an ionospheric layer when the
waves enter the layer vertically. Hence show that if the waves
enter the layer at angle of incidence i, the maximum frequency
for reflection increases to fcritseci. Determine also
{a) the shortest distance over which the ionospheric transmission

is possible at 10 MHz using a layer where the maximum electron
density is lol2 electrons/m3 at an effective height of 240 km,
(b) the maximum usable frequency of transmission between two
stations 500 km apart using the ionospheric layer defined in (a).
4. Determine the distance between the transmitter and receiver of

a two hop short wave link if the transmitted beam has an angle of
elevation of 150 and reflection occurs at the F2 layer at a height
of 400 km. (Radius of earth=6380 km)
5. A signal of carrier frequency f hertz is transmitted by 1-hop

and also by 2-hop F-layer reflection between two earth stations r
metres apart. Assuming that the F layer can be represented by a
plane layer at a height of h metres, calculate the amplitude of
electric field strength received and the fading rate of the signal
at dusk when the layer is rising at a rate of k metres per second.
Assume equal amplitudes E volts/metre at the receiver for both
1 and 2-hop transmissions, and take the phase change difference
due to reflections over the two paths as 9 radians.
6. A transmitting antenna at a height h 1 above a smooth perfectly

conducting flat earth sends a signal to a receiving antenna at a
height h 2 and ground range r. Show that for large ranges the path
differences between the direct and reflected rays to the receiving
antenna is approximately 2h 1h 2 /r.
If a horizontally polarized transmission on a frequency of 100
MHz is used and the ground reflection coefficient is -1 plot a
curve showing the relation between receiver antenna voltage and
receiver antenna height above ground, when the transmitting aerial
is at a height of 200 m and is 10 km from the receiving antenna.
144
7. The transmitting and receiving equipment at the two ends of a
4 GBz relay link are connected to identical parabolic antennas of
radius 1 m and illumination efficiency of 90\. Assuming line-of-
sight operation over a link of 60 km and that feeder losses account
for a 3 dB loss, calculate the microwave power input to the
transmitter antenna to achieve 1 IJW input to a receiver connected
to the receiver antenna. If the receiver noise factor is 8 dB and
has a bandwidth of 15 MBz, calculate the transmitter power required
to achieve a 40 dB signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver output.
(Assume kT = 4Xlo-2lJ).
B. Estimate the transmitter power output of a proposed

tropospheric scatter communications system required to produce a
10 dB predetection signal-to-noise ratio, given the following data
transmitter and receiver antennas each to provide a net gain of 30 dB

maximum propagation loss 220 dB
total feeder losses 2 dB
receiver antenna noise tenperature 290 K
receiver bandwidth 1.5 MBz, noise factor 5 dB (at 290 K)
(kal.38Xl0-23 J/K)
9. Estimate the maximum range of a pulse radar system which has the
following parameters
operating wavelength 3cm

peak radiated power 80 kW
antenna gain 27 dB
noise te~rature 290 K
receiver noise factor 10 dB (at 290 K)
receiver bandwidth 5 MBz
2
target echoing area 60 m
For satisfactory detection the output signal•to•noise ratio of the

receiver should be at least 6 dB. (k=l.38Xl0-23 J/K)
10. The position of a satellite is to be monitored by a 1 GHz pulse

radar system using a co111110n transmit and receive antenna of gain 30
dB with respect to a half-wave dipole. The satellite may be
considered as a perfectly conducting sphere of radius 10 m. and may
be assumed to act as an isotropic scatterer. Determine the minimum
peak pulse transmitter power so that the signal-to-noise ratio of a
pulse received back from the satellite is at least 10 dB at the r.f.
output stage of the receiver when the satellite range is 1600 km.
The bandwidth of this receiver is 0.5 MBz, its noise factor is 6 dB
(at tenperature 290 K) , the antenna noise tenperature is 100 K.
145
(k=l.38xlo-23 JK-1, gain of the half-wave dipole with respect to an
isotropic radiator = 2.16 dB) •
ll. (a) Calculate change in frequency to be expected from a target

travelling at 1200 km/h if it is to be detected by a c.w. Doppler
radar operating at 1 GHz.
(b) An aircraft radio altimeter employing triangular f.m.
modulation has the following parameters
transmitter frequency, 1200 MHz

deviation frequency, ± 60 MHz
modulator repetition frequency, 100 Hz
If a beat frequency of 7 kHz is indicated on the altimeter, calculate

the corresponding height of the aircraft
12. An f.m.-c.w. radar employing triangular modulation observes a

target moving radially with respect to the radar. The transmitter
frequency is 500 MHz, the deviation frequency ± 25 MHz, and the
modulator repetition frequency, 100 Hz. During the ascending
half cycle of the modulation a beat frequency of 133.052 kHz is
measured, whilst during the descending half cycle a frequency of
133.608 kHz is recorded. Calculate from these results the range
and velocity of the target.
13. The transmitted signal of a sinusoidally modulated f.m. radar

has the voltage waveform
where f 0 = unmodulated transmitter frequency,

f0 = deviation frequency, fM = modulator repetition frequency
Determine the form of the signal received from a target at a range,

r.
The received and transmitted signals are heterodyned in a mixer.

