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Lamouri SAHRAOUI
Crisis: A rethinking about the relationship between Public

Relations, Communication, and Environment
KHALDI SOUAD
Les changes verbaux entre norme et ralit
Cas des tudiants maliens de luniversit de Khenchela.
HASSANI Rima Aida
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Morocco suffered during the sixteenth to the crisis of foreign interference in its internal affairs
century and manifested particularly in the growing imperialist invasion of Alatlentih its shores,
which had a serious dimensions and implications for the Moroccan society on the one hand and
on the political structure of the state of Morocco as a whole. If the State Aloutasah has
demonstrated its inability to meet the new challenges, and the expulsion of an alien and restore
security and stability to throughout the Kingdom, the pan Moroccans have shown more than
once complained of the new situation and the inability of the ruling power in the face of it, Vatjht
their sights towards Saadia state taken it will increase in the south of Morocco came to bear the
banner of jihad, and mobilized motivation to face the enemy Ibero enabling it to power and
development methods, especially after that succeeded in freeing a number of stomata territories.
On this basis, this article tries to approach the new relationship that linked the state Urban Saadia
in Morocco in historical circumstantial hypersensitive society and try to identify the most
important changes that touched the structure of this society and the role that foreign played in
this transformationP
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FAOUZIS.M.H /sociologie politique colonial du Maroc-cas de michaux bellaire.afrique orientcasa Blanca 1988.
J.BERQUE :oulmas : fondateurs ;insurges du Maghreb au XVII siecle.Ed sindibad 1983.

Terrasse H, Histoire du Maroc des origines l'tablissement du Protectorat, Casablanca,
r11
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- Drague G, - Esquisse d'histoire religieuse du Maroc, Paris, 1951, p.50.r15
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P14
bellaire.afrique orient-casa Blanca 1988.
J.BERQUE :oulmas : fondateurs ;insurges du maghreb au XVII siecle.Ed
P15
sindibad 1983.
Terrasse H, Histoire du Maroc des origines l'tablissement du Protectorat,
17.
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Casablanca, T.2, 1950, p.

Drague G, - Esquisse d'histoire religieuse du Maroc, Paris, 1951,
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Abstract
This study aims to reveal the level of burnout and its relationship with performance among
civil protection assistants, the sample was 210 assistant selected In stratified random sample
method. As a research-tool we used a questionnaire after confirming the psychometric
properties. After the statistical analyses the study concluded that the level of burnout is low
among the sample, and there is no relationship between burnout and performance, and there are
significant differences in burnout level due to civil status and experience.
Key words: Burnout, Organizational performance, The agent of civil protection.
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Rsum :
la notion du droit la qualit de vie ne se concrtise que si les individus bnficient
suffisamment de leurs droit et liberts ce qui rend leur vie plus prospre. et la scurit humaine
contribue a la concrtisation le droit la qualit de vie; toute en offrant aux individus la
possibilit dexercer leurs droits et liberts. De plus elle leur permet de mener une vie avec
dignit, et assurer la viabilit de cette vie pour les gnration futures.
La scurit humaine comme un concept multidimensionnel protge les individus contre
toute menace sociale; politique et environnemental et leur permet de bnficier de leurs droits et
liberts et ce pour une vie meilleur7
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Conventional Protection for the Place of Business

The elements of the place of business, physical and moral, are very important for the merchant,
because they contain the trade secrets of great value, so he is trying to keep his business in order
not to lose the advantage of the exclusive on it. For his side, the Emirati legislator has provided
a legal protection for these elements from the assault, and has authorized the merchant to put
restrictions and conditions in the agreements in order to maintain the said elements.
In this research we examined the most important agreements that seek the merchant to bind the
other Contracting Party in order to safeguard the elements of business, including the
conventional protection through agreements and the conventional protection through noncompete clause, and conventional protection through condition of licensing and leasing of
subcontractors. At the end we found that the Emirati legislator has organized some of these
conditions, but it needs to be modified in some circumstances, such as to confer greater
protection to those elements.
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Rsum :
la russite du processus dinnovation de l'entreprise est relie la mise la
disposition de tous les moyens et les ressources ncessaires. Parmi ces moyens les
plus importants figure les ressources humaines qui doivent tre formes et
qualifies afin de se tenir au courant des volutions. La formation continue des
ressources humaines est considre comme le moyen le plus important pour
fournir une catgorie de comptents capables de se mettre au courant de ces
volutions et l'adaptation aux conditions de concurrence dans l'environnement de
l'entreprise.
Mots-cls: Formation - Les ressources humaines - L'innovation - Les petites
et moyennes entreprises.
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3- JOEL STRIEF, plan et besoin de formation, ed Eska, paris, 1993.

Malcolm Gladwell, Spark of innovation, educationbrodcating corporation new York,
www.thertenn.org, 2004.
5- Marjolaine de Ramecourt ,Franois Pons, linnovation tous les tages, Comment associer
les salariers une dmarche dinnovation, Edition dorganisation, Paris, 2001.
6- Neil Glass, management "les 10 dfis", traduit par Tyacklignot, Edition dorganisation,
Paris,2000.
7- Sekiou et autre, Gestion des ressources humaines, ed De Beock universit, Cannada, 2001.
8- Sheila Martin, Innovation: Oregon innovation index , Oregon economic and community
Develepenents.
institute
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best case , and it works to achieve and the provision of local needs and the pursuit of citizen
participation in the formulation of policy community to prepare local development
plans. However, the elected councils facing obstacles challenge of achieving their plans and
adversely affect its performance. These obstacles are mainly in their relations with the central
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Approved Algerian legislature, his French counterpart, in this recent attention to the protection of
fundamental freedoms, and are important guarantees that were specialized by the urgent
administrative judge but , so Article 920 of the Code of Civil Procedure and administrative No.
08-09 of 23 February 2008 stipulates that in the direct state public entity or entities that are
subject to prosecution to the jurisdiction of the administrative jurisdictions in the exercise of its
powers and affecting so fundamental freedoms of individuals, these may have recourse to the
urgency judge to provide the necessary protection, and by providing request includes directing
something for management to stop the violation.
Such a request by sue urgency to stop the implementation of the resolution containing the
prejudice to the fundamental freedoms, and can identify the most important conditions to be met
to accept the suit urgency to protect the fundamental freedoms: the case of urgency, and there is
an appeal against the administrative decision, compromising the basic freedom, that this is a
serious prejudice and illegal.
Thy Key words : fundamental freedoms- necessary protection- case of urgency- compromising
the basic freedom .
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Abstract:
This study sought to identify the reality of management creativity in terms of its components and
its practice from the viewpoint of educational leadership programs for gifted students in the
Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The population of the study and educational leaders appointed
from all the administrators of gifted programs in the eastern region during the academic year
34/1435 and the sample of the study consisted of (219) school principals who represented
(87.4%) out of (111) school principals during the academic year 2010/2011. and the
questionnaires lost (14). For the purpose of data collection, a tow main - domains questionnaire
covering Management Creativity was developed, Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for all
the main domains of the questionnaire was respectively (0.82), (0.85). Findings of the study
revealed that the degree of practice for all categories of study ranged (0.856-0.390) and
correspond to high degree of practice, and the revealed that the degree of administrative
innovation was (3.30) and corresponds to the medium degree. Based upon the study findings the
115
researcher recommended creating the conditions for the material and moral assistance to refine
the elements of administrative creativity in school environment for gifted students programs3
Kay words: Educational Leaders, Gifted programs, Academic services
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Athanasoula, A., Reppa, A., Makri, E,. Kalliopi, B and Psycharis, S. (2010). School
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Abstract
This study aimed at identifying the impact of religious and social children stories on the
development of creative thinking skills in preschool children in Al Qaseem zone.
The sample of this study consists of (92) school students of "Noor al-Oloom" of
elementary level, Al Dorra private kinder garden, and Al ghad model school.All of them
are located in Bareedah governorate in Al Qaseem zone.
This sample has been divided into three groups; two experimental groups, and one
control group. On the first experimental group, we applied telling religious stories, on the
second one telling social stories is applied, and finally on the third group, no story telling
is applied. Afterwards, all three groups were subjected to Tornes test for creative
thinking; formalism image.
As a result, the study indicated that there were differences in the development of creative
thinking between the two experimental groups on one hand and the control group on the
other.
In favor of the two experimental groups; the study indicated that there were statistically
significant differences in the level of creativity and in its two dimensions (flexibility and
fluency). In addition, the results came in favor of the first experimental group (the
religious stories) over the second (social stories) in the development of creative thinking
skills in preschool children in Al Qaseem zone.
140
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Below and Mary Eleanor (1997) .Creative Reading Materials and the Development of
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163
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L'objectif de notre tude c'est de dcouvrir les difficults d'valuation de notre
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les outils d'valuation et l'autre concerne le classement des lves selon leurs
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d'valuation de nos coles.
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12- Bloom, B. & Broder, L. (1958) < Problem-solving processes of college students > Chicago,
Illinois, University of Chicago Press.P46
13-. Bloom, B. et al. (1985) < Developing talent in young people >. New York, Ballantine. P16
14- Krathwohl, D. R. (2002) < A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy: An Overview > Theory into
Practice, 41 (4).PDF P42
15- ROBBES, Bruno q2009o,< La pdagogie diffrencie : historique, problmatique, cadre
conceptuel et mthodologie de mise en oeuvre > Universit de Cergy-Pontoise/ IUFM de
Versailles.p65
16- Rust, J. & Golombok, S. (1995): <Modern psycometrics, the science of psychological
assessment>. London; Routledge
<>1 K IL
17-http://www.fair Test Principles and Indicators.htm.15/03/2013-20h, 25mns
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Abstract
The study aimed at investigating the predictive validity for both general secondary test and the
cumulative average of the university competence test at Jordanian university. The study sample
consisted of (3119 ) students, all of them were taking the (mid test) in three majors ( education,
engineering, and management). the results showed that the cumulative average was the most
explanation for students 'performance in the competence test with statistical significance level
(a=0.05) than general secondary average in the three majors, as well as the results showed that
there are differences in the predictive ability of the general secondary average( GSA) and
cumulative average( CA) of the university competence test in its new image( mid-level)
according to gender. The differences of the correlation between the GSA and the university
competence test were for female, as well as the differences of the correlation between the
university cumulative average and competence test were for female.
Keyword: - predictive validity - cumulative average in the university- general secondary
certificate - university competence test
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The systematic criticism of the science of history in the Ayyubid period

in the studies of Orientalist, Hamilton Gibbs
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Abstract
The study by the British Orientalist, Hamilion AR Gibb (1895-1974) of the science of history
represents one of the significant turning points in the evolution of historical writings of Muslim
historians during the reign of the Ayyubid state. Gibb researched the development of the science
of history in the Ayyubid reign through some studies. He reviewed the efforts of the most
prominent Muslim historians during the reign of the Ayybid state.
Being one of the most moderate and objective among the Orientalists in his generation, Gibb
tried to formulate an objective approach to the study of the evolution of the science of history in
the Ayyubid state, which is regarded as the most important contribution by the British Orientalist
school.
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1- Gamal el-Din el-Shayyal, "IbnWasil ",EI2, Vol.III.

