Wastewater treatment techniques:

Sand filtration and sedimentation

Introduction

Satisfactory disposal of wastewater, whether by surface, subsurface methods or

dilution, is dependent on its treatment prior to disposal. Adequate treatment is necessary to
prevent contamination of receiving waters to a degree which might interfere with their best or
intended use, whether it be for water supply, recreation, or any other required purpose.
Wastewater treatment consists of applying known technology to improve or upgrade the
quality of a wastewater. Usually wastewater treatment will involve collecting the wastewater in
a central, segregated location (the Wastewater Treatment Plant) and subjecting the wastewater to
various treatment processes. Most often, since large volumes of wastewater are involved,
treatment processes are carried out on continuously flowing wastewaters (continuous flow or
"open" systems) rather than as "batch" or a series of periodic treatment processes in which
treatment is carried out on parcels or "batches" of wastewaters. While most wastewater
treatment processes are continuous flow, certain operations, such as vacuum filtration, involving
as it does, storage of sludge, the addition of chemicals, filtration and removal or disposal of the
treated sludge, are routinely handled as periodic batch operations.
Wastewater treatment, however, can also be organized or categorized by the nature of
the treatment process operation being used; for example, physical, chemical or biological.
Examples of these treatment steps are shown below. A complete treatment system may consist
of the application of a number of physical, chemical and biological processes to the wastewater.

Some Physical, Chemical and Biological Wastewater Treatment Methods:

Physical

Chemical

Sedimentation
Screening
Aeration
Filtration
Flotation
Degassification

Chlorination
Ozonation
Neutralization
Coagulation
Adsorption
Ion Exchange

Biological

Aerobic
Activated Sludge
Trickling Filtration
Oxidation Ponds
Oxidation Ponds
Lagoons

Anaerobic
Anaerobic Digestion
Septic Tanks
Lagoons

Equalization

Aerobic Digestion

Sand filtration
The sand filter is an environmentally-friendly wastewater treatment method, which is
relatively simple and inexpensive. Its principle involves percolating water through a sand bed.
Schematically speaking, grains of sand form a layer which is penetrated by the water
and which will stop larger particles in the intervals between grains acting like a simple sieve.
Smaller particles will also be retained by the wall effect on the grain surface when they touch a
grain as they pass through the filter.
The smaller the diameters of the grains, and hence the longer particles remain in the
filter, the higher the filters stopping power will be.
There are three types of sand filtration :
- Rapid sand filters : Rapid sand filters need to be cleaned frequently, by back washing, which
involves reversing the water direction.
- Semi-rapid sand filters.
- Slow sand filters.
The first two require pumps and the use of chemicals (flocculation principle). A
flocculent is used which, through a chemical principle, traps suspended matter and particles to

form large flakes which are deposited by sedimentation. (Sedimentation means that suspended
particles stop moving and settle).
Unlike other sand filtration methods, slow sand filters use biological processes to
clean water, and are non-pressurised systems. They can treat water and reduce the presence of
micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses, microbes, etc.) without the need for chemicals and, if
necessary, using a layer of activated carbon.
Slow sand filters do not require electricity to operate.

Slow Sand Filter

The slow sand filter is the oldest type of large-scale filter. In the slow sand filter, water
passes first through about 36 inches of sand, then through a layer of gravel, before entering the
underdrain. The sand removes particles from the water through adsorption and straining.

Unlike other filters, slow sand filters also remove a great deal of turbidity from water
using biological action. A layer of dirt, debris, and microorganisms builds up on the top of the
sand. This layer is known as schmutzdecke, which is German for "dirty skin." The
schmutzdecke breaks down organic particles in the water biologically, and is also very effective
in straining out even very small inorganic particles from water.
Maintenance of a slow sand filter consists of raking the sand periodically and cleaning
the filter by removing the top two inches of sand from the filter surface. After a few cleanings,
new sand must be added to replace the removed sand.
Cleaning the filter removes the schmutzdecke layer, without which the filter does not
produce potable water. After a cleaning the filter must be operated for two weeks, with the
filtered water sent to waste, to allow the schmutzdecke layer to rebuild. As a result, a treatment
plant must have two slow sand filters for continuous operation.
Slow sand filters are very reliable filters which do not usually require
coagulation/flocculation before filtration. However, water passes through the slow sand filter
very slowly, and the rate is slowed yet further by the schmutzdecke layer. As a result, large land
areas must be devoted to filters when slow sand filters are part of a treatment plant. Only a few
slow sand filters are operating in the United States although this type of filter is more widely
used in Europe.