Determine the form of the difference frequency output. Determine
also, assuming r/c«.l/fm' the instantaneous frequency of this signal,
and the average value of beat frequency over half a modulation cycle
14. An f.m. radio altimeter e~loying sinusoidal modulation has

the following parameters
transmitter frequency, 4.2 GHz

peak-to-peak frequency deviation, 70 MHz
modulator frequency, 120 Hz
146
Calculate the following for an aircraft using such an altimeter
(a) the beat frequency obtained when the aircraft is flying at
(i) 10m., (ii) 6 km.
(b) an estimate of the limit of height measurement accuracy.
147
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1: SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM RESPONSE
1. v A A cos W t cos W t ~A A {cos(w +w )t + cos(w -w )tt

0 c m m c me m c c m r
Frequency spectrum is shown in fig. A l(a). Frequency spectrum

for case when v
m
fig. A l(b).
1-1\A.
I I 1 ~ I ••111
I \ o . ' ~~c•u.
-(...~) -(...-"-,) lotc-"·
0
(a)
Fig. Al for answer 1
2. v AcAm cos wmt cos 2 wet= ~AcAm cos wmt cos(2wct+l)

0
~A A cos w t + \A A jcosC2w +w )t + cos(2w -w )tl

em m cml c m c m r
Signal may be recovered by passing multiplier output through a

low-pass filter of pass-band of at least wm' but cutting off
components at 2wc.
3. v = Vm [ ~ + ~sin wt - fn- cos 2wt - l;1T cos 4wt - ••• J

d.c. amplitude = Vm
1T
1
fundamental amplitude
second harmonic amplitude =
third harmonic amplitude is zero.
'Spe~~ral laoPlitude '
0 0
O w 2w 4w 6w
Fig. A2 for answer 3
A sketch of the frequency spectrum of v is shown in fig. A 2.
149
"'
4. v = o.s + 6 ~ 2 r~l sin(2r + l)wt
Tf~
"' _1_
2. ~ j (2r+l)wt
+
= o.s jrr ~2r+l e
"""
"'
s. T
v = - +2T
T -
T L: 1
sin l:!nwt
l:!nwt
cos nwt
Amplitudes: d c 0.2 v, 20 kHz 0.374 v, 40 kHz ••• 0.303 v,

60 kHz ... 0.202 v, 80 kHz ... 0.094 v, 100 kHz ... 0 v•
(i) 20% (ii) 90.3%
6. Amplitude of fundamental = ~{ I Tr + 613} 4.64 v.
7. (a) s (t) = V { T
1 + ;;<cos
2 Wst + cos 2wst + cos 3wst + ••• ) }
(b) v(t) = v, (t) s(t) = Vm cos Wmt s (t)
=(Wm/T){l + 2 cos w5 t + 2 cos 2wst + 2 cos 3wst + •. -~

X COS romt
=(Wm /T){cos wmt + cos (Ws - Wmlt + cos (Ws + Wm)t

+ cos (2WS - Wm) t + COS (2Ws + Wm) t + ••~
A sketch of the frequency spectrum is shown in fig. A 3.
vv. rpectral amplitude
T I I I...+,.,.. .w
0 w.., w.-w.. ..,_.WM lw••"'- ~
8. Relative amplitudes of line at 1 MHz ••• 1, 0.97 MHz ••• o.sos,

1.04 MHZ ••• 0.234.
A sketch of the display is shown in fig. A 4
150
Spectal
amplitude
10. v 0 = AB(l - 4T/T)
R(T) = A2 (1- 4T/T), R(o) = A2 =normalized power of wave.
11. (a) v1 (w) = ~ 6(w- we> + ~ 6(w +we>
(b) V(W) =~ Vm(W - We) + ~ Vm(W +We)
12. (a) (b) F(W)
Fraction of energy in range lfl
13. V(W) = 4~2sin(~T) sketch of spectrum shown in fig. A 5.

W(4~2/T2-w2T2)
.__.__~~T~.:~~---+----~~wc~T.__.W/~
Fig. AS for answer 13
14. Normalized input power= ~(1) 2 + ~(~) 2 + ~(~) 2 = 0.65625

Normalized output power = ~ { ~ (1) 2 + ~ (~) 2 + ~ lH 2}= 0.46875
15. Rise time = 2.1946 CR seconds
16. RC ~ 9.49T seconds
151
-2t/CR
17. v0 (t) • RCl e volts
Normalized energy= l/(4RC)
18. Using convolution result, the Fourier transform of v 2 (t) is

1
v2 (Ill) = 21T foo V(-r)
00
V(w - -r) d-r v .. F{v<t>}
20. R("r) = K2 { f T- ~ l"rl + t ';! 3}for l"rl ~ T1 R("r) = O, l"rl > T
R(o) • tK2
T = normalized energy of pulse.
K -l"ri/RC
4iCe
22. (a) v1 (Ill) • AT sin 2 (~)

(~)2
(b) R("r) "' A2 (T - l"r I)
Energy spectral density = f-l { R(-r)} .. inverse transform of

triangular pulse of amplitude A2 T duration 2T, i.e.
152
CHAPTER 2 NOISE
- RtRt
1. (a) v 2 = 4kTB--- (b) v 2 = 4kTBR
n ~+~ n
2. TA = T2 - 2T 0 1 F 1 + TA/T 0 = T2/T 0 - 1
minimum temperature 3T 0
3. 15.2 ~v
F = eiR R =6 kS'2 , _e_

2kT 0
= 20
2kTo (x-1)
4. Bn= 1/4CR hertz 1 m. s. noise voltage = kT/C.

5. Mean square voltage = (kTR2'11'f 0 /Q) = kT/C
6. (a) F = 6.25 (7.96 dB)
(b) N 0 = kB(Ts + TA)GA = 32.29 ~w
7. F = 20 (13 dB) , TA = 5510 K.

With pre-amplifier, F = 4.19 (6.22 dB).
8. Overall system noise temperature = 63 K.