2- Gibb,H.A.R., ' Notes on Arabic for the History of the Early Crusades',BSOS,1935,Vol.7.
3-"Abd al- Hamid b.yahya", EI2, Vol.1.
4-'Review of Grousset 's Histoire des Croisades'BSOS,1932,Vol.8.
5- Hartog.P.J,"The Opening Ceremony", BSOS, 1917-1920, Vol. 1 .
6- Holt,P.M. ," Some Observations on Shafi' b. 'Ali's Biography of Baybars".JSS,
Vol.XXIX,1984,. Three Biographies of al-Zahir Baybars, In D.O. Morgan, Medieval
Historical Writing in Christian and Islamic Worlds,London ,SOAS,1982.
7- Hurewitz, J. C. ,"World politics in the Study of Middle East", in Th. De Bary and Other (ed.).
Approaches to Asian Studies, (New York. Columbia University press,1961) .
8- Irwin,Robert, Mamluk History and Historians.in Roger Allen and D. S. Richards (eds.)
Arabic Literature in the Post-Classical Period, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
9- Lambton, A.K. S., A."Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb", BSOAS, 1972, Vol. XXXV.
10- Makdisi,G, "Sir Hamilton Gibb", JAOS, 1973, Vol. 93.
11- Zwer,S., 'Review of Nicolson 'Literatary History of the Arabs',MW,1930,Vol.21
219
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Abstract
May not be an exaggeration if we say that wars and economic crises swapped roles for rocking
and influence by man Morocco catalysed, what inflicted damage Eana and static in anytime,
anywhere, such as famine, epidemics and diseases, high prices and low quality of life Zayani,
generally wars and raids medieval have harmed the domain of agricultural, and trimmed payoff
of Lete by looting cattle and burning of veterans of agricultural crops, and vandalizing of fields .
There is no doubt that the periodicity of these conditions, and persistence led to reduced
plantings and this has resulted in a comprehensive economic degeneration due to lack of
production, causing a severe impact on the members of the community Morocco East food
crises. Which led to a decline in the agricultural and pastoral activity, because the peasants are
threatened by hunger and bankruptcy at any moment passes their army and destroy their crop,
then infected with hunger and food shortages and find themselves unable to pay off their rent or
taxes .
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Summary:
* a &$> @
A return to religious heritage and inspired, the characteristic that

differentiated hair Abdullah Issa lhailh in its concerns, associated with the search
for the identity of the Algerian case literature heritage, creative energy engagement
reflected in multiple attempts have gained importance through its association with
the political and cultural reality of the nation. I've gone to religious heritage poet
for examination and study, was present in his writings in various forms, and then
kept looking for the foundations to develop and enrich the way try to understand
the past and retained by the formation of the present and the future through
conversation across religious memory of the nation. We hope this approach
uncover manifestations of religious heritage to the poet, and the mechanisms
employed in work?.
Keywords: heritage, religion, nation, religious memory, creativity.
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Rsum:
Les rseaux sociaux tel que: Face book, My space et Twitter sont des applications lies la
deuxime gnration du web web.2.
Ces rseaux ont particip la cration dun environnement dchange social parfait entre les
usagers, en fondant des relations sociales dans un contexte virtuel qui dpasse les limites spatiotemporelles.
Nanmoins, lusage excessif de ces rseaux menace le systme des relations sociales en
isolant lusager de son environnement social.
X ")
\ Les sites des rseaux sociaux
\ Le systme des relations sociales

/'
\ Les relations virtuelles 4 $ 5
\ La communication sociale 3
\ Lisolement social
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This article deals with the Destructive effects of the structured and complex
criminal phenomenon its organized crime, which is embodied in many different
criminal activities such as smuggling, illegal trade of weapons, money laundering,
counterfeiting, human trafficking, cyber-crime organization and others, where then
shed light on the social effects, cultural, social, and security on individual Algerian
social reality .of the all the contents of this reality of the social dimensions
reflected on his social life and individual, as well as on the social fabric, which is
part of it, and that by showing the reality of this activities of each of smuggling and
money laundering, and trafficking in human beings "Children kidnapping" and the
electronic organized crime "in Algeria, address the effects of these criminal
activities on the overall reality of the members of " victims ", as well as their
effects on individuals" involved "who engage in this type of criminal acts, and by
this various aspects of this social reality.
Keywords: organized crime, social reality, smuggling, money laundering, human
trafficking.
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1. Pradel, J.: Les rgles de fond de la lutte contre le crime organis, Vol11-3,lectronic journal of
comparative Law, dcembre 2007, article113-32, p5.www.ejcl.org.
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Rapportant ,O.N.U . New York ,2004,p5.
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note N 134, paris, 2008, p02.
4. Pouline, P.: Le crime organis :uneressource pour ltat ? , Revue perspectives Internationale,
01, janvier-Mars, 2012, p102.
5. Chatterjee, J. : La transformation de la structure des groupes du crime organis, G.R.C, canada,
2005, p07.
6. Brodeur, J-P.: Le crime organis, in: crime et scurit ltat de savoirs, Qubec, 2002,p02.
7. Rodier, A. :Op.cit.P03.
8. Pradel, J.:Op.cit, II.
9. D. Porteous. S : tude dimpact du crime organis, points saillants, Ministre des travaux publics
et services gouvernementaux, canada ,1998 .PII.
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A journalistic treatment of the private Algerian press to the internal crises: an analytical study of
a sample of some papers of El Khabar newspaper about the shale gas
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In times of crises and internal issues, the mass media and communication are considered
as one of the most important sources the public can rely on to get information and news, and they
have two roles; the first one is positive and it ensures complete and balanced coverage to the
crisis, however the second one is negative and it distorts the facts and provides incomplete
treatment to the event far from objectivity and credibility. The Algerian press has always been
present in various internal crises, but this presence was sometimes positive and negative in other
times as well ,and one of the events that occurred recently is the exploitation of the shale gas
which agitated the public opinion and pushed the population of the south to do protests against
this exploitation for the sake of preserving the environment and protecting its water resources,
thats why well highlight in this article the performance of the Algerian press depending on the
model of the daily newspaper El Khabar and analyze its content on the shale gas file and its
effectiveness in the management of this internal crisis, therefore well ask the following
question:
How did El Khabar newspaper manage the exploitation of the shale gas file in Algeria?
Key words: journalistic treatment, Private Algerian press, internal crises, shale gas file.
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Summary :
The present article investigates the characteristics of the clear governmental regress that
characterizes the majority of governing leadership bodies. The developed countries promote a
methodology of leadership that works towards the sustainable development of their people and
the generations to come. Meanwhile, the leadership of Arab nations at large and Algeria in
particular are taking steps back because of a generation of bureaucrats who practice negatively
the management of affairs. What is the way out of this, where is the truth? This humble article
tries to shed light on this issue following an analytic descriptive approach.
Key words:
The leadership. Public Policy. The Executive council, Public Policy Making. Opinion Public
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Ltude des valeurs requiert aujourdhui une importance en raison des tensions et des
mutations que connaissent les socits contemporaines dans le cadre dune globalisation qui fait
rejaillir la fois, et paradoxalement, la tendance des particularismes culturels et celle de leur

uniformisation. Les valeurs oprent dans le cadre dun territoire normatif, pour guider les
comportements et les pratiques aussi bien collectives quindividuelles dans une socit donne. Il
nest point surprenant aujourdhui de voir les chercheurs, sociologues et philosophes, sintresser
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abol alla al maari est parmi les poetes qui ent donn une importenee particulier letter hunan
travers ses poemes qui incarne dans son bureau du cubtus est tomb par consquent voulu
difuser ses aids et ses rflectins et les phelosophies qui daluites bogo de contacte avec cette
ralites si plein de tristes et les angoisseses et les douleurs, il connaissait la ralite de monde et
de la vie et la mort le temps et mme les femmes; dane cherch les blmer et a essay de sorti
leur volent et essay d'tablir l'ide femmes de les retarder de pote nglig cette aid sur les
femme? Quelles sont les raisons pour eur de rester loin et blm
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Summary
There are some acts which the Algerian Ligistlator does not take into consideration interms
of criminilizing them in punitive texts, with respect to the family crimes. This later can be
considered as a legal vacum.One of the most important issues that are not criminilized is the non
respect of the established measures in case of artificial insemination surgery and its effects on
family ties with regard to the Mixing Genealogy , unlike some other Maghrebian ligistlations that
criminilized it.and thus requires the Algerian ligistlator to tackle these intersting issues within the
comparison laws ; concerning how to adopt the abuses and to what extent the penal protection can
be achieved among the unfair behaivior happened .
Key words ; pnal responsabilit .artificial insemination surgery. family ties .
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AKIDA mohamed
la responsabilit pnale des mdecins du chef dhomicide et de blessures par
imprudence thse Lyon 1994m
RIVILLARD jean pierre, linsemination artificielle d embryoun.solutions et perspectives en droit interne et

en droit compare ,et les droits de l homme devant la vie et la mort , Colloque de bensancan, 1974, Rev droit
de l homme, P 365 .
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- RIVILLARD Jean pierre, linsemination artificielle d embryoun.solutions et perspectives en droit interne et

en droit compare ,et les droits de l homme devant la vie et la mort , Colloque de bensancan., 1974, Rev droit
de l homme, P 365 .
5
- AKIDA Mohamed la responsabilit pnale des mdecins du chef dhomicide et de blessures par
imprudence thse universite , Lyon 1994 p 104.
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Local Participatory Management Mechanism to Achieve Sustainable

Local Development in Algeria.
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Abstract
Because many policies failed to achieve sustainable development at the local level, it has become
imperative for the Algerian state to activate Local Participatory Management Approach, which
requires the involvement of all actors in the local territory starting from private sector, civil
society down to local citizen and that in the ; planning, execution and evaluation of local
development projects so as to increase efficiency& effectiveness, then get out of the
development dilemma.
Key words : Local Participatory Management, Sustainable Local Development, Participatory
Approach.
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(*) New Public Management.

2
AUDRIA Raphael, New Public Management et Transparence : Essai de Dconstruction dun
Mythe Actuel, Thse Doctorat, Universit Genve, 2004, p233.

3
Ibid, pp257,258.
La Dmocratie Participative du local au global, Rencontre Mondiale, Rabat, Janvier 2008,p

170.
5
LAssociation Internationales des Maires Francophones, La Gestion Participative Guide
lAttention des Collectivits Territoriales, Aout ,2011,p1.
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Mouloud Belaid, les Partenariat Public-Priv : la voie suivre avec rfrence la socit des
Fertilisants dAlgrie (FERTIAL), Revue des Sciences Economiques, Gestion et Sciences
Commerciales, n10,2013, p2.
(**) Partenariat Public-Priv
24
Nicolas BEAUSSE, Michel GONNET, Partenariat Public-Priv en Mditerrane, IPEMED,
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Participatives Dans La Gouvernance Locale, pour une participation citoyenne aux dcisions
municipales, 4 rimpressions, Canada, Octobre, 2007, p35.
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LAssociation Internationales des Maires Francophones, op-cit, pU15
42
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46
47
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44
Ibid, p7.
Ibid, pp8,9.
43
Ibid, p15.
Ministre de lIndustrie, de la Petite et Moyenne Entreprise et de la Promotion de

lInvestissement, op-cit, p23.
48
Suely Maria Ribeino Leal, Modles de dcentralisation et de Dmocratie Participative dans La
Gestion Locale au Brsil, Document de discussion, N68, UNESCO, 2004, pp7
49
Marie-Hlne Bacqu, Yves Sintomer, Gestion de proximit et Dmocratie participative ,
Les Annales de la Recherches Urbaines, N90, pp149, 150.
50
Suely Maria Ribeino Leal, op-cit, pp8,9.
51
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Abstract:
This study aims to investigate the role of Cultural Diversity in shaping The Work Values
by measuring The Hofstede national culture dimensions and Super's work values and how much
they differ between Algerian and Cuban employees, also measuring the relationship between this
two variables. We used The National Culture Dimensions survey and WVI Super's Work Values
Inventory to collect data, the participants were 26 Algerian and 38 Cuban employees work at
The ophthalmology friendship hospital Algeria-Cuba in Djelfa city Algeria. The results shows
that there are a similarities and differences between Algerian and Cuban employees in national
culture and work values dimensions, also there is a relationship between this two variables, we
also find that there is an impact of nationality and national culture interaction on Work Values.
Key Words: Cultural Diversity, National Culture, Work Values, Hofstede, Super, cooperation,
Algeria, Cuba.
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Badis, B. (2013). Facteur culturel et pratiques contables en algerie. El-Bahith Review(13).