Number of slow sand filters operating in each state as of 1991. (Sims)

Rapid Sand Filter
The rapid sand filter differs from the slow sand filter in a variety of ways, the most
important of which are the much greater filtration rate and the ability to clean automatically
using backwashing. The mechanism of particle removal also differs in the two types of filters rapid sand filters do not use biological filtration and depend primarily on adsorption and some
straining.
Since rapid sand filters are the primary filtration type used in water treatment in the
United States, we will discuss this filter in more detail.

A diagram of a typical rapid sand filter is shown above. The filter is contained within
a filter box, usually made of concrete. Inside the filter box are layers of filter media (sand,
anthracite, etc.) and gravel. Below the gravel, a network of pipes makes up the
underdrain which collects the filtered water and evenly distributes the backwash
water. Backwash troughs help distribute the influent water and are also used in backwashing
(which will be discussed in a later section.)
In addition to the parts mentioned above, most rapid sand filters contain a controller,
or filter control system, which regulates flow rates of water through the filter. Other parts, such
as valves, a loss of head gauge, surface washers, and a backwash pump, are used while cleaning
the filter.

Operation of a rapid sand filter during filtration is similar to operation of a slow sand
filter. The influent flows down through the sand and support gravel and is captured by the
underdrain. However, the influent water in a rapid sand filter is already relatively clear due to
coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation, so rapid sand filters operate much more quickly than
slow sand filters.

Sedimentation
Purpose
Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity of the water is lowered
below the suspension velocity and the suspended particles settle out of the water due to gravity.
The process is also known as settling or clarification .

Settled solids are removed as sludge, and floating solids are removed as scum.
Wastewater leaves the sedimentation tank over an effluent weir to the next step of treatment. The
efficiency or performance of the process is controlled by: detention time, temperature, tank
design, and condition of the equipment.
Most water treatment plants include sedimentation in their treatment processes.
However, sedimentation may not be necessary in low turbidity water of less than 10 NTU. In
this case, coagulation and flocculation are used to produce pinpoint (very small) floc which is
removed from the water in the filters.
Location in the Treatment Process
The most common form of sedimentation follows coagulation and flocculation and
precedes filtration. This type of sedimentation requires chemical addition (in the
coagulation/flocculation step) and removes the resulting floc from the water. Sedimentation at
this stage in the treatment process should remove 90% of the suspended particles from the water,

including bacteria. The purpose of sedimentation here is to decrease the concentration of

suspended particles in the water, reducing the load on the filters.
Sedimentation can also occur as part of the pretreatment process, where it is known
as presedimentation. Presedimentation can also be called plain sedimentation because the
process depends merely on gravity and includes no coagulation and flocculation. Without
coagulation/flocculation, plain sedimentation can remove only coarse suspended matter (such as
grit) which will settle rapidly out of the water without the addition of chemicals. This type of
sedimentation typically takes place in a reservoir, grit basin, debris dam, or sand trap at the
beginning of the treatment process.
While sedimentation following coagulation/flocculation is meant to remove most of the
suspended particles in the water before the water reaches the filters, presedimentation removes
most of the sediment in the water during the pretreatment stage. So presedimentation will reduce
the load on the coagulation/flocculation basin and on the sedimentation chamber, as well as
reducing the volume of coagulant chemicals required to treat the water. In addition,
presedimentation basins are useful because raw water entering the plant from a reservoir is
usually more uniform in quality than water entering the plant without such a holding basin.
The rest of this lesson will be concerned with sedimentation following coagulation and
flocculation. We will consider types of sedimentation basins and parts of a typical sedimentation
basin, as well as the disposal of sludge.
Types of Basins
Three common types of sedimentation basins are shown below:
Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water to
flow horizontally through a long tank. This type of basin is
usually found in large-scale water treatment plants.
Rectangular basins have a variety of advantages - predictability,
cost-effectiveness, and low maintenance. In addition,
rectangular basins are the least likely to short-circuit, especially
if the length is at least twice the width. A disadvantage of
rectangular basins is the large amount of land area required.
Double-deck rectangular basins are essentially two rectangular
sedimentation basins stacked one atop the other. This type of
basin conserves land area, but has higher operation and
maintenance costs than a one-level rectangular basin.

Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are

often known as clarifiers . This type of basin is likely to have
short-circuiting problems.
A fourth type of sedimentation basin is more complex. Solids-contact clarifiers , also known
as upflow solids-contact clarifiers or upflow sludge-blanket clarifiers combine coagulation,
flocculation, and sedimentation within a single basin. Solids-contact clarifiers are often found in
packaged plants and in cold climates where sedimentation must occur indoors. This type of
clarifier is also often used in softening operations.

Zones
Introduction
All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the settling zone, the sludge
zone, and the outlet zone. Each zone should provide a smooth transition between the zone
before and the zone after. In addition, each zone has its own unique purpose.
Zones can be seen most easily in a rectangular sedimentation basin, such as the one
shown below:

In a clarifier, water typically enters the basin from the center rather than from one end
and flows out to outlets located around the edges of the basin. But the four zones can still be
found within the clarifier:

Inlet Zone
The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute
the water and to control the water's velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices act to
prevent turbulence of the water.
The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be evenly distributed across the width
of the basin to prevent short-circuiting. Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance in which
water bypasses the normal flow path through the basin and reaches the outlet in less than the
normal detention time. We will discuss short-circuiting in the next lesson.
In addition to preventing short-circuiting, inlets control the velocity of the incoming
flow. If the water velocity is greater than 0.5 ft/sec, then floc in the water will break up due to
agitation of the water. Breakup of floc in the sedimentation basin will make settling much less
efficient.
Two types of inlets are shown below. The stilling wall, also known as a perforated
baffle wall , spans the entire basin from top to bottom and from side to side. Water leaves the
inlet and enters the settling zone of the sedimentation basin by flowing through the holes evenly
spaced across the stilling wall.

From: Water Works Operator's Manual

The second type of inlet allows water to enter the basin by first flowing through the
holes evenly spaced across the bottom of the channel and then by flowing under the baffle in
front of the channel. The combination of channel and baffle serves to evenly distribute the
incoming water.
Settling Zone
After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity
is greatly reduced. This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make up the
largest volume of the sedimentation basin. For optimal performance, the settling zone requires a
slow, even flow of water.
The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some cases,
tube settlers and lamella plates, such as those shown below, are included in the settling zone.

Tube settlers and lamella plates Water flows up through slanted tubes or along slanted plates.
Floc settles out in the tubes or plates and drifts back down into the
lower portions of the sedimentation basin. Clarified water passes
through the tubes or between the plates and then flows out of the basin.
Tube settlers and lamella plates increase the settling efficiency and speed in
sedimentation basins. Each tube or plate functions as a miniature sedimentation basin, greatly
increasing the settling area. Tube settlers and lamella plates are very useful in plants where site
area is limited, in packaged plants, or to increase the capacity of shallow basins.