Required signal power = 3.62 pW.
9. (a) N0 = gm 2RLkT 0B(R' + Req) where R'
(c) F = (R
+ R ) (Rl + Jls)2/R~
eq
I
Rs
--r ---"t
vn Jlsin
10. F 1 + +
4kToBRs 4kT 0BRs
'R- = /(v 2 11"2) ohms,

·-::; n n
11. (S 0/N 0 ) = 1464 (31.6 dB).
CHAPTER 3: AMPLITUDE AND ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS
1. Frequency
spectrum shown in fig. A 7.
Minimum cut-off frequency = fm, maximum = 2fc - fm
(i) ¢1 = 0 (ii) ¢1 = '11'/2
153
Spectral amplitude
A7 for answer 1
2. v0 = J,(cos w1 t - 0.25 cos 3w 1 tl cos 6wct
= " [cos (W 1 + llwcl t + cos Cw 1 - 6wcl t - o. 25 { cos (3w 1 + 6wcl t

+ cos(Jw 1 - 6wclt} J
(a) v 0 = J, {cos w1 t - 0.25 cos 3w 1 t}
(b) v 0 = '-[cos (w 1 + 6wc )t + cos (w 1 - 6wclt - 0.25 {cos (3w 1 +6wclt
+ cos(3w 1 - llwclt}]
Sketches of v 0 for llwc = o, 2n x 20 are shown in fig.AS
ltf\1. . Fig. AS for answer 2
3. (a) OUtput voltage= A { (3 +cos wmtl 2 + sin 2wmt }J,
=A /10 { 1 + O. 6 cos Wrot } l:!
(b) Amplitude of second harmonic = o.0711AJ
Ratio of Wm to 2Wm content = 22.5 dB
4. (a) OUtput voltage = A { 1 + '-m2 + m cos Wrot} J,
(b) Ratio of Wm to 2wm amplitudes = 8/m
(a) Power in sidebands = 9.697 kW

(b) Transmitted power = 34.091 kW
6. Cal PT == n1PdCl -n 1 l
Pc = n 1 PL/{Cl + J,m 2 l (1- n 1 l} , Ps = J,m2 n 1 PL/{Cl+l,m 2 l Cl-n 1 l}
(b) PM = Ps/n 1 n 2
154
7. (a) v 1 '"vin2 .. "- { 1 +~cos 2(1ilc + lilm)t +~cos 2(1ilc- lilm)t +
cos 2 lilmt + cos 2 lilct ~
(b) v ..
- "'
cos lilt 2
m cos 1ilCt
.. .! cos lilmt(l + cos 211lct>
a
vo = i1 cos lilt
m
a. (a) Unmodulated amplitude =~(A

max + Amin)
(b) m = (Amax - Amn

i )/(Amax + Ami )
n
9. Sketches of detector voltage output shown in fig. A 9
t:
v
1·
I 15"\, "1. I
0 HT,n Tm
11. OUtput voltage from filter .. aA 2 { vm + ~v! ~
12. (a) 10.1003 to 10.1034 MHz.
(ii) - cos(lilc + OOm)t
n
ii\+f,.} '"2fc
I J lr
-f.. ,,.. D 2fc z~•t,.
• f
-t"
I J It,
,.
Spectral noise power density from multiplier from final filter
m.
(a)
_]_ .1+ l~
from multiplier
r--1 -2,-fc.....,1. f
from final filter
(b)
Fig. AlO for answer 13
155
13. (a) Output signal-to-noise ratio = Si/KfM, Noise power
spectra shown in fig. A lO(a)
Noise power spectra shown in fig. A lO(b)
14. Detected voltage output
v 0 = [{1 + ~m cos(wmt + ~c- ~u> + ~m cos(wmt + ~l- ~c>} 2

+ ~m 2 {sin(wmt + ~l- ~c>- sin(wmt ~ ~u + ~cJZ]~
There is zero distortion if ~u + ~l = 2~c
Since v 0 "'1 + m cos { ~c- ~(~u + ~ 1 >} cos { wmt + ~<~ 1 - ~u>}
output signal is reduced by cos { <!>c - ~ (~u + ~l)} factor.
A minimum value occurs when~ u = 100°, ~l = 60° , ~c = 20°,

thus signal reduced by cos 70° = 0.342 or 9.32 dB.
15. v 0 = Vm cos wmt x (square wave at frequency w0 )

. 31 l cos 5w t - ••• )
= Vm cos wmt 7r (cos w0 t - cos 3w 0 t + 5 0
= 2 ~m [{cos (w 0 + Wrolt + cos(w 0 - Wmlt}- t{cos(3w 0 + Wrolt +
cos (3w 0 - Wmlt} + ••• ]
16. Foro< wm ~ w1 : output= A(l + m cos Wmtl
for w1 < wm < w2 : output .; { A 2 (1 + ~m 2 ) + A2m cos wmt}
"' A (1 + ~m cos ~t) for m2 « l.

Demodulator and equalizer responses are shown in fig. A 11.
Voltage Gain
~~,~---------~5~~ MHz
Demodulator (b) Equalizer
Fig. All for answer 16
17. VB= 5.169 v, frequency deviation = 59.66 kHz.
16. Peak phase deviation = K radians

Peak frequency deviation = (KWm/2n) hertz
156
v = t£ = ImWc [ 1 -(~) sitl Wmt ]cos (Wet + K cos~JJmt)
Depth of modulation = KWmfwc.
19. Carrier amplitude= A J0 (0.l) = 0.9975 A
Sidebands at We ± Wm A J 1 (0.l) = 0.05 A
A J 2 (0.l) = 0.00125 A
-5 A
A J 3 (0.l) = 2.083 x 10
20. Cl - J 02 (5)) x 100 = 96.85'
21. (a) 24.6' (b) 95. 9'