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Cette tude vise trouver l'esthtique du lieu dans le voyage de Abdullah Rkibi la ville
brouillard (london) et d'autres villes, et ses images merveilleuses avec sa densit psychologiques
associs l'emploi esthtique du lieu et de la capacit de recrer avec une manire artistique
qu'ils investissent des facteurs psychologiques et autres cratifs.
ainsi, la formation de l'endroit est bas dans le texte du voyage sur les progrs en cours de
transfert partir de l'image physique, dans un format de texte cohrent a ses propres
particularits qui le rendent plus efficace et ouverte la signification et la multiplicit des
lectures.
Le transfert des dtails de l'endroit physique rvle le lien de texte du voyage avec dautres
contenus multiples culturels et historiques, sociale. ce genre du texte dpasse ses frontires
physiques la parole de souvenirs principale, et l'association de lecteur.
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Criminal protection of the human body from the crime
of trafficking in organs Under the law 09/01
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Summary: Trafficking in human organs a real humanitarian tragedy, a global crime that entails
serious social, health and economic impacts, so the international community has always to pay
attention to the fight against this heinous and reduce crime, and issued many countries,
especially the fight against this crime, legal texts, due to their special nature, particularly in
Algeria, and timeliness that is not immune to this phenomenon, we decided that we are exposed
to the study by highlighting the legal aspect of this crime and find out the effectiveness of the
amendment to the Penal Code under the law 09/01 of 25 February 2009, where the offense
Algerian legislature acts of trafficking in human organs in duplicate 1 Section V of the Penal
Code Algerian.
Key words: Members of the body, organ trafficking, human organs.
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3r
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e ( ( @ ?. 03 9(| 1 ) A,
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W87 ^:( &A( $ 1
448
ROYER.J, BITARD.
M,
TRANSPLANTATION
COLLOQUE DE BESANON, 1974.
DORGANES,
RAPPORTS
7-
1
#8 o Z A( # : ^8MC!( 0 LA( J &'( , -. J '<( O + bH V M( P ( 3' P,
d85 N 2010 U ( A + 0M C ( , C( h C
C
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@ I(
P, 8 2
d29 N 2006 C'q V 8 m 8 + ] C
V ! tM
q 3( P + ]
3
$ 8 T$ C &( V
VM ( J &'( ) * + c S Z P 3( > s
d 118 N 2003 H ID M 8 `( g( 6 G( O + )ID ` 3B <( H AD VM ( ! $
4
VM ( p, , g V ! ) * + -<( 0 3 $. 7 ) * + c S Z ) ^ G
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Les Mdias sont considrs comme lun des paradigmes qui assurent la continuation des
civilisations tout en assurant une rception exacte de linformation et des pratiques sociaux, pour
maintenir les relations entre les individus, les groupes et les peuples et tablir le contact
socioculturel.
Le nouveau systme de mdias, avec ses buts pertinents vise dune part assurer une relation
quitable tous les niveaux au lieu dune relation envoi-rception, dautre part maintenir un
systme bas sur des fondations dmocratiques dans un discours planifi entre les pays
dvelopps et les pays en voie de dveloppement qui se manifeste dans une idologie partage
affectant les uns et les autres.
Les nouveaux mdias se distinguent galement par les aspects de linteractivit, la participation
et la propagande, la mobilit et la souplesse, la conservation et la sauvegarde non instantanes.
Par ailleurs, les diffrents mdias ne se basent pas tous sur les mmes techniques : certains sont
directement lies aux anciennes techniques et mthodes, dautres sont bases uniquement sur les
nouvelles mthodologies ou techniques et enfin certaines se basent sur les deux simultanment.
Les mots cls : Les nouveaux mdias Avantages et inconvnients des nouveaux mdias
Internet - Les rseaux sociaux.
455
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Abstract
Ursula Kingsmill hart is the wife of the famous anthropologist David Montgomery Hart. She
accompanied and assisted him in fieldwork in the northern Morocco amongst Rifian tribes. In
this rural area, characterized by a sharp gender segregation, the access to the field and collecting
of data would necessarily be determined by gender to a significant extent. Ursulas mission was
to investigate the world Behind the courtyard door. She was expected to follow strictly the
established data collection rules (But, it clearly appears that the process of data collection was
fundamentally shaped by her gender identity and other personality traits
(Her
fieldwork
experience was marked by friendship and by her intimate engagement with womens daily lives.
This subjective approach revealed the hidden dimensions of the rural womens life in a pivotal
time of Moroccan modern history. It is subjective in the sense that the researcher takes account
of people existential experience and takes part in it using the first-person narrative perspective
to present events (The present study is an attempt to analyze and interpret the ethnographic data
collected by Ursula Kingsmill Hart and the key issues she has identified
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communion.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol 37(2), Oct 1971, p. 270.
4
Chodorow, Nancy. Family structure and feminine personality. In Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo
& Louise Lamphere (eds). Woman, culture and society. Stanford University Press, USA : 1974.
5
Crapanzano Vincent. the Hamadsha. In Nikki R Deddie. Scholars, saints and sufis : Muslim
religious institutions since 1500. University of California Press : USA, 1972, pp. 327-348.
479
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When it happens any accident that touches people physically. it is obligatory for
investigators get help with specific professional experiences . infact ., the most important
experiences for the legal doctor to investigate the crime scene to discover the essential evidences
, in order to know the circumstances of doing the crime and catch the guilty person But the
doctor's analysis of the crime's scene should follow protocols and legal procuderes laws then it
deals with algerian legeslative and legislations alike in their different laws .
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3me dition, Italie, 2014, P03.
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Laboratoire Office des Nations Unies contre La Drogue et le Crime, Scne de
crime et indices matriels Sensibilisation du personnel non spcialis, NATIONS
UNIES, New York, 2009, P12.
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Taylor & Francis group, New York, 2005, P 06.
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:
1. Aric W. Dutelle, An Introduction to crime scene Investigation, Jones and Bartlett

Publishers, USA, 2011.
2. Barry A. J. Fisher, David R. Fisher, Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, Taylor &
Francis Group, 8th Edition, Florida, 2012.
492
3. Stuart H. James,Jon J. Nordby,Suzanne Bell, Forensic Science: An introduction to scientific

and Investigative techniques, Taylor & Francis Group,4th Edition, Florida, 2014.
4. Ian. K. Pepper, Crime Scene Investigation: Methods and procedures,MPG Books Ltd, 2nd
Edition, USA, 2010.
5. Ross. M. Gardner, Tom Bevel, Pratical crime scene analysis and reconstruction, Taylor &
Francis group, New York, 2005.
Wayne Bennett, Kren Hess, Criminal Investigation, Thomson Wadsworth, 8th Edition,
Canada, 2007.
:
1. Alain Gallusser,Monica Bonfanti,Frdric Schtz, Expertise des Armes feu, Presse

Polytechniques et universitaires Romandes, 1erdition, Italie,2002.
2. Alexandre Girod,Christophe Champod,Olivier Ribaux, Traces de souliers,Presse
Polytechniques et universitaires Romandes, 1er dition, Espagne, 2008, P01.
3. Bischoff.M, La police scientifique, Payot, Paris, 1938.
4. Corinne RENAULT-BRAHINSKY, Procdure pnale, Gaulino diteur, Paris, 2006.
5. Jean Claude Martin, Olivier Dcemont, Pierre Esseiva, Alexandre Jacquet, Investigation
de scne de crime, Presse Polytechniques et universitaires Romandes, 3me dition, Italie,
2014.
6. Laboratoire Office des Nations Unies contre La Drogue et le Crime, Scne de crime et
indices matriels Sensibilisation du personnel non spcialis, NATIONS UNIES, New York,
2009,
7. Le Conseil National de lOrdre des Mdecins, Code de dontologie mdicale, Bruxelles,
2014,
493
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Article Title: Role of personal values in guiding organizational behaviour of individuals

Diagnostic Theory Study
ABSTRACT:
This research aims to clarify the role of personal values in guiding organizational behaviour,
being the main pillar of each culture and the most important factor that cannot be overlooked
when analyzing employees organizational behaviour in order to understand and predict it.
Human resource is the most important resource in the various organizational processes, thats
why it is necessary to focus on it in order to understand and control organizational behaviour by
knowing its orientations in accordance with its goals and organization objectivesQ
KEY-WORDS: Personal Values - Organizational Behaviour Individuals
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519
Graphiquue 4 : Les ent

ntreprises quii utilisent less diffrentes activits
a
dans
ns le domainee de managem
ment de
prodduction (en %)
%
G
Graphique
5 : Les caract
tristiques dee la technolog
gie utilise pa
par les entrepr
prises(en %)
Graphiq
ique 6 : Les en
entreprises quui utilisent le
les diffrentess activits dan
ans le domain
ine de rparati
tion et
maintenan
ance des quip
ipements
Gr
Graphique
3-227 : Exprien
ence des entre
reprises dans le
l changemen
ent technologgique (en %)
518
En effet, ccest en acqu

qurant, en ppremier lieu
eu une capaccit dinvest
stissement et de producction que
le secteurr ppourra obten
enir une capa
pacit de chaangement technologiqu
te
ue.
Peut-on exxpliquer la ffaiblesse dee capacits du
d changem
ment technol
ologique parr le temps ncessaire
n
pour y pa
parvenir (enn moyennee les entrepr
prises enqu
utes ont 8 ans dexxistence cee qui est
relativemen
ent court dan
ans la vie du
une entrepri
rise).
Il est doncc importantt dde noter que
ue le process
ssus dacquis
isition CT da
dans le secteu
teur tudi napparat
n
pas dunn seul coup mais est uun processus
us continu qu
ui sinscrit ddans le tempps,
Annexe
Graphiquue 1 : Les ent

ntreprises quii possdent de
des capacitss dans la phas
ase de pr-inve
vestissementt (en
( %)
Graphiq
ique 2 : Types
es dinvestisse
sements matr
riels effectu
us par les ent
ntreprises dura
rant les 5 dern
rnires
annnes (en %)
Graphiquue 3 : Typess ddinvestissem

ements immat
atriels effectu
tus par les en
entreprises duurant les 5 deernires
annnes (en %)
517
Si lon considre lensemble de secteur tudi, on peut relever une faible capacit des entreprises
dvelopper de nouveaux produits. Uniquement un quart de ces entreprises, soit 24 %, arrivent
donner naissance de nouveaux produits. En effet, ces entreprises ont pris conscience de la
ncessit de dvelopper de nouveaux produits. Nous pouvons affirmer que ces entreprises sont
plus l'coute du march que l'ensemble de l'chantillon et elles se placent dans un esprit de
march concurrentiel, ce qui est une attitude relativement neuve en Algrie.
3.3.3. Ladaptation et la modification des machines et des quipements
Ladaptation et la modification des quipements et des procds constituent une activit peu
rpandue dans lensemble de secteur. En effet, 41 des entreprises ont rpondu affirmativement
ce sujet.
Au total, les capacits de changements technologiques demeurent faibles dans le secteur tudi
(tableau 7). Outre ladaptation et la modification des quipements aux conditions locales, les
entreprises nont pas dexprience en matire damlioration et de conception des procds de
dveloppement de nouveaux produits.
Tableau 7 : Evaluation des capacits de changement technologique
Type dactivit
Bonnes
(> 50%)
3/4
1/4
Total
Conclusion
Moyennes
[26-49%]
Amlioration des procds