Outlet Zone
The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin - both the
amount of water leaving the basin and the location in the basin from which the outflowing water
is drawn. Like the inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent short-circuiting of water in
the basin. In addition, a good outlet will ensure that only well-settled water leaves the basin and
enters the filter. The outlet can also be used to control the water level in the basin.
Outlets are designed to ensure that the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin has
the minimum amount of floc suspended in it. The best quality water is usually found at the very
top of the sedimentation basin, so outlets are usually designed to skim this water off the
sedimentation basin.
A typical outlet zone begins with a baffle in front of the effluent. This baffle prevents
floating material from escaping the sedimentation basin and clogging the filters. After the baffle
comes the effluent structure, which usually consists of a launder, weirs, and effluent piping. A
typical effluent structure is shown below:

The primary component of the effluent structure is the effluent launder, a trough
which collects the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin and directs it to the effluent
piping. The sides of a launder typically have weirs attached. Weirs are walls preventing water
from flowing uncontrolled into the launder. The weirs serve to skim the water evenly off the
tank.
A weir usually has notches, holes, or slits along its length. These holes allow water to
flow into the weir. The most common type of hole is the V-shaped notch shown on the picture
above which allows only the top inch or so of water to flow out of the sedimentation
basin. Conversely, the weir may have slits cut vertically along its length, an arrangement which
allows for more variation of operational water level in the sedimentation basin.
Water flows over or through the holes in the weirs and into the launder. Then the launder
channels the water to the outlet, or effluent pipe. This pipe carries water away from the
sedimentation basin and to the next step in the treatment process.
The effluent structure may be located at the end of a rectangular sedimentation basin or
around the edges of a circular clarifier. Alternatively, the effluent may consist of finger weirs,
an arrangement of launders which extend out into the settling basin as shown below.

Sludge Zone
The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge
collects temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent resuspension of
sludge.
A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from the
tank. The tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate sludge removal.
In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously using automated equipment. In other
plants, sludge must be removed manually. If removed manually, the basin should be cleaned at
least twice per year, or more often if excessive sludge buildup occurs. It is best to clean the
sedimentation basin when water demand is low, usually in April and October. Many plants have
at least two sedimentation basins so that water can continue to be treated while one basin is being
cleaned, maintained, and inspected.
If sludge is not removed from the sedimentation basin often enough,
the effective (useable) volume of the tank will decrease, reducing the efficiency of
sedimentation. In addition, the sludge built up on the bottom of the tank may become septic,
meaning that it has begun to decay anaerobically. Septic sludge may result in taste and odor
problems or may float to the top of the water and become scum. Sludge may also become
resuspended in the water and be carried over to the filters.
Sludge Disposal
Sludge Composition
The sludge which is found in the bottom of a sedimentation tank is primarily composed
of water. The solids in the sludge are mainly excess coagulant, such as alum. Alum sludge has a
solids concentration of only about 1% when automatically removed from the basin, or about 2%
if manually removed. (The greater solids concentration of manually removed sludge is due to a
small amount of gravity thickening.)
Many options exist for disposal of sedimentation sludge. Here we will discuss disposal
in streams, sanitary sewers, lagoons, and landfills.
Disposal in Streams and Sewers
In the past, sludge and backwash water was typically released into streams and other
bodies of water. However, this practice is becoming much less common and is now well
regulated. Backwash water and sludge can only be released into streams if a discharge permit
has been granted by the NPDES. The NPDES further requires extensive daily monitoring of the
water quality when the sludge is being discharged.
Alternatively, sludge may be piped directly to the sanitary sewer. However, this
disposal option also has its disadvantages. Sludge can cause sewer blockages. In addition, fees
charged by the wastewater treatment plant can be expensive. Releasing sludge into the sewage
lines in large batches makes treatment of the wastewater problematic, so sludge is typically
released slowly over a long time period, which requires a large holding tank at the water
treatment plant.
Thickening Sludge
Most of the other alternatives require transporting sludge away from the treatment
plant. Sludge is typically dried before it is trucked away since the greater volume of wet sludge
makes it much more expensive to transport. This drying process is known

as dewatering or thickening . Alum sludge is difficult to thicken, but a variety of devices have
been developed to thicken the sludge, some of which are explained below.
In many cases, the sludge is treated by the addition of polymers to aid in the dewatering
process. Alternatively, the sludge can be heated or frozen and thawed to increase the solids
concentration. Treating the sludge to aid in thickening is known as conditioning the sludge.
Once the sludge has been conditioned, it may be thickened in a lagoon, drying bed, or
one of several other devices.