Frequency spectrum of f.m. wave shown in fig. A 12
-90-75-60-45-30-15 fc 15 30 .45 60 75 90 kHz
Fig. Al2 for answer 21
22. (a) v 0 = cos wet + M sin Wmt sin Wet
.; { 1 + M2 sin 2 1Jlmt} cos {wet + tan -l (M si~t)}
= cos(Wct + M sinWmt)
(b) v 0 = .; { 1 + M2 cos 2 ~t/w.r: } c:os {Wet + tan- 1 (-M cos IJlmt/IJlm)~
instantaneous frequency = fc + (M/21T) sin wmt
23. (a) K/21T = 20 Hz , K/IJlm .. 0.2
(c) lm1 f 1 - f 01 , 20 m1
100.8 MHz , 61.44 kHz , 614.4 rad.
24. v 0 • ~ AB sinC~ 1 - ~2 )
If ~1 = O.lsin Wmt , ~2 =0 , v0 = ~ AB sin(O.lsi~ 1JJmt) •
AB(O.lsin Wmt) ~
i.e. proportional to the phase modulating signal.
157
26. {a) Components at o, 20, 40, 60kHz ••• with zeros at 200kHz,
400kHz ••••
Bandwidth 'V 200 kHz.
(b) Components centred about 10 GHz at intervals of 1 kHz,

with zeros at± 1 MHz, ± 2 MHz ••••
Bandwidth 'V 2 MHz.
(c) Components centred about 100 MHz at± 10, ± 20, ± 30kHz ••••
Bandwidth 'V 2(fD + fm) = 2(75 + 10) 170kHz.
{d) Components centred about 100 MHz at ± 5, ± 15 kHz

fD = 5fm so bandwidth 'V 2(fD + fm) 2 X 6 X 5 = 60 kHz.
(e) Bandwidth required 'V 24 x 4 = 96 kHz.
CHAPTER 4: PULSE AND PCM MODULATION SYSTEMS
1. The frequency spectra are shown in fig. A 13
~ b {':/\.
0 *•""f., 2f,. 3f,.. 0 *"' *• 1,+1,.
(a) f1: 2f.. (b) f,: 2·5f,..
Recovery may be obtained in cases (a) and (b) using a low-pass
filter of bandwidth 0 to fM.
2. Sampling frequency = 8 kHz

T =~ X (125/960) = 0.065 ~s
3. (a) 8 kHz (b) 10 MHZ (c) 17.8 kHz

The frequency spectrum of the PAM signal is shown in
fig. A.l4.
Bandwidth of low-pass filter : 0 to 1 MHz.
ISd'Y?D.~.
0 1 2
3 4 5
"'•
158
4. Minimum sampling frequency, fs = 2(5f 0 - f 0) =8 f 0 hertz
An impulse train of frequency fs has the form,
s(t) = K(l + 2 cos wst + 2 cos 2wst + ••• )
so an expression for the sampled waveform is
v 0 (t) s (t) { cos w0 t + cos 3w 0 t + cos 5w 0 t }
K {cos w0 t +cos 3w 0 t + cos5w 0t
+ 2 cos wst(cos w0 t + cos 3w 0 t + cos SW 0 tl + ••• }
Hence v 0 (t) contains frequency components at
w0 , 3w 0 , Sw 0 t, ws ± w0 , ws ± 3w 0 , ws ± SW 0 , 2ws ± w0
A sketch of the frequency spectrum is shown in fig. A 15.

Minimum bandwidth of bandpass filter = 4f 0
5. Frequency spectrum is shown in fig. A 16

Maximum amplitude of spectral component =
Tfs lsin(~nw s T)/(~nwT s >I
6. (a) Minimum sampling rate 2 x 4f 0 = 8f 0 Hz

commutator speed 8f 0 rev./s.
wcl = wo , wc2 2w 0 , w
C3
= wo , w = 4w
c.. 0
(b) A suitable mechanical commutator is shown in fig. A 17.
v3
Fig. Al7. for answer 6
7. The signal waveform sketches are shown in fig. A 18
159
f n 0
0t t f=",.
p n a n,t
r=====-==: t
(a)
r D

(b)
0 0 tt
f;_,.,----•t
(c)
8. A sketch of the comparator output voltage is shown in fig. A 19.
0 o.t
9. Quantized amplitudes are 7, 5 and 2 V,
Binary representation : 0111, 0101, 0010.
10. a = 3 = 0011 , b =5 = 0101 , c = 11 = lOll ,

d = 13 = 1101 , e = 10 = 1010.
A sketch of the PCM waveform transmitted is shown in fig. A 20
_J uro u u uL
00110101101111011010
-a ..... b-+-c-+- d ... -e ...
12. 10 MHz , maximum bit duration = 3.33 ns ,

gross bit rate = 300 megabits per second.
13. ± 0.15 ms
160
Spectrum of PDM wave similar to a PAM wave with a component
at wm and double sideband components at nws ± wm centred
about harmonics of the sampling frequency.
vPPM =To[l+
TS
Spectrum of PPM wave has spectral lines at harmonics of

sampling frequency and each of these lines is accompanied
by a multiple (f.m. type) of sidebands: nws ± wm ,
nw ± 3w ••• etc.
s m
15. 25
16. 8 kHz , 1.536 Megabits/s. Max. bit duration T = 0.651 ~s
Bandwidth~~ (1/T) =~ x 1.536 = 0.768 MHz ,assuming shape

of a square wave 101010 binary signal is approximately
preserved by transmitting fundamental frequency component ~(1/T)
only. If receiver designed so that it functions by

recognising solely whether a net positive (1 digit) or net
negative (0 digit) is present then bandwidth may be reduced
significantly to ~ 0.07/T = 0.107 MHz.
17. Sampling frequency = 10 MHz ,