Conception des procds
Dveloppement de nouveaux produits
Adaptation et modification des quipements
Fiables
[0, 25 %]
F
F
F
Au final, lvaluation des diffrents types de CT dans le secteur chimique et pharmaceutique est
rsume dans le tableau 8 ci-dessous : faible (F), quand le pourcentage dentreprises est infrieur
25 %, moyen (M) quand ce pourcentage varie entre [26-49 %] (M) et bon (B) suprieur 50 %.
Tableau 8 : Evaluation de CT dans le secteur chimie et pharmacie
Types de capacits
Capacits dinvestissement
Capacits de production
Capacits de changement technologique
Bonnes
Moyennes
Faibles
En rfrence aux valuations des CT tablies dans la grille de lecture (cf. figure 1), nous pouvons
dire que le secteur chimie et pharmacie en Algrie a des CT moyennes (M).
Il est noter que seules deux capacits acquises en premier ressortent de cette tude de cas :
linvestissement et la production, alors que le changement technologique reste faible.
Limportance des capacits dinvestissement dans le secteur pourrait sexpliquer en partie par le
programme de restructuration industrielle intensive men par lAlgrie, notamment depuis le
dbut des annes 2000. Il est destin encourager linvestissement priv. Une telle stratgie a
favoris fortement la cration dentreprises et par consquent, beaucoup dinvestissements
dinstallation, quant aux capacits de production elles ont atteint un niveau moyen.
516
auprs des entreprises extrieures, soit quelles se livrent du bricolage maison limitant
les capacits techniques des quipements.
En ce qui concerne la rparation, 28 % des entreprises enqutes estiment avoir une bonne
exprience dans cette activit. On entend par la rparation toute opration de maintenance
effectue aprs dfaillance fortuite des quipements de production. Elle correspond
lentretien traditionnel. En effet, les entreprises en mesure de pratiquer la rparation sont
capables dexcuter des activits telles que le simple rglage prvu par le constructeur, le
dpannage par change standard dlments prvus cet effet, lidentification et le
diagnostic de pannes et, enfin, les travaux importants de rparation.
Pour lentretien prventif, il est pratiqu par 26 % des entreprises enqutes. Il est effectu
dans lintention de rduire la probabilit de dfaillance ou de dgradation de loutil de
production, daugmenter la fiabilit et la dure de vie efficace dun quipement. Cest une
intervention de maintenance, prvue et programme avant la date probable dapparition
dune dfaillance.
En conclusion de ce point, nous pouvons affirmer quau vu de ces constatations et valuations, le

secteur possde une capacit de production moyenne class (M) dans le tableau 6.
Tableau 6 : Evaluation des capacits de production dans les entreprises enqutes
Type de fonction
Fiables
[0, 25 %]
Bonnes
> 50%
M
M
Le management de production
Existence d'une unit de Contrle qualit
Certification de l'entreprise
Existence d'une unit de R&D
Les techniques de production
Technologie rcente
Etat des quipements (Bon et acceptable)
TUC > [51 %
La Rparation et la maintenance
Service de maintenance
Rparation
Entretien prventif
Total
Moyennes
[26-49 %]
1/9
B
B
B
M
M
M
5/9
3/9
3.3. Les capacits de changement technologique
Comme nous lavons prcis dans la grille de lecture (cf. figure 1), nous entendons par capacit
de changement technologique toute activit lie : lamlioration des procds, la conception
des procds, le dveloppement de nouveaux produits et ladaptation et la modification des
quipements aux conditions locales.
Le graphique 7 (annexe) met en avant la faible capacit des entreprises introduire des
changements technologiques. Moins de la moiti des entreprises enqutes nous ont rpondu
avoir une exprience dans lensemble des domaines que comporte notre grille.
3.3.1. Lamlioration et le dveloppement de nouveaux procds
Lamlioration et le dveloppement de nouveaux procds sont sans doute les activits les plus
complexes parmi toutes celles qui composent la capacit de changement technologique. Ces
activits semblent constituer des activits peu effectues par les entreprises de secteur : 19 %
amlioration des procds et 13 % pour la conception des procds.
3.3.2. Le dveloppement de nouveaux produits
Le dveloppement de nouveaux produits dans le domaine de la chimie et de la pharmacie
constitue un volet important de la capacit de changement technologique.
515
2.2.1. Le management de production

Pour valuer les capacits des entreprises enqutes dans ce domaine nous avons retenu
lexistence ou non de trois types dactivits : la R&D, le Contrle Qualit (CQ) et la certification
de l'entreprise.
Lanalyse des rsultats obtenus par notre enqute (cf. graphique 4, annexe) montre que :
La fonction de CQ est moyennement rpandue dans les entreprises de notre enqute, elle
touche moins de 50 % dentre elles. Lexistence dune unit de CQ tmoigne de la volont de
lentreprise de proposer des produits de qualit aux consommateurs et de se mettre en
conformit avec le march (local ou tranger). Il faut dire quavoir un produit de qualit est
source de nombreux avantages pour lentreprise.
La certification de lentreprise, seulement 43 % des entreprises sont certifies. Nous estimons

ce pourcentage insuffisant au regard du secteur dactivit dans lequel elles exercent : les
produits chimiques et pharmaceutiques.
La fonction de R&D reste au cur des proccupations de toute entreprise. Toutefois, cette
fonction ncessite trs souvent des moyens financiers trs importants. Selon les rsultats de
notre enqute, dans la majorit des cas, les entreprises algriennes du secteur chimique et
pharmaceutique ne disposent pas dune unit de R&D. On peut imaginer que leurs activits
se limitent uniquement la transformation de la matire premire ou la production sous
licence ou tout simplement la distribution. Il en rsulte donc que cette fonction est trs peu
dveloppe. Ce constat est rvlateur dune situation trs prjudiciable pour ces entreprises
qui sont incapables de prendre en charge les activits lies linnovation et au
dveloppement de nouveaux produits, ce qui rduit considrablement et leur ractivit face
aux changements et leurs perspectives de dveloppement.
3.2.2. Les techniques de production
Le graphique 5 (annexe) illustre les caractristiques de la technologie utilise dans le processus

de production (niveau et tat) ainsi que le taux dutilisation de capacit de production
Tout dabord, nous observons que le niveau de technologie utilis par la quasi-totalit des
entreprises est trs satisfaisant puisque ces dernires disposent dun outil de production rcent et
conforme par rapport la situation mondiale (92 % des entreprises interroges). Cela sexplique
par limportance de la capacit dinvestissement dans loutil de production et par la prise de
conscience de la ncessit dune stratgie de modernisation des installations dans les entreprises
du secteur.
Ensuite, ltat des quipements est bon dans la plus part des entreprises (84 %). On peut
expliquer cette situation par la matrise de loutil de production par les oprateurs (ou le
personnel de la production) et par une bonne gestion du processus de production par
ladministration.
Enfin, on observe une sous- utilisation des capacits de production, puisque plus de 50 % des
entreprises enqutes ont un TUC moins de 50 %. Ce faible taux dutilisation des capacits
peut nanmoins tre interprt par la possibilit des entreprises du secteur de se dvelopper en
simposant sur le march.
3.2.3. La maintenance et la rparation
Le travail de terrain que nous avons men a permis danalyser les trois fonctions (cf. graphique 6
annexe).
Pour lexistence du service de maintenance, seulement 31 % des entreprises interviewes

disposaient des capacits ncessaires pour effectuer ce travail. Pour le reste on peut imaginer
que cette tche est ralise soit par le recours des contrats dentretien et de rparation
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Les investissements lis llaboration dune stratgie de dveloppement et de

diversification, llaboration dune organisation de production, la formation du
personnel et au recrutement sont observs dans des proportions proches de 50 %. Ceci
montre que les entreprises ont compris limportance de la diversification de la production
dans un march concurrentiel notamment avec louverture de lconomie algrienne.
Linvestissement le moins prsent dans les entreprises et qui nest observ que dans 39 %
est celui de la certification des produits. Ceci peut tre expliqu par le fait que les
produits de ces entreprises sont destins un march local, peu concurrentiel, et dans
lequel les consommateurs ne sont pas trs exigeants cause notamment de labsence de
choix.
En conclusion, en reprenant les indicateurs que comporte notre grille, nous avons pu valuer les
capacits dinvestissement du secteur chimie et pharmacie des entreprises dans les tableaux 4 et
5. En effet, le secteur possde une faible capacit dans la phase de pr-investissement et une
relle capacit dinvestissement dans la phase dexcution de projet.
Tableau 4 : Evaluation des capacits dinvestissement des entreprises enqutes dans la phase de prinvestissement
Type dactivit
Moyennes
[26-49 %]
3/4
Recherche dinformations techniques

Etudes de faisabilit
Choix de site et de nouveaux quipements
Ngociation des contrats d'acquisition des technologies
Total
Faibles
[0-25%]
F
F
F
Bonnes
> 50%]
B
1/4
Faibles
[0-25 %]
Type dinvestissement
Tableau 5 : Evaluation des capacits dinvestissement des entreprises enqutes dans la phase dexcution
de projet
Investissements matriels
Rhabilitation et modernisation
Extension des capacits de production
Diversification de gamme de production
Dveloppement (production de nouveaux produits)
Valorisation du potentiel existant (rnovation, rajout)
Investissement de laboratoire
Investissements immatriels
Recrutement
Formation de personnel (toute fonction)
Elaboration dune organisation de production
Elaboration stratgie de dveloppement et diversification
Rseaux informatiques et logiciel de gestion
Certification des produits de lentreprise
Total
Moyennes
[26-49 %]
Bonnes
> 50 %]
M
B
B
F
M
F
B
M
M
B
B
2/12
M
5/12
5/12
3.2. Les capacits de production

Pour valuer la capacit des entreprises algriennes dans cette activit, nous avons dfini dans la
grille de lecture (cf. figure 1) trois fonctions:
513
3.1.1. La phase de pr-investissement

Lvaluation des capacits des entreprises dans, cette phase dsigne l'ensemble des tapes
prparatoires ncessaires la dcision de lancer ou non le projet, c'est--dire de passer ou non
la phase de ralisation.
Lanalyse des rsultats obtenus par notre enqute (cf. graphique 1, annexe), montre que les
capacits des entreprises du secteur dans cette phase sont faibles. En effet, 7 % seulement de ces
dernires possdent des capacits internes dans les tudes de faisabilit de leur projet. La
faiblesse apparat aussi bien dans le choix du site et des nouveaux quipements pour 9 % des
entreprises que dans la recherche dinformations techniques pour 10 % des entreprises.
Ces activits supposent que les entreprises soient en tat d'alerte permanent face aux multiples
offres de solutions technologiques et quelles disposent plus souvent d'units spcialises dans le
contrle de qualit, l'ingnierie, l'assistance technique, d'units de R&D et de relations avec les
clients et les fournisseurs.
Le seul domaine dans lequel les entreprises simpliquent fortement concerne la ngociation des
contrats dacquisition des technologies puisquelles sont 79 % effectuer cette dmarche dans le
cadre de la prparation de leurs projets dinvestissement. Cette activit de ngociation suppose
que l'entreprise est capable de dgager, parmi les technologies offertes, celles qui s'adaptent le
mieux ses besoins, quelle prte une attention particulire aux diffrents lments qui
composent une offre technologique, ce qui lui permet de mieux rpondre ses besoins
techniques.
Enfin, nous pouvons affirmer que les entreprises de notre enqute nont pas su organiser seules
la phase de pr-investissement. Le recours une assistance technique extrieure a t sous-traite
notamment dans le domaine de la recherche dinformation, des tudes de faisabilit ainsi que
pour le choix de nouveaux quipements. Par ailleurs, leurs capacits dans la phase de ralisation
de projet est bonne.
3.1.2. La phase dexcution de projet
Pour valuer les capacits dinvestissement dans la phase dexcution du projet, nous avons
demand aux entreprises de prciser les diffrents types dinvestissements raliss durant les 5
dernires annes.
Lenqute a montr (cf. graphique 2 et 3, annexe) que pratiquement toutes les entreprises ont
ralis des investissements.
Les investissements matriels raliss par les entreprises peuvent tre scinds en trois
catgories :
Des investissements peu prsents comme le dveloppement de nouveaux produits, et les

investissements de laboratoire qui sont raliss par seulement 5 % des entreprises.
Des investissements assez prsents mais insuffisants dans le domaine de la rhabilitation
et de la modernisation qui concernent 45 % des entreprises, ainsi quen vue de la
valorisation du potentiel existant (rnovation, rajout) qui est le fait de 38 % de celles-ci.
Des investissements assez prsents sagissant de ralisation des projets dextension des
capacits de production et de diversification de gamme de production avec 78 % pour
chaque type.
Pour les investissements immatriels, lobservation des donnes statistiques, nous permet de tirer
plusieurs conclusions:
Linvestissement le plus prsent est celui qui concerne les rseaux informatiques et les
logiciels de gestion avec 63 %. Bon nombre dentreprises ont ainsi su profiter des progrs
enregistrs dans le domaine informatique en intgrant celui-ci dans leur organisation
interne. (leffet du progrs numrique)
512
classification du questionnaire en trois parties : les informations gnrales (coordonnes,

caractristiques de lentreprise), lvaluation des CT et enfin le processus dacquisition de CT.
Au total, sur un questionnaire labor auprs de 250 entreprises dans le secteur de la chimie et de
la pharmacie, 61 ont souhait rpondre nos questions. Sur les 61, 13 nont pas donn de
rponses exploitables en raison de donnes indisponibles. De ce fait, nous avons constitu une
population de 49 entreprises appartenant aux secteurs des industries chimiques et
pharmaceutiques en Algrie.
Les caractristiques de lchantillon sont prsentes par les tableaux ci-dessous.
Tableau 1 : Rpartition des entreprises interroges par sous-secteur
Nombre
9
14
2
3
9
12
49
Proportion
lchantillon
17,65
27,45
3,92
5,88
17,65
27,45
100
de
Les sous-secteurs dactivit selon la

classification de lONS N : 9
Le sous-secteur pharmacie
Le sous-secteur chimie minrale
Le sous-secteur chimie organique
Le sous-secteur engrais
Le sous-secteur peinture et colle
Le sous-secteur plastique
Total
Tableau 2 : Rpartition des entreprises interroges par classe de taille (en %)
0-49
50-100
101-250
251-500
>501
Total
Nombre Proportion de
lchantillon
11
25,5
9
17,6
15
29,4
8
15,7
6
11,8
49
100
Taille de lentreprise
Tableau 3 : Rpartition des entreprises interroges par classe de CA (en %)