Lagoons, which are small-volume storage ponds, are the

simplest device used to thicken sludge. These lagoons
are filled with sludge and the solids are allowed to
settled due to gravity to the bottom of the lagoon while
the clear water is pumped off the top.

After a few months, gravity and evaporation will have reduced the sludge to a 30-50%
solid state. The sludge can then be covered with soil and left on site, or may be trucked to a
landfill off-site.

Drying beds are often used to thicken

sludge destined for a landfill more quickly
than the sludge would be thickened in a
lagoon.

A drying bed is similar in design to a sand filter, with a layer of sand underlain by a
layer of gravel. The sludge is applied to the top of the sand and the water percolates down
through the sand and gravel and is drained away. When the sludge is sufficiently dry, it is
carefully removed from the top of the sand and is trucked to a landfill. When sludge is
preconditioned with chemicals, dewatering in a drying bed may take only a few days or weeks.
Other processes used to thicken sludge include filter presses, belt filter presses,
centrifuges, and vacuum filters. These processes result in sludge with a solids content ranging
from 30 to 50%.

Conclusions
Effective waste-water collection and treatment are of great importance from the
standpoint of both environmental and public health. Extensive research activity in this field has
led to significant improvement and diversification in the processes and methods used for wastewater treatment and sludge management.
The present study begins with brief descriptions of the various technologies commonly
used for waste-water treatment and indications of the estimated costs associated with each. The
following section presents a brief overview of the application of instrumentation and control for
process operation and monitoring at wastewater treatment plants. Lastly, the status of wastewater treatment and waste-water reuse in selected ESCWA countries are discussed. It is clear
from this survey that the ESCWA region would be well advised to strive to improve its wastewater reuse and establish information networks for the transfer and sharing of technology and
experience.
In recent years, there has been growing interest in waste-water reuse as a major
component of water demand management. While many ESCWA countries reuse treated wastewater for agricultural purposes, governments must address the issue of waste-water reuse as part
of an integrated water management strategy, at the basin level, with multi-disciplinary
coordination among various sectors including environment, health, industry, agriculture and
municipal affairs. In this context, public health hazards are often associated with waste-water
reuse, and consequently it is essential to disseminate knowledge and information about the
danger of raw waste-water reuse and issue safe reuse guidelines. Most importantly, governments
must regulate and monitor effluent quality, reuse practices, public health, crop water quality and
soil and groundwater quality.
Developments in waste-water treatment and reuse practices in the ESCWA countries
could be facilitated through the creation of an information network, which can serve as a forum
for the exchange of information and knowledge about applied research in the realm of wastewater management and practices appropriate to the developing world. Such a network must be
broad in scope, addressing various aspects of waste-water management, including appropriate
and affordable waste-water collection, treatment and disposal technologies and practices as well
as the planning and regulation issues that are fundamental to waste-water management. It should
be capable of accommodating various activities, including: summarizing and disseminating
relevant information on research in the field; maintaining current information on research,
studies or projects undertaken by network members; presenting relevant information on available
training courses; responding to requests for information from network members; organizing
online discussions among network members; and maintaining and expanding waste-water
management information with electronic access
Finally, it would clearly be desirable to mount a data-gathering campaign aimed at
addressing the current lack of information about waste-water treatment costs in the ESCWA
region. In view of the fact that actual treatment costs are significantly influenced by site-specific
characteristics and country conditions, this issue could best be approached through field surveys
of waste-water treatment plants operating in selected ESCWA countries. A model survey
questionnaire covering data of relevance for a comprehensive assessment of waste-water
treatment costs is found in Annex III. It is worth noting that cost estimates for advanced
treatment technologies (namely, reverse osmosis, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and so on) can
sometimes be obtained more readily from similar surveys targeting industrial facilities in Europe
and the United States, since municipal WWTPs utilizing such state-of-the-art technologies are
rarely encountered in ESCWA countries.