Number of quantization levels 512 0
18. Sampling rate =8 kHz

Maximum commutator dwelling time = 125/60 2.083 ~s
Number of quantization levels = 2 7 = 128

Gross bit rate =7 x 60 x 8000 = 3.36 Megabits/s
-wT
19. T + 2/wc(e c - 1) > 0 which on solving numerically gives
WeT > 0.41. Hence channel bandwidth fc > 0.07/T Hz.
20. 612 kHz.
161
CBAPJ!ER S : TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES
1. (a) P • 0.1667 1 S = 1.4

(b) V at load and ~). intervals from load, ). = 0.6 m.
max
vmax = 26.46 v.
Vmin at~). 1 \)., 5/4).ooo from lOado Vmin = 18.90 V.
2. (a) zi = 1.33Zc , IPia 0.1429, s = 1.333

(b) zi = (l+j2)Zc , IPI = o.707l , s = 2.414
(c) zi = zc , IPI = o , s • 1
(d) zi = 4zc , IPI = o.6 , s = 4
3. (a) vp = 1.2816 x 108 m/s , ). = 2.563 m. (b) 1 2 = 0.637 m.
4. Power dissipated in Y2 = 56 W
Power dissipated in Y3 = 227 W
s. p = -(0.2 + j0.4) , s = 2.62

Position of electric field minimum= tan- 1 2 x). /4~ = 12.22 mm
q
Position of shunt stub is across load. Normalized susceptance
= -1.
6. zc = as n , o.1s1 ).
Power to load with transformer = o.s W
Power to load without transformer = 0.3831 W
7. b1 • -bL + (l±I~Cl+tan 2 Bd)qL-q~tan 2 Bd}]/tanBd

b2 = [±l~qL(l+tan 2 Bd)-q~tan 2 Bd} -qL]/qLtanBd
b1 • o.s , b 2 = -1 or b 1 = 2.1 , b2 = -3
8. Width of stripline = 9.43 mm. Loss = 0.443 dB/m.
9. € ~ /2~1(l+tan 2 6>-l}~ ~ ~ICE € ~ )tan6

a = wl(€ roo~
roo
a~ wl(€r€o~o>{l~tan 2 6}. 431.4 dB/km.
162
' Q = 'IT/a'A
The equivalent circuit of the stripline filter with element

values is shown in fig. A.21 L1 =zhal 1 /w, c 2=al 2 /wz 1 ,
L 3 =~al/W
ll )~ H b
12. (a) v = ( ..£.
e: 0
x ..£.1og- sin(wt-az>
21T ea
volts per metre.
(b) Total current on inner conductor = total current on outer

conductor = H sin(wt-az> amperes.
0
(c) watts
13. 1 1 (llo)~ b
a= RS(a + b)/2 ~loge a nepers per metre.
0
zc = 77 n (when b/a = 3.6)
2P ;llo ~
14. E
y <-
ab e:
-> sin (wt-az>
15. (a) a I (e: e: Jl w2-'IT 2 /a 2 )

r o o
(b) p ~2ab _a_
WJlo
16. (a) Purely transverse (in y direction), amplitude= A

(b) H10 :purely axial (in z direction), amplitude= aaA/'IT
163
H20 tranf!lverse (in x direction) 1 amplitude = A
H30 axial (in z direction), amplitude= SaA/3~
17. 190.5 kV/m. E

max = 197.8 kV/m, Emin = 183.2 kV/m.
Peak reflected pulse power = 147.9 W
18. Phase delay of carrier, 131 • 23706.9 rad.

-2
Relative phase shift of upper, lower sidebands '"' ±8. 32Xl0 rad
19. The following 14 modes may propaqll'te:

9 10' 9 20' 9 01' Ell' 9 11' E21' 9 21 1 9 30' E31' H31' 9 40' 9 02' El2'
9 12•
20. (a) H20' 8 01' E21-H21 •

(b)
HlO' 6 20' 8 3o•
(c) 8 01' 9 41' 9 o2·
-jiiJl.lo e-jaz
21. E .. - s i n k x for o E; x E; t
y kl 1
.T
jlllll
A sin { k2 (a-x) } e -j az for t< x4t a
2
22. (a) watts.
2
(b) a .. k IIIJllo aa
Rs-c nepers per metre.
Ez -=0 at raa and r=b.
For H IIX)des, Ee ex: A J 1 (k r) +B Y 1 (k r) • use fact that

1111 me me
E9-=0 at r=a and r=b.
24. (a) a 01
164
(b) F~damental mode is a11 : fc = 10.97 GHz. Next higher
order mode is E01 : fc = 14.3 GHz. Thus guide may be
operated under single moded conditions from 10.97 to
14.3 GHz.
(c) Six : 8 11' EOl' 8 21' 8 01' Ell' 8 31•

2
25. Q = 24orr logftb/a
R5 {A0 (~+ ~)+ *logeb/a}
CHAP.fER 6 : ANTENNAS
1. 2'JTrsin8rd8 watts
2. (a) h
e
.., 1
I sin2Sh
f. h I sinS (2h-y) dy
1 when 2Sh« 1
Ssin2Sh [ cosSh - cos2Sh] "' \11
(b) 1
1 =-
e Im
i I:!A
2'JTl
I cosC-r-)dl
-"A m
=-
A
'IT
3. E 2 f"AI....£ !. !2- cos c2'JT1 >

ll
dl 2.765 mV/m.
0
e:
0
2h A
4. Power density, p = 0.3316 lJW/m2

Electric field strength, E = 11.18 mV/m.
Received power, PR = AeP = 0.4974 lJW
5. E(S,r) = f"A 5
6orr 2'1T1 2'1T
2(Ar Imcos-r-)cos(T 1 cos8)d1
'IT
60 I cos <2 cos8)
=--
r
m
sine
165
Power required 456.25 w
6. Power density, p 0.03961 ~W/m2
Maximum receiver power, PR = (V2 /4Rrl={(2E) 2 /4X70} = 0.213 ~W
Overall transmission loss = 10 log(4 2x70/PR) = 97.21 dB
7. E = l.009a mV/m (assuming no tuning of the frame antenna)