Nombre
Chiffre daffaires
Proportion de
lchantillon
CA<200ms
18
39,22
200ms<CA<2mds
20
39,22
>2mds
11
21,57
Total
49
100
3. LEVALUATION DES CAPACITES TECHNOLOGIQUES DES ENTREPRISES DE

LINDUSTRIE CHIMIQUE ET PHARMACEUTIQUE EN ALGERIE
La taxonomie de CT dans les entreprises est prsente dans la grille de lecture (cf. figure 1). Elle
est rendue possible grce notre questionnaire et la liste des activits des CT (voir le
questionnaire dans lannexe). On apprcie lvaluation des CT selon trois niveaux : faible, quand
le pourcentage dentreprises est infrieur 25 % (F), moyen quand ce pourcentage varie entre
[26-49 %] (M) et bon suprieur 50 % (B). Les rsultats de la taxonomie sont analyss ici
daprs ces valuations. Lobjectif de cette partie est donc dvaluer les CT dans les entreprises
de notre chantillon. Ces capacits seront abordes en dtail selon trois points : les capacits
dinvestissement (3.1), les capacits de production (3.2) et enfin les capacits de changement
technologique (3.3).
3.1. Les capacits dinvestissement
Nous avons considr, dans la grille de lecture que les capacits dinvestissement comportent
deux tapes: pr-investissement et excution des projets.
511
Figure 1 : Les activits des CT lintrieur de lentreprise

La phase pr- investissement
Recherche dinformations techniques
Capacit de lentreprise prparer les tudes de faisabilit
Choix de site et de nouveaux quipements
Ngociation des contrats d'acquisition des technologies
La phase excution de projet
Investissements matriels
Rhabilitation et modernisation (renouvellement dquipement)
Extension des capacits de production
Diversification de gammes de production
Dveloppement (production de nouveaux produits)
Valorisation du potentiel existant (rnovation, rajout de petits matriels)
Investissement de laboratoire
Investissement immatriels
Recrutement
Formation du personnel toute fonction (management, technique et commercial)
Elaboration dune organisation de production
Elaboration dune stratgie de dveloppement et diversification
Rseaux informatiques et logiciel de gestion
Certification des produits de lentreprise
Les capacits dinvestissement
Le management de la production
Les techniques de production
Technologie rcente
Etat des quipements (Bon et acceptable)
Taux dutilisation de capacit de production
Les capacits de production
Existence d'une unit de Contrle qualit

Certification de l'entreprise
Existence d'une unit de R&D
La maintenance et la rparation
Changement
technologique
Service de maintenance
Rparation
Entretien prventif
Amlioration des procds
Conception des procds
Le changement technologique
Dveloppement de nouveaux produits
Adaptation et modification des quipements
2.2. Point mthodologique : le dispositif denqute

La base de donnes est issue dune enqute que nous avons effectue de juillet septembre 2013
auprs de 250 entreprises oprant dans le secteur Chimie et Pharmacie en Algrie Deux
mthodes ont t utilises pour recueillir les informations : la mthode directe dplacement
personnel et indirecte soit par voie postale, soit par mailing. Nous avons opt pour une
510
- Le management de production : est l'ensemble des activits qui participent au contrle des
activits de production de l'entreprise, leur l'objectif est de matriser et doptimiser les processus
de valeur ajoute en amliorant de manire continue les flux allant des fournisseurs aux clients.
Il est possible davoir de manire indirecte des informations sur la capacit de lentreprise dans
le management de production en valuant les moyens mis en uvre pour amliorer le processus
de production existant. Lactivit de R&D et de Contrle qualit (CQ) sont des indicateurs
particulirement importants. Cest grce leurs efforts dans ces domaines que les entreprises
sont capables la fois dinnover et donc damliorer leurs technologies de production, mais
galement dabsorber, dassimiler ou de sinspirer des technologies les plus avances introduites
par dautres entreprises ou par des laboratoires duniversit.
- Les techniques de production : aprs la phase de linvestissement et la mise en place des
quipements de production, les entreprises savent comment faire fonctionner les machines
modernes et les quipements utiliss dans leurs units de production. Afin dvaluer la capacit
de production des entreprises dans cette phase. Les indicateurs choisis ce niveau sont : les
caractristiques de la technologie utilise dans le processus de production (niveau et tat) ainsi
que le taux dutilisation de capacit de production.
-La maintenance et la rparation : ces oprations visent maintenir ou rtablir loutil de
production afin que celui-ci soit en mesure d'assurer la production. Elle regroupe donc toutes les
actions de dpannage et de rparation, de rglage, de rvision, de contrle et de vrification des
quipements matriels (machines) ou mme immatriels (logiciels). Le service de la
maintenance peut tre amen participer des tudes damlioration du procs et doit, comme
de nombreux services de lentreprise, prendre en considration des contraintes comme la qualit,
la scurit et lenvironnement, etc. En effet, les entreprises en mesure de pratiquer la rparation
sont capables dexcuter des activits telles que le simple rglage prvu par le constructeur, le
dpannage par change standard dlments prvus cet effet, lidentification et le diagnostic de
pannes et, enfin, les travaux importants de rparation. Ainsi, pour valuer les capacits des
entreprises dans ce domaine, nous avons retenu trois indicateurs essentiels : lexistence dun
service de maintenance, la rparation, lentretien prventif
2.1.3. Les capacits de changement technologique
Sont les capacits lies : lamlioration des procds, la conception des procds, le
dveloppement de nouveaux produits et ladaptation et la modification des quipements aux
conditions locales, afin damliorer les performances de production pour faire face la
concurrence.
- Lamlioration et le dveloppement de nouveaux procds : il sagit de la capacit de
lentreprise effectuer des modifications ou adaptation d'un procd simple jusqu' la dfinition
ou conception intgrale d'un procd, compltement ou partiellement nouveau, destin la
fabrication d'un autre produit ou la modification du procd de fabrication d'un produit ancien.
Ces activits ncessitent par ailleurs du personnel technicien et professionnel ddi ces
activits.
- Le dveloppement de nouveaux produits : par nouveaux produits nous entendons la
formulation ou reformulation totale ou partielle d'un produit fabriqu. Ainsi, cette activit exige
une certaine activit de R&D ou du moins d'ingnierie relativement complexe.
- Ladaptation et la modification des machines et des quipements : il sagit en fait dintgrer
les quipements achets aux caractristiques technico-organisationnelles prvalant dans la
production dune entreprise. Cest une activit qui tmoigne du degr de comptence technique
du personnel et qui donne comme rsultat des petites innovations incrmentales , pouvant
devenir parfois radicales.
La grille de lecture ainsi tablie (cf. figure ci-dessous) prsente la taxonomie de CT dans les
entreprises. Elle illustre chaque fonction technique, et numre les activits les plus
caractristiques de chaque type de capacit. Cette grille de lecture constitue un point de repre
auquel notre recherche, savoir ltude de comportements des entreprises algriennes dans le
secteur chimie et pharmacie en matire dACT, entend se rfrer.
509
ces fonctions en rfrence la capacit de collecter et de traduire des informations concernant

les besoins des clients en produits et services. Ces capacits stratgiques de marketing sont aussi
appeles actifs complmentaires (complementary assets) (D.J. Teece, 1986). En suivant le
modle de M. Bell et K. Pavitt, et en se basant galement sur le concept de Capacits
Technologiques Centrales (core capability), G. Dutrnit (2000) ajoute un niveau plus haut les
Capacits Stratgiques qui permettent dassurer la comptitivit de lentreprise.
2. LA CONSTRUCTION DUNE ECHELLE DE LEVALUATION DES CAPACITES
TECHNOLOGIQUES ET DEMARCHE GLOBALE DE LENQUETE
Bien que la notion du processus de CT propose dans le cadre thorique ouvre des perspectives
importantes, elle reste malgr tout abstraite. Pour satisfaire lobjet de notre recherche savoir la
cration dune chelle permettant lvaluation des CT des entreprises des industries chimiques et
pharmaceutiques en Algrie, il faut traduire ce concept en termes dindicateurs concrets
mesurables sur le terrain. Dans cette perspective de recherche, ltablissement dune grille de
lecture ou dinterprtation nous semble constituer un cadre de rfrence lanalyse de notre
problme spcifique. Il convient donc dterminer les activits les plus caractristiques de chaque
type de capacits.
Par consquent, cette section portera sur la construction dune chelle pour mesurer les niveaux
de CT (2.1), sur la prsentation de la base de donnes tout en exposant la dmarche empirique
adopte pour le choix de lchantillon et la collecte des informations. Nous exposons ainsi la
mthode du questionnaire utilise (2.2).
2.1. La composition des trois capacits
La revue des taxonomies des CT utilises par plusieurs auteurs notamment dans les pays de
lEst, du Sud- Est Asiatique et de lAmrique Latine propose par S. Lall (1987) et M. Bell et K.
Pavitt (1993, 1995), semble tout fait utile pour notre tude. Cest pourquoi, concernant
lvaluation des CT dans les entreprises des pays en dveloppement, trois fonctions ont t
slectionnes comme indicateurs savoir : les capacits dinvestissement ; les capacits de
production ; et les capacits de changement technologique.
2.1.1. Les capacits dinvestissement
Sont les capacits entreprendre les fonctions dindentification, de prparation, de conception,
dinstallation des projets faisables. Elles impliquent des comptences, des connaissances et des
ressources qui permettent aux entreprises de pouvoir mettre en place plusieurs installations de
production, dacqurir et dinstaller des quipements de mme que de rechercher et de
slectionner une technologie afin de mettre en place de nouveaux projets de production. Ces
capacits contiennent deux sous lments : pr-investissement et excution des projets.
- La phase de pr-investissement : partant de lide initiale, cette phase davant-projet consiste
valuer leurs capacits prparer et organiser les tudes de divers projets dinvestissements
(matriels ou immatriels) dans les domaines suivants: prparation des tudes de faisabilit,
choix du site et des nouveaux quipements, ngociation des contrats d'acquisition des
technologies et recherche dinformations techniques.
- La phase dexcution de projet : il sagit de la capacit de lentreprise excuter, raliser des
projets dinvestissement (matriels ou immatriels) pour s'adapter aux mutations du systme
productif dans le cadre de la concurrence.
2.1.2. Les capacits de production
Sont les capacits faire fonctionner des installations. Selon la dfinition de M. Bell et K. Pavitt
(1995), les capacits de production sont les capacits des entreprises matriser toutes les
activits lies au management de production, lingnierie de production la rparation et la
maintenance. Elles impliquent des comptences, des connaissances et des ressources pour
utiliser les installations existantes, matriser les processus de production et la maintenance et
lentretien des quipements de production. Dans ces capacits, lexprience, le learning-bydonig et le savoir-faire ont un rle important. Ainsi, pour valuer la capacit des entreprises
dans cette activit, nous avons dfini trois fonctions:
508
distinguent clairement le processus de changement technique du processus de changement

technologique. Le premier permet lincorporation de nouvelles technologies dans la production
alors que le deuxime se rfre au processus qui permet daugmenter ou de renforcer les
ressources ncessaires, de gnrer ou de grer le changement technique.
1.2. La taxonomie de CT comme un cadre danalyse dacquisition de CT
Comment se dveloppent les CT dans les entreprises ? Les premiers travaux considrent ce
processus comme un processus dinvestissement : investir pour acheter des machines et des
quipements, investir pour former la main duvre qualifie. On pense aujourdhui que les
capacits locales pour crer et grer le changement technologique sont largement bases sur des
ressources spcialises qui doivent tre accumules par un investissement volontaire (M.
Bell et K. Pavitt, 1995, p.71). Dvelopper ces capacits suppose donc des investissements, mais
ces derniers nimpliquent pas automatiquement la formation des CT. Les entreprises doivent
donc appliquer une stratgie dlibre dappropriation et faire de lexprience un processus actif
dACT.
La description de lacquisition des CT a t initialement effectue pour tenter didentifier le
comportement de lentreprise des pays en dveloppement lors de la mise en uvre de nouvelles
technologies dans la production. LOrganisation des Nations Unies pour le Dveloppement
Industriel (ONUDI, 1984) identifie dans ce processus trois phases successives : lacquisition,
lassimilation et la matrise des techniques. L. Kim (1997) partir de lexprience corenne a
identifi, lui aussi, trois phases : lacquisition, lassimilation lamlioration des technologies.
C.A. Voss (1994) dcrit le processus dacquisition de CT en suivant un modle de cycles de vie
en quatre phases : a) prparation, b) acquisition, c) assimilation, d) amlioration. Mais ce modle
en quatre phases semble donc ne pas mener automatiquement vers linnovation. Dun point de
vue thorique, il ne permet pas dexpliquer les diffrentes formes de lapprentissage
technologique des entreprises et ne prend en considration que la mise en uvre de nouvelles
techniques matrielles et non les CT qui forment la base de cette mise en uvre matrielle.
Cette taxonomie est un cadre analytique utile pour la comprhension du processus dacquisition
de CT dans les pays en dveloppement. Elle suggre lide de lordre des tapes d'accumulation.
Paralllement, il existe galement une autre description du processus dacquisition de CT dans
les PED en utilisant une taxonomie de CT comme cadre analytique. Les recherches empiriques
sur cette mthode ont pris deux directions :
- soit elles se concentrent sur les fonctions dcomposes de CT. Des auteurs comme L.E.
Westphal, L. Kim et C. Dahlman (1985) ; C. Dahlman, B. Ross-Larson et L.E. Westphal (1987) ;
L. Kim (1987) ; S. Lall (1987, 1990, 1992) ; M. Bell et K. Pavitt (1993, 1995) pensent que
lacquisition de CT passe par la matrise des trois types de capacits qui la composent. La
premire, la capacit productive permet de matriser le processus de production et la
maintenance des quipements, la deuxime, la capacit dinvestissement concerne la mise en
uvre de nouveaux projets et la troisime, la capacit dinnovation, est ncessaire pour crer des
produits et des procds nouveaux. Par ailleurs, cette taxonomie inclut quatre tapes
d'acquisition de CT : une capacit courante de production, et trois niveaux de CT innovatrices :
lmentaire (simple, routine), fond sur lexprience ; intermdiaire (adaptation, duplication),
fond sur la recherche ; avanc (innovation, prise de risque), fond sur la recherche.
- soit sur leurs niveaux (haut ou bas) avec, comme point commun, la distinction des CT en trois
types de capacits : de production, d'investissement et dinnovation. Des auteurs comme D.
Leonard-Barton (1995) et M. Hobday (1995), ont abord le dveloppement des CT dans les
entreprises des pays en dveloppement comme un processus o les CT saccumulent du plus bas
au plus haut en partant de lapprentissage et en passant par plusieurs tapes. En d'autres termes,
les firmes doivent apprendre effectuer des activits de complexit mineure en termes
d'innovation pour tre capables de dvelopper des activits avances d'innovation, telles que
celles lies la R&D.
Si la recherche sur la taxonomie de CT est devenue une rfrence de base de lanalyse des CT.
D. Ernst, L. Mytellka et T. Ganiatsos, 1998 ont ajout les capacits stratgiques de marketing
507
developing countries through the acquisition, assimilation and adaptation of foreign technologies
to gradually improve their production and innovation capabilities.
Keywords:, Technological Capabilities, chemical and pharmaceutical industry, Algeria
development economics.
Introduction
Limportance de CT ne cesse de crotre depuis larticle de C. Dahlman et L.E. Westphal (1982)
reprise aprs par J. Katz (1984) ; M. Bell (1984) ; A.H. Amsden et L. Kim (1986), C. Dahlman,
B. Ross-Larson et L.E. Westphal (1987) ; S. Lall (1992, 1994) ; J.F. Huchet (1995) ; M. Bell et
K. Pavitt (1993, 1995) ; M. Hobday (1994, 1995) ; D. Ernst, T. Ganiatsos et L. Mytelka (1993) et
plus rcemment par N. Ariffin (2000) ; L. Bngens., J.L. Hellman (2002) ; A. Elkhabli (2005) ;
G. Dutrenit., A. Vera-Cruz ., A. Arias (2006) ; R. Arvanitis., D. Villavicencio (2007). Ces
auteurs ont contribu la construction d'un cadre analytique pour tudier la dynamique de
changement technologique dans les pays en dveloppement et notamment dans les conomies
mergentes, en proposant le concept de Capacits Technologiques . L'ide dutiliser ce
concept est que les entreprises des pays en dveloppement sont beaucoup plus consommatrices
de technologies et de savoirs existants et que leurs efforts doivent tourner davantage vers
lacquisition, lassimilation et ladaptation de technologies afin damliorer progressivement
leurs capacits de production et dinnovation. Cependant, ce concept assez largement tudi dun
point de vue thorique, na pas t aussi bien analys dun point de vue pratique.
Dans cette perspective, lobjectif de cette recherche est denrichir par un travail empirique, la
cration dune chelle dvaluation de CT, base sur les trois fonctions mise en avant par M. (S.
Lall, 1987 ; M. Bell et K. Pavitt, 1993, 1995). A cette fin, nous avons propos une grille de
lecture originale destine apporter une apprciation qualificative de lvaluation de CT. Elle
illustre chaque fonction technique, et numre les activits les plus caractristiques de chaque
type de capacit.
Notre tude est organise de la faon suivante :
La premire partie constitue le cadre thorique de cet article, dont lobjectif est d'essayer de
rsumer les apports rcents sur cette question qui sert de cadre danalyse pour tudier la
dynamique de changement technologique des entreprises dans le contexte dun pays en
dveloppement. La deuxime partie portera la prsentation de la construction dune grille de
lecture ou dune chelle dvaluation de CT, et sur la prsentation de la base de donnes. La
troisime sera consacre linterprtation des rsultats de ltude de cas portant sur les
lvaluation de CT des entreprises algriennes du secteur chimie et de pharmacie.
1. REVUE DE LA LITTERATURE SUR DE LA DYNAMIQUE DACQUISITION DE
CAPACITES TECHNOLOGIQUE
1.1. Dfinition du concept de Capacits Technologiques
Une dfinition simplifie de CT est propose par S. Lall (1987), savoir lensemble des
comptences en matire dorganisation, de gestion et des techniques qui sont ncessaires pour
crer et exploiter avec efficacit une activit industrielle. En mettant laccent sur limportance de
lutilisation des connaissances dans lacquisition de CT en Core du Sud L. Westphal, L. Kim et
C. Dahlman (1985) identifient les CT comme les capacits utiliser de faon effective les
connaissances techniques dans la production, linvestissement et linnovation. partir de ce
moment, le concept de CT fait rfrence un stock de connaissances technologiques aussi bien
dans leur acquisition que dans leur utilisation. M. Bell et K. Pavitt (1993, 1995) insistent sur
l'importance de la dimension institutionnelle et organisationnelle quand ils dfinissent les CT en
tant que ressources ncessaires pour produire et contrler le changement technique, y compris les
qualifications, la connaissance et l'exprience, les structures institutionnelles et les liens entre
elles. Ces capacits ne sont pas uniquement techniques mais galement des capacits de gestion
et dorganisation.
Par ailleurs, parmi toutes les dfinitions proposes de la CT, seuls M. Bell et K. Pavitt (1993,
1995) apportent une contribution importante pour la comprhension du processus dacquisition
de CT dans la dynamique dindustrialisation des pays en dveloppement. A cet effet, ils
506
CONSTRUCTION DUNE ECHELLE DEVALUATION DE CAPACITES

TECHNOLOGIQUES : CAS DES ENTREPRISES DE LINDUSTRIE
CHIMIQUE ET PHARMACEUTIQUE EN ALGERIE
Lamouri SAHRAOUI
Universit de Pau et des Pays de lAdour,
Centre dAnalyse Thorique et de Traitement des donnes CATT, France
! " # $ % & '( ) *!

+ = ( > . - ?1 3. ; < 4 : 8 9 6 $ 7 5 4 2 3 /01 -. #,
O P . " N @ J&
GM : 3 LCT J K
) H BI! = F G = @AB =, C D E
2 3Y7 = Z P )7
H BI! 4 A 3 +X1995 L1993 V W + U ST1987 L4R + Q
+ & '( 8 = [R K = & %
+= % 2 >: K , L & '( L = [R K => % 2 P K L=
2 ) = *7 2 %
Rsum : En Algrie rares sinon inexistantes sont les tudes qui envisagent comme
problmatique centrale une comprhension du phnomne dacquisition technologique des
entreprises, ni dans son aspect li au processus d'appropriation des technologies, ni comme un
instrument de cration des Capacits Technologiques locales. En effet, la plupart des tudes sur
ce thme concernent les pays de lEst Asiatiques, les NPI et dautres pays de lAmrique du Sud.
Lobjectif de cette recherche est denrichir par un travail empirique, la cration dune chelle
dvaluation de CT, base sur les trois fonctions mise en avant par (S. Lall, 1987 ; M. Bell et K.
Pavitt, 1993, 1995). Une valuation que nous avons essay le lappliquer dans le cas des
entreprises des industries chimiques et pharmaceutiques.
Les apports de cette recherche rsident dans la construction dune grille de lecture qui devrait
permettre de mesurer le niveau dune entreprise en valuant leurs Capacits Technologiques. La
construction dune chelle dvaluation de Capacits Technologiques ouvre des perspectives
importantes en terme de recherche sur la dynamique dAcquisition de Capacits Technologiques
dans les entreprises des pays en dveloppement travers lacquisition, lassimilation et
ladaptation de technologies trangres afin damliorer progressivement leurs capacits de
production et dinnovation.
Mots cls : Capacits Technologiques, industrie chimique et pharmaceutique, Algrie,
Economie de dveloppement.
Abstract: In Algeria rare if not non-existent studies consider the understanding of the
phenomenon of the acquisition of technologies by companies as a central problem, or in its
aspect related to a process of acquisition of technologies, or as a creative instrument of local
Technological Capabilities. Indeed, most studies deal with countries of South East Asians, NPI
and other countries of South America.
The objective of this research is to enrich the creation of a CT rating scale by an empirical
approach, based on the three functions emphasized by (S. Lall, 1987; M. Bell and K. Pavitt,
1993, 1995). An assessment we tried to apply to the case of companies of the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries.
The contributions of this research lie in the construction of an analytical framework that should
enable to measure the level of a company by assessing its Technological Capabilities. The
construction of a Technological Capabilities Assessment Scale opens important perspectives in
terms of research on the dynamics of Technological Capabilities Acquisition in companies in
505
See Fang Meng, Current Public Relations status in China, Master of Arts in professional
31
Yi Hsiu Lin, ibid, p 21.
32
Fang Meng, ibid, p 19.
33
Shirley Harrison, ibid, p 46.
34
35
36
Yi Hsiu Lin, ibid, pp 22,23.
37
38
Yi Hsiu Lin, ibid, pp 22,24.
39
Communication thesis, East Tennessee State University, United States, 2007, pp 19,250.
40
Yi Hsiu Lin, ibid, pp 23.
41
See, Florid Hawkins Carpenter, The role of public relations in socially responsible business,
Master of Arts in journalism and mass communication, Chapel Hill, United States, 2005, pp 10,
42
11.
James Lewis was leader of the UN Habitat (UNCHS) team for preparatory reconstruction
assistance to the Algerian Government Interministerial Commission for the study of

43
Reconstruction of El Asnam after the earthquake of October 1980.

James Lewis RIBA, The Algerian Earthquakes of May 2003: Some precedents for
unknown
edition,
unknown
reconstruction,
country,
2003,
p1.
(http://datum.gn.apc.org/PDFs/TheAlgerian Earthquakes of May 2003.pdf)

*
ibid, pp 4-5, and see Bendimered Fouad, Chapter one, Earthquake vulnerability, of school
building in Algeria, risk management solution, OECD, 2004, United States.