E may be determined from
V. = V /10 5 = 3Xl0- 6 = Ri /f{(WL) 2+(R. +WL/Ql 2 }x(n~)

1 o n 1n A
6
where Rin = 100 Q , w= 2~x1.2x1o , L = 100 ~H, n = 10,
2
A = 0.3 , A= 250 m.
a. vmax = Q(T
2~
E A.n) = 2.513 mv.
The radiation diagram of V V 9 is shown in fig. A.22,

v = Vmaxcos9
Wave --~
direction ~ =~
Plan view of
antenna
Fig. A22 for answer a
9. Field intensity E « cos{I(l6 sinS' + ll}
(a) e• = sin- 1{1~(2n-lt; e• = 3.5ao, lo.al 0 ,la.21°, 25.94°,

43.43°, 54.34°, 69,63°.
(b) 9I = Sin- 1{ l~ (n-lt; 9I 0, 7 ,laO t 14, 4a0 t 22,020 t 300 t
3a.6a0 , 4a.6°1 61°, goo.

Sketch of radiation diagram is shown in fig.A.23.
Beam-width = 76-65 = 11o.
166
for answer 9
10. (a) E 2E0 cos(~ cos~), see fig.A.24a
~
(b) E 2E0 cos(2 cosS) cos(~ sinS), see fig.A.24b
sine
110° o•
270° 270°
(a) Horizontal plane E v ~ (b) Vertical plane E v 6
11. (a) 15 = 'IT/212 1.111 rad.

(b) cS = 7r/2 1.571 rad. Beam-width between nulls 218.94°
o•
6:1-111 rad
12. 15 =2 ~
rad, beam-width between nulls = 156.9°
13. E (~) ex: 2 cos { r<cos~-1)}
167
Field pattern with 10% unbalance
E' <<P> a: !1+1.1ej1jll = I { (1+1.1 cos1jl) 2+(1.1 sin1jl> 2 }.w = I(cos$-1)
Fig. A26 for 13

1T
14. E a: cos 2(4 cos8-l) is
(a) Zero at 8 = 0°, 60°, 90°, 12cP

(b) A maximum a t e . 41.4°, 75.520, 104.4SO, 138.6°
The radiation pattern E2 v 6 is sketched in fig.A 27
9• ...
Fig. A27 for 14
where w1 = 2(cos6-l),
11'
w2 = 1f (1- 3 sinS) , 1jl 3 = 1T (~- 3 sinS+ ~ cosS)
Fig. A28 for 15
The radiation pattern IEI 2 v e is sketched in fig.A 28
168
16. (a) (95-j2o> n, 1o n, 35 n
(b) 47.5%, 35% 17.5%
(c) Gain = 3.15 (5 dB)
17. For field E (cp) a: Il I (1- lz 1 21 ej1/J~

z22
18. (a) P1
(b)
19. Input impedance of each dipole = Z11+Z12 (6o+jl4> n

(a) -jl4 n (b) 268.3 n
2 4
20. Received power =...;:;o_......,,......._
G cosec e•
X
cosec 4 e•
0
G2
0
=--4 as r = h cosece'
cosec e•
0
hence received power is independent of range.
21. IE (cp) I = kii{ 20+ 30 cos1/J+ 12 cos21jl+ 2 cos31/J}

21T
where 1jJ = T d coscp -o
o=0 for broadside , o = 2~ d for endfire
Respective beam-widths are 52° , 110o.
169
0.886A 51A 0
22. Beam-width
nd rad or "'nd
Side-lobe levels of largest and second largest subsidiary

beams are l0log(3/2~)2 = 13.46 dB and lOlog(S/2~)2 = 17.90 dB
sin <r L sinS)

23. (a) E (8) /E
max ~
X" L sinS
[•in (;A
2
(b) E(8)/Emax 2 2~
L sin!ll]
T L sine
(~/2) 2 cos<r L sinS)

(c) E(8)/Emax = 2 ~ 2
('JT/2) - <r L sinS)
24. Power gain, G = 4~ x (~R2 ) where R = 1.5 m, A = 0.1 m for

A
antenna described. Thus G = 8882 (39.5 dB)
Normalized field pattern= 2 J 1 (~D sin8/A)/(~D sinS~,
D = diameter, and first zero occurs when J 1 (~D sinS/A) = o at
~D sinS/A = 3.83. This gives 8 = 2.33°, so beam-width = 4.66°.
CHAJ?TER 7: SHORT WAVE., MICROWAVE AND RADAR SYSTEMS
1. 298.8 km.
12 12 3
2. From O.l975Xl0 to O.Ol23Xl0 electrons/m •
fMUF = fccosec6 = 9fNmcosec6 , range= 221.7 km
Maximum range = 1800 km.
3. (a) 232.5 km (b) 13.0 MHZ
4. 4294 km.
170
Amplitude of received electric field = 2E
=:
5. cos~~
2 2 2 2 2 2 21T (6h 2)
where~ {4-l<h +r /16>}-: {2-l<h +r /4>} + 6 "'T r-+6
Fading rate = -E sin~~ ~ "' -E sin (2,1T + ~6) 24 !!!;.