44
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boumerdes
45
Bendimered Fouad, The Boumerdes, Algeria, Earthquake of 21 May, 2003, Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute: EERI, California, 2003, p6.

46
Wikipedia, ibid.
47
Ibid.
****
Bendimered Fouad, ibid, p2.
*****
Fouad Bendimered, ibid, pp 10, 11.
545
Translated from: Bernard Lamizet and Ahmed Silem, Dictionnaire Encyclopdique des
sciences de linformation ET de la communication, Ellipses, 15 dition, Paris, 1997, p120.

6
Bernard Lamizet and Ahmed Silem, Ibid, p 120.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Matthew W. Seeger, Timothy L. Sellnow, Robert R. Ulmer, Communication and
Organizational Crisis, Praeger, 2003, p65.

10
Robert L. Health, Encyclopedia of Public Relations, SAGE publications, volume 2, USA,
2005, p 430.
Ibid, p 431.
12
Robert L. Health, Ibid.
13
14
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization
15
16
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organization.html
17
http://managementhelp.org/org_thry/org_defn.htm
18
Rhee Yunna, The employee- public- organization chain in relationship management: a case
11
study of a government organization ( James E. Grunig chairman), a philosophy PhD thesis,

Maryland University, United State, 2004, p 7.
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_5_levels_of_organization_in_the_environment
19
20
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/environment
21
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_definition_of_an_environment
22
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/environment.html
23
Rhee Yunna, Ibid, p 16.
24
Yi Hsiu Lin, Public relations roles and models: a case study of the super basketball league
(SBL) in Taiwan), a philosophy PhD thesis, Northern Colorado University, United State, 2007,
p13.
25
Shirley Harrison, Public relations: An introduction, 2nd edition, Thomson Learning edition,
London, 2001, p 2.
26
Robert L. Health, ibid, p 684.
27
Ibid. p 3.
28
29
30
544
are Public relations in disaster diplomacy, but what about public information and two way
symmetric models?, for him it is not public relations, that why I suggest that these two models
are just a kind of communication diplomacy.
In sum,
External communication =
(communication diplomacy + PR)
Communication diplomacy = (public information + two way symmetric)

PR =
VI.
(press agentry/publicity + two way asymmetric)

Conclusion:
As a conclusion of all this the relationship between communication, environment and public
relations can be extracted from the overlap of the concept of environment, Lasswell questions
and the previous analyzed activities as PR models, is as follow:

Lasswell said: the communication process is resumed in these questions: who says what to
whom in which channel with what effect?
Environment is all the physical and moral factors or activities that affect inside and
outside the organization whether positively or negatively.

Now the communication process in crisis will be like this:
Who: is the sender of the disaster related activity.
Says what: are all the activities at the post crisis time.
To whom: are the receiver of the message whether victims or the Algerian state.
In which channel: all the channels that curry the message, which could be: press, direct
communication or diplomatic channels as condolence letter, or international aids.
With what effect: this could answer the following question: is the effect positive or negative?
it is easy to know according to a simple factor which is reputation.
How: it refers to how is the effect? Is it positive or negative? The answer of this question is the
purpose of practicing the four PR models; it could be improving image with propaganda (press
agentry model) and changing attitudes and public opinion toward target by using two ways asymmetric model.
When: it is the post crisis time or the 21 May 2003 Boumerdes earthquake.
VII.
1
References:
Marra Francis, Crisis public relations: a theoretical model, a PhD thesis presented to University
of Maryland, UMI edition, USA, 1992, pp72, 73.

2
Ibid. p73.
Ibid, p75.
Julia T. Wood, Communication in Our Lives, Peking University Press, 3rd edition, Beijing,
2004, p15.
543
(1*),(2*),
organizations
organizations
(5*),(6
*),
(7*)
(9*),(1
victims
victims
1*),
communication
(12*),(
14*),
(3*),(4
Algerian
*)
people
(8*)
(13*),(
victims
(16*),(
15*)
/
Foeign
17*)
P.T. Barnum
Foeign
countries
countries
Algerian state
Algerian state
Ivy Lee
Edward L.
Barneys,
Barneys
educators,
Leading figures
professional
leaders
According to the activities done in first category and in second category (the second category
is shown in the previous table) we conclude that the four models of public relations are all
practiced in the internal environment while the external environment contains only activities that
refer to public information model and two-way symmetric model.
Internal communication = PR models =
(press agentry/publicity + public information + two
way asymmetric + two way symmetric)
The classification of the activities as PR models were done according to purpose and impact
of the activities on the organism reputation, all what is done for the purpose of propaganda and
improving reputation and image is seen as press agentry or publicity model or two-way
asymmetric model; this model certainly is two-way communication but its purpose is using
scientific proof to convince sender and change their opinion. While these who havent any
intention but cooperation and help, are two-way symmetric models in purpose of mutual
understanding and exchanging condolence. Public information is one way communication in a
purpose of informing people without any propagate intention.
According to Ilan kelman, the disaster diplomacy related activities which have propagate and
influential goal are public relations, but he didnt mentioned the other PR models which havent
this aim. Public relations activities are divided into four models referring to an excellent practice
of PR. Thats why according to his study, the models of press agentry and two way asymmetric
542
The second category: Individual activities done by Non-governmental organizations

and individuals:
Characteristic
Actions
Model
Press agentry/
Public
Two-way
Two-way
publicity
information
asymmetric
symmetric
(1*),(2*),(5*),(6*),(7*)
---
---
(1*)__(16*)
(9*),(11*),(12*),(14*)
purpose
(1*)
Propaganda to National federation

of oil, Gas and Chemistry
Mutual
cooperation
and solidarity.
(2*)
Propaganda to Sostatra soccer
//
//
//
//
//
(5*)
Propaganda to restaurants
(6*)
Propaganda to Algeria Bank
(7*)
Propaganda to Barid El Jazair
(9*)
Propaganda to National Union of
Algerian Farmer
team
(11*)
Propaganda to Zine Eddine Zidan
//
(12*)
Propaganda to National Font of
Mutual
Propaganda to Naftal
purpose
(14*)
Liberation
(3*),(4
cooperation
and solidarity.
//
Mutual
*)
cooperation,
(8*),(1
solidarity and
0*)
exchanging
(13*),(
problems
15*),(1
6)
(17*)
Informing
One way
Two-way
Two-way
truth
imbalanced
balanced
important
effects
effects
state and
victims about
their
solidarity and
deep sorrow
Nature of
One-way truth not essential
communication
541
Communication is also divided as known into internal and external communication, according
to the environment of the organization. Here our organization is the Algerian state which makes:
Internal communication = Internal environment
External communication = External environment
The internal communication is also sub-divided into horizontal and vertical communication.
The horizontal communication is all the activities, strategies and methods used from up to
down there is a specific difference between sender and receiver according to the nature of the
relationship, while the vertical communication is a communication between sender and
receiver in the same level rank.
In this research the horizontal communication is all the activities done from government to
victims, while vertical communication is all the activities done by individuals to the victims. So
Horizontal communication = Mezzo environment
Vertical communication = Micro environment
Internal communication = Macro environment

Public relations:
The first category: Activities done by Ministries (governmental institutions which

represent the state):
Among the chosen activities; 18 were for using publicity or propaganda -reflecting press
agentry model- to the government, to improve its reputation after a damage that lasted more than
fifteen years. Two activities were played the informational role to the victims instead of public
information model, while two others were taken to give victims scientific excuses for the
collapse of buildings, apologize, and promises to punish the responsible. This model two-way
asymmetric was essential for a scientific influence towards the victims, they were under choc
and lost almost everything, they needed concrete reactions. Logic was important to persuade
them. The third model of PR two-way symmetric was represented by four activities in purpose of
mutual understanding and exchanging information to provide aids or for reconciliation.
Government used one way communication model through press agentry and public
information models and two way communication through two-way asymmetric and two-way
symmetric models. But press agentry was the most used model which refers that government
focused on publicity and propaganda, in goal to improve the state reputation.
540
Colin Powel in a condolence letter said: we are truly sorry for what happened to
Algeria, all our condolence to the victims, we will continue discussions with the
government about their needs, and we will not relent in giving aids.
2- Discussion:
Environment:
According to literature review, environment is all the physical and moral factors or activities
that affect inside and outside the organization whether positively or negatively. Environment is
divided into internal and external environment according to the inside and outside the
organization.
The previous studied activities are all physical and moral activities done by the Algerian state,
individuals and other countries. They have impact on the research unit of analysis which is the
Algerian state. The activities had multiple impacts according to their purpose, which means that
these activities are the environment related to the Algerian state at the crisis. So all the activities
done in the three categories are the environment of the Algerian state related to Boumerdes
earthquake.
The three categories refer to the environment levels. As stated before the first and second
categories are all activities done inside the country while the third category is planed outside the
country by other units addressed to the studied unit. This makes the first and second category
internal environment and the third category external environment.
The two first categories are all internal environment, they are activities done by the
government and people, these two senders allowed me to suggest a sub division to the internal
environment. So second category will be micro environment, and the first category is mezzo
environment. As a result external environment or the thirds category is macro environment.
Micro environment level = all the PR models practiced by small and private organizations and
their relations with the affected people in the crises.
Mezzo environment level = all the PR models practiced by the Algerian states institutions and
heir relation with the affected people.
Macro environment level = all the PR practice by state with friendly and enemies country.
Communication:
Communication is all the communicational activities, strategies and methods used inside
organizations is internal communications while all the communicational activities, strategies
and methods used outside the organization is external communication.
This makes the activities related to the crisis: communicational strategies, activities and
methods done from sender to receiver, with specific channels, to realize a specific target.
539
The Republic of Libya sent four planes of aids within groups of rescue and ten tones
of tents. It sent also 27 doctors in bones surgery, general surgery and anesthetists,
they also sent medical devises.
Egypt sent also four planes full of 12 tons and 740 kg of rescue equipment and 6
tones of medicines.
The Sultanate of Oman sent 12 tons of weal, 10 tons of dried milk, , five tons of tents
and blankets, four tons of children biscuits, five tons of tuna, and five tons of
medicines.
Syria also sent a plan full of 20 tons of medicines, food and tens.
Yemen also helped victims with 58 tons of medicines, food and tents.
A number of Arab and foreign countries sent more than 30 tons of food, rescue
equipment, medicines, four-wheel drive cars, mobile health centers and 22500
blankets.
The French Red Cross send a group composed from 17 persons to help the Algerian
Red Crescent.
The minister of defense of Belgium visited Algeria and brought purifying waters
equipments and tents.
CONDOLENCE AND MORAL SOLIDARITY (17*)
The American president Bush called the Algerian president Abdel Aziz Bouteflika
and gives his condolence to the Algerian people.
The Syrian president Bachar Al Assad gives a call to the president and expressed his
truly condolence to the victims.
The previous prime minister and current president of France Nicolas Sarkozi went
to Algeria and visited the affected place where he expressed his condolence to victims.
Sarkozi said in his visit to Morocco that his visit to Algeria was a good opportunity to
retied relations.
The president of France Diplomacy Mr. Dominic De Vilpin expressed the solidarity
of the Group of Eight with victims and they gave their condolence to the victims.
The European Union from Brussels expressed sadness after what happened to Algeria
at Boumerdes earthquake.Javier Solana said that the Union is ready to send aids to
help people. And they send a condolence letter to the Algerian president.
Mr. Yan Cowan the president of General Assembly of United Nations send his
truly condolence, and ask all the countries to send aids and help victims.
538
Barid Al Jazair Organization set of mobile vans to facilitate the withdrawal of