Ar k
dt A
2 hlh2
6. Resultant voltage at receiving antenna« sin(;r--r--)
where h 1 = 200 m, r = 10 km, A = 3 m and when h 2 is varied

voltage reaches a maximum at 37.5 m, 112.5 m, 187.5 m••• and is
zero at 75 m, 150m, 225 m•••
7. 5.066 w, 19.18 mw.
8. 1265 w.
9. 28.8 km.
10. 1.019 MW
11. (a) 2.222 kHz. (b) 43.75 m.
12. Range 2 km, velocity 83.4 m/s.
13. Form of signal received from target: sin{w0 (t-T)+f0 /fMsinwM(t-T)}
where T = 2r/c
Form of difference frequency output cos{w0 T+2f0 /fMsin~MTcosWM
(t-~T)}
Average value
14. (a) 1.12 kHz, 672 kHz.

(b) 1.07 m.
171
APPENDICES
Al TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
sinA sinB = ~{cos(A-B) - cos(A+Bl}

cosA cosB • ~{cos(A-B) + cos(~+Bl}
sinA cosB • ~{sin(A+B) + sin(A-s>}
cos 2 x = ~(l + cos2x) , sin 2 x = ~(l - cos2x)
cos x = ~(ejx + e-jx)
sin x = .!.__ (ejx - e -jx)

2j
A2 FOURIER SERIES
(a) E:r:pansions fo:r some useful functions
full wave rectified sine wave
l f(tl
f"t
-T -~T 0 ~T T
f (t) = ! - ~~
~
[! cos2wt + !..
3 15
cos4wt + !.35 cos6wt+ •••• J
half wave rectified sine wave
(\
f (t) = ~!. + ~ sinwt - J
! [: cos2wt + !.15 cos4wt + !.35 cos6wt +••• J
w 3
symmetric al square wave

f(t)
- +1 ~
t
-T -~T 0 ~T T
-1
173
1
-
1
f(t) "" ; [ coswt - cos3wt + - cosSWt - -cos7wt + •••• ]
7
lw(t]
pulse wave train
•T•
0 0
-2T -T
0 0
T 2T
.. t
00
f(t) =! + 2T~sin(~nwT) cos nwt

T T (~nwT)
n=
impulse train of unit strength
IS (t+2T) IS (t+T) f (t} IS (t-T) IS (t-2T)

~)
f(t) = ~ + ~ [ coswt + cos2wt + cos3wt + ••• J

saw-tooth wave
f (t) = i[sinwt - ~sin2wt + tsin3wt - hin4wt + •••]
triangular wave
f (t) =7[ coswt + tcos3wt +rlcosSWt + ••• J
174
(b) SUrmrazry of r>esul.ts fOl' signata possessing IJY1"1'6'try
Type of symmetryj Form of series I Fourier coefficients
L
co
Even
f (t) - f (-t) ~ao + ancosnwt
4~ltr f (t) cosnwt dt
8.n == -T o
n•l
co
Odd 4~~T f(t)
f (t) ., -f (-t) Lbnsinnwt bn =T 0 sinnwt dt
__ n=l
4~~T f
L{
co
Half-wave a 2n_ 1cos(2n-l)wt

~
n-1
=T o
(t)cos (2n-l)wt d t
.1
f(t) = -f(t+~T
n•l
+ b 2n-l sin (2n-l)wt1 b 4~ltr f(t)sin(2n-l)wt
=T dt
I
2n-l o
TABLE AP 1
A3 FOURIER TRANSFORMS
(a) Propel'ties
f(t) F(W)
Linearity a1f1 (t) + a2f2Ct) a1F1 (W) + a2F2(W)
f(t-t 0 F(W) -jwto

Time shift )
Scaling f(at) 1 F(w)

1a1 a
Duality f(t) F (W)
F(t) 2'11"f (-w)
Frequency
translation f(t)ejwct F (w-w0 )
differentiation
~t [f<t!] jWF(W)
~;(tctu (jW)nF(W)
Interqration J: f(t) dt ~W F(W)
Multiplication f1 (t)Xf2 (t) ;'lff!l (W-x)F2 (x) dx
Convolution
theorem
j[00~(t-x)f2(x)dx F1 (W)F2 (W)
TABLE AP 2
175
(b) Some Fouriero tmnefom pa.i.roe
f(t) F(W)
il!•t
Rectangular pulse
T sin(~T)
(~T)
.. T sinc(fT)
A,
Triangular pulse
T sin 2 (~)
(lmlilT) 2
• T sine (fT)
2
$: --¥::'
(a)
a+ jw
2a
(b)
(a) (b) 2 2
a+ w
Exponential pulses
=t:,
Constant
2'11'6(00)
-):$) (a) 1
. .t ._,
t t t e-jwto
(a) (b) o (b)
IJII)ulse (delta function)
(a) -j'll'6 Cw-wc> + j'll'6 Cw+wc>
(b) '11'6 Cro-w ) + '11'6 (lil+wc)

(a) sin wet (b) cos wet
ej Cwct+cjl) 2'11'ejcjl6 (w-wc)

Phasor
TABLE AP 3
176
A 4 TABLE OF SINC and SI FUNCTION VALUES
sine x sinc 2x sin u

--
Si (x) =
X sin 1Tx -(~)2 u
= 1TX 1T X
u fs'1n u du
0 u
o.o 1 1 o.o 1 0
0.2 0.935 0.875 0.2 0.993 0.200
0.4 o. 757 0.573 0.4 0.974 0.397
0.6 0.505 0.255 0.6 0.941 0.588
0.8 0.234 0.055 0.8 0.897 o. 772
1.0 0 0 1.0 0.842 0.946
1.2 - 0.156 0.024 1.2 0.777 1.108
1.4 - 0.216 0.047 1.4 o. 704 1.256
1.6 - 0.189 0.036 1T/2 0.637 1.370
1.8 - 0.104 0.011 1.6 0.625 1.389
2.0 0 0 1.8 0.541 1.506
2.2 0.085 0.007 2.0 0.455 1.605
2.4 0.126 0.016 2.2 0.368 1.688
2.6 0.116 0.014 2.4 0.281 1.753
2.8 0.067 0.004 2.6 0.198 1.800
3.0 0 0 2.8 0.120 1.832
3.2 - 0.058 0.003 3.0 0.047 1.849
3.4 - 0.089 0.008 1T 0 1.851
3.6 - 0.084 0.007 21T 0 1.419
3.8 - 0.049 0.002 31T 0 1.675
4.0 0 0 41T 0 1.492
co 0 0 co 0 1T/2"'1. 571
TABLE AP 4
A 5 BESSEL FUNCTIONS
(a) Values of Jn(:x) foro orodero n = 0 to 6
Values of Bessel function of first kind J n (x) for

Order
n X= 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0.7652 0.2239 - 0.2601 -0.3971 -0.1776 0.1506

1 0.4401 0.5767 0.3391 -0.0660 -0.3276 -0.2767
2 0.1149 0.3528 0.4861 0.3641 0.0466 -0.2429
3 0.0196 0.1289 0.3091 0.4302 0.3648 0.1148
4 0.0025 0.0340 0.1320 0.2811 0.3912 0.3576
5 0.0003 0.0070 0.0430 0.1321 0.2611 o. 3621
6 0.0002 0.0012 0.0114 0.0491 0.1310 0.2458
TABLE AP 5
177
Jo (x) 2.405 5.520 8.654 11.792 14.931
J 1 (x) 3.832 7.016 10.173 13.324 16.471
J2. (x) 5.136 8.417 11.620 14.796 17.960
J 3 (x) 6.380 9.761 13.015 16.223 19.409
J., (x) 7.588 11.065 14.373 17.616 20.827
J s (x) 8.771 12.339 15.700 18.980 22.218
zeros Xm of J 1 (x)
n
x.,
J o I (x) 3.832 7.016 10.173 13.324 16.470
(also at O)
J 1 I (x) 1.841 5.331 8.536 11.706 14.864

J 2. I (x) 3.054 6.706 9.969 13.170 16.348
J 3 I (x) 4.201 8.015 11.346 14.586 17.789
TABLES AP 6
(c) Sel'iea fol'ITIUla and appro:x:imations foro Jn(:r:)

xn [ x2. x"
Jx•--1 - 2 +
n( ) 2nn1 2 (n+l) 2.2" (n+l) (n+2)
so J 0 (x)"' 1- (x/2)2. 1 Jn(X)"' ~ (x/2)n.
n·
Jn (x) = .t(rr!) cos (x - n1T/2 - 1T/4) 1 x ::. 1
178

R. G. Meadows (Auth.) - Electrical Communications - Theory, Worked Examples and Problems-Macmillan Education UK (1976)

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R. G. Meadows (Auth.) - Electrical Communications - Theory, Worked Examples and Problems-Macmillan Education UK (1976)

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ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATIONS

Theory, worked examples

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

First published 1976 by

SBN 333 18182 4

This book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the Net

This paperback edition is sold subject to the condition that it

1. SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM RESPONSE 1

1.1 Theory summary 1

2. Fourier Series Frequency Spectra of Periodic Signals 1

(a) Real form of the Fourier series

(b) Exponential or complex form of the Fourier series

(c) Normalized power of a periodic signal:

3. Fourier Transforms: Frequency Spectra of

(a) Development of Fourier transform from

(b) Normalized energy of a non-periodic

4. The Determination of System Response using

5. Cross- and Auto-correlation of Signals 8

1.2 WOrked Problems 10

1.3 Exercise Problems 19

2.1 Theory SUmmary 25

3. Available Signal and Noise Powers 25

(a) Standard ambient temperature, T0

(b) Effective noise temperature of a source, TS

6. Noise Factor or Figure 28

7. Noise Factor and Temperature of Cascaded Networks 29

2.2 Worked Problems 30

2.3 Exercise Problems 34

3. AMPLITUDE AND ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS 38

(a) Double sideband amplitude modulation

(b) Suppressed carrier and single sideband modulation

2. Angle (Frequency and Phase) Modulation 40

(b) Bandwidth of an f.m. wave

3. Frequency Division Multiplexing 42

3.2 Wbrked Problems 43

3.3 Exercise Problems 51

4. PULSE AND PCM MODULATION 60

4.1 Theory Summary 60

1. Pulse Amplitude and Pulse Time Modulation 60

(a) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

(b) Pulse time modulation (PTM)

2. Sampling and Recovery Theorems 61

(a) Sampling theorem 1

(b) Sampling theorem 2

(c) Coding and decoding

4. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 64

4.2 Worked Problems 65

4.3 Exercise Problems 73

5. TRANSMISSION LINES AND 1'7AVEGUIDES 79

5.1 Theory Summary 79

1. Transmission Line Equations 79

2. Steady State Solutions 80

3. Parameters of Terminated Lines 82

(a) Reflection coefficient

(b) Input impedance

(c) Standing waves and voltage standing wave ratio

4. Field Solutions for Coaxial Lines and Waveguides 88

(a) Coaxial lines

(b) Parallel plate stripline

(c) Rectangular waveguides

(d) Circular waveguides

5.2 Worked Problems 92

5.3 Exercise Problems 99