money.(7*)
Many cities sent aids to the victims such as the city of Mssila. Its population donated
2000 tents, 2000 blanket, 12 trucks fool of medicines, and food. They sent also
doctors and psychologists.(8*)
National Union of Algerian Farmers collected donations and sent them to the
victims.(9*)
Inspectorate of Education OF Algiers city placed for student seven telephonic lines to
contact psychologist.(10*)
The international footballer Zine Eddine Zidane sent condolence to victims, and he
confirmed that he is proud of being an Algerian.(11*)
The secretary general of National Liberation Front Ben Flis visited the affected
place and sent his condolence to victims.(12*)
More than 923 teachers and 725 employees at the University of Colonel Hadj
Lakhdar donate 3 days from their salary to the victims.(13*)
The organization of Naftal responsible of natural gas sent trucks fool of food and
blanket to the affected people and placed a green line to receive complaints.(14*)
In all over the country many people went to hospitals for blood donation.(15*)
The third category: Activities done by foreign countries:
After the earthquake many foreign countries hurry to send condolence and aids to Algeria, as
disaster diplomacy activities. In this part I will site some of these activities according to the
studied eight numbers of Sawt Al Ahrar.
AIDS (16*)
The prince of Kuwait sent his director of Aid Management, Mr. Ibrahim Fodri
with a plane full of 38 tons of food, medicine, and tents. And he went to hospitals to
visit the victims.
Fourteen Arab countries sent a lot of planes full of aids like: medicines, food, tents,
and equipments that helps in searching alive. Jordan sent two planes given from the
Hachimist Charity Organization of Jordan.
The kingdom of Morocco sent three planes full also of food, tents and medicines.
They sent doctors, psychologists, group of rescue and two trucks of rescue and lifting
debris.
537
In sum, all these activities were done for:
Rescuing victims who were under debris.
Providing aids to the victims as food, water, blankets, tents and medicines.
Informing people about the disaster activities taken to help victims.
Exchanging information and collaborating in collecting aids.
Giving scientific and logical excuses to the citizens about the reasons for the collapse of
new buildings and promising them to punish the responsible.
This category is referring to all the activities done by the governments towards victims, such as:
ministry of Housing and Urbanism, Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Social Development and
Ministry of Employment and National Solidarity,
The second category: Individual activities done by Non-governmental organizations

and individuals:
These activities were done by non-governmental organizations, or private actions done by
people to help victims. This part revealed solidarity, maturity and sense of responsibility
toward crises. People forgot all their problems and hurry to help their friends; it was a real
scene of harmony. The Algerian press such as Sawt AL Ahrar wrote about these activities.
I summarize them in these activities:
The employees of the National Federation of Oil, Gas and Chemistry donate one day
from their salary to the victims of the earthquake. They collect also tents, food and
refer to government.
they all represent government, and they all
medicines.(1*)
Sostara soccer team donated the income of a football match against Mali to the
victims. The number of fans was big; they all come to contribute in helping their
brothers in Boumerdes. Chabibat Al Kabayil soccer team also donated the income
of a football match against Senegal to the victims. Same to Sostara match playground
was fool of fans.(2*)
Many Algerians crossed long distances to help victims who where under debris. Two
young people said that they come from other city, they are unemployed people, they
borrowed money to buy train tickets and reached the place in hope to find some
alive.(3*)
Some dealers come from all over the state with trucks fool of food, water, milk,
blankets, and tents.(4*)
Some restaurants prepared hot meals and distribute them to victims.(5*)
Algeria Bank opened an account for donation for victims.(6*)
536
military hospital Ain EL Naja received in the first minutes more than 150 injured, they opened
even study halls, they operate injured people freely as heart operations. In the first three days 180
operations were done 90% for bones surgery and 10% of eyes surgery. They even provided 10
psychologist and 10 psychiatrics, these doctors had played a good role in approaching and build
bride between people and army.
8- The army provided medicines, blankets, tents, and established pre-fabricated WC.
9- Since the first hours, the army went to the affected place they used trucks to remove
buildings roof that weighs above 30 tons, in goal to find some alive.
10- They established 6 phone lines to facilitate communication with the central base.
11- The army provided drinking and washing water and provided a 1000 meal every day to the
victims.
12- To insure security the military barracks received victims to spend night inside with the
soldiers. And the day after, many soldiers took the task of protecting people and their goods,
especially those under debris.
13- They established temporary communication cells, to facilitate the communication with
victims for their needs, and for receiving complaints. These cells were also established to
activities done by the army.

Other activities:
transmit a good image for the army through national press. Many newspapers wrote about these
14- In the same night the president Abdelaziz Bouteflika went to Boumerdes to check and see
the situation, and then he went to the hospitals to visit injured people 48.
15- The vice president Ahmed Ouyahiya announced that council of ministers agreed to give
700 thousand DA million for each victim 49.
16- Renewing 80% of waterways and the provider of water reservoirs 50.
17- The electricity was cut off from 100 thousands of people. The government succeeded to
recuperate electricity to 80% of customers.
18- The ministry of solidarity provided 10 to 12 thousands hot meal every day and more than
120 trucks full of aid every day.
19- The ministry of Social Development with the coordination of Employment and National
Solidarity made a contract with unemployed doctors, psychologist for duration of six months.
20- The provider of 4000 bottle of gas and 2000 oven 51.
21- The adoption of compulsory financial law to cover the earthquake damage 52.
22- In 27 May 2003, the government put up 150 tents in Okil Ramdan stadium, and they
relocate more than 140 families in Azouni hall in 1st November stadium.
23- The state starts to broadcast programs to collect contributions.
535
severely impaired; the repair of drinking water system had cost about 34 millions USD, whereas
the repair of transportation systems and other public work facilities exceeded 30 million USD.
V.
Findings:
1- The 21 May Boumerdes earthquake related activities:

After analyzing newspapers I found that the activities related to Boumerdes earthquake
disaster were done by three categories:
The first category: Activities done by Ministries (governmental institutions which

represent the state)
In this part I focused on the activities done by the government and its institutions toward the
affected people by the Boumerdes earthquake. In goal to abstract the Public Relations models
related to these activities.

These activities were abstracted from the analysis of eight numbers of Sawt Al Ahrar
newspaper from Thursday 22 May 2003 to Saturday 31 May 2003, and two numbers of El
Djeich magazines numbers of June and July 2003.
Ministry of Housing and Urbanism:
The collapses of new buildings reveal frauds in construction scales, and lack in surveillance.
such as:
So the ministry was obliged to improve its reputation. Many activities were done by this ministry
1- The minister Mohammed Nadir Hamimid placed a group of experts to open investigations
about the reasons of the collapse of buildings. And he confirmed that 3000 pre-fabricated houses
in Algiers and Boumerdes will be placed in the earlier times 43.
2- Council of ministers agreed to build 20 thousands social houses in two years. The government
designated 114.3 billion DA to this project 45.
3- 1.605 billion DA for reconstruction of bridged and roads 46.

4- The state gives some scientific and logical excuses to the citizens about the reasons for the
collapse of new buildings and promised them to punish the responsible.
5- The state says that the slag of contractors and their robbery to the buildings materials was the
cause of the collapse of new buildings.
National Army:
The National Army reputation was damaged and people lost confidence; They couldnt believe
anymore that army can help people in their disasters.
6- The administration divided the region into sectors and sub-sectors to facilitate communication
tasks and accelerating the provider of necessary aids 47.
7- They contribute in rescuing people who were under debris. And they established treatment
centers especially to those injured victims and who have chronic diseases, and the principle
534
Figure2****: Location of the May 21, 2003 Boumerdes, Algeria, Earthquake

The main shock caused the loss of 2,278 lives, injuring more than 11,450 others, making about
200,000 homeless and 45 people missing; it destroyed or seriously damaged at least 128 000
housing units distributed as follows: Algiers (78 000), Boumerdes (34 000), Tizi Ouzou (7 000),
Bouira (4 300), Blida (2 500), Tipaza (1 700), Bjaia (850) and Mda (150) in eight provinces.
Figure3: Schematic map showing the

location of the earthquake epicenter
relative to urban areas such as
Boumerdes, which sustained
considerable building damage.
The quake had cost more than 5 billion USD, this amount represent 10% of Algerias total
GDP (for 2001). Many buildings had been damaged as: the library and other building in the
University of Science and Technology, the largest university campus in the country, located in
the district of Bab Ezzouar were closed to allow for damage assessment and repairs.
Figure4, 5*****: Damage in schools and Tenia hospital

The major industrial complexes, including the truck factory SNVI of Rouiba were also put out
of commission due to damage to building and equipment. The water distribution system was also
533
Boumerdes was created in 1958, toward the end of French colonial era, as part of a French
administration economic reform plan for Algeria. It was intended to serve as an administrative
and educational outpost for Algiers. This role was continued after independence, as the Algerian
government located several research institutes and universities in Boumerdes45. The city is
famous as a scientific center, including a number of national institutes and the University
of M'hamed Bouguerra. The institutes include l'Institut Algrien du Petrole (The Algerian
Petroleum Institute IAP), Faculty des Hydraucarbures et de la Chimie (Faculty of Hydroncarbons
and Chemistry FHC), l'Institut National d'Eletrecite et d'Electronqiue (The National Institute for
Electricity and Electronics INELEC), l'Institut National de Genie Mechanique (The National
Institute of Mechanical Engineering ENGM), l'Institut National des Industries Legeres (The
National Institute for Light Industries INIL).46

The city is also known as an industrial center containing the headquarters of Sonatrach
Exploration , l'Entreprise Nationale de Geophysique(ENAGEO), and Le Centre de Recherches
et de Developpement (Research and Development Center for Sonatrach CRD).47
The rigorous planning process for Boumerdes has continued through the years. Several
generations of construction styles sit side by side in the city: the first generation of buildings
(built between 1959 and 1974) has bearing walls; the second generation (built between 1974 and
1993) is primary engineered multistory buildings built by large government-owned construction

companies; and the third generation is characterized by a return to traditional construction
methods using reinforced concrete beam-column and concrete slabs with brick partitions.
Boumerdes residents are for the most part middle and upper-middle class, working in
government or colleges and research institutions. Close to one quarter of the population is
college-educated.
On Wednesday 21 may 2003, at 18 hours 44 minutes UTC (19h 44 local time), a destructive
earthquake occurred in the provinces (wilaya) of Algiers and BOUMERDES affecting a rather
densely populated region of about 3,000,000 people within 1,000 km2. The magnitude of the
earthquake was calculated at Ms = 6.6 (Mw 6.8). The epicenter was located at 36.89N 3.78E
at about 10 km offshore from the locality of Zemmouri in the province of Boumerdes about 50
km east of the capital city of Algiers.
532
4- The 21ST May 2003 Boumerdes Earthquake
Introduction:
Northern Algeria, in which about 90% of the countrys population resides, is located along the
plate boundary between Eurasia and Africa. The convergence of the two major plates creates a
complex system of active faults that has resulted in a number of moderated to strong earthquakes
in the region.
Since 28 January 1716, when the city of Blida was destroyed killing more than 20000 people,
there have been more than one hundred recorded damaging earthquakes. All of these have been
in the area north of the Atlas mountain range and plateau, and most have been in the region west
of the city of Algiers. The names recur of some towns and cities having been damaged: Oued
Fodda, Tns, Cherchell, Blida, Oran, and Mascara. There are six references to earthquakes and
tremors having affected Orlansville, the former name of El Asnam, between its foundation in
1843 and the 1954 R6.4 and R6.2 earthquakes on consecutive days. More than 1200 people were
killed, 5000 injured, and 2000 houses and huts (ghourbis) in the city and neighboring villages
were destroyed (Roth 1954; Lewis 42, 1982)43.
This table** will show number of the most earthquakes that struck Algeria in previous years:
Date
place
1716
Oran
1790
Blida
1825
Orlansville
Dead
Injured
Homeless
Structures
destroyed
20000
3000
7000
9September
R 6.7
1400
14000
300000
1965
1973
Al Asnam
October1980
R7.3
5000
20000
120000
7000
Constantine
Octobre1985
R6.0
300
Tipaza
October1989
R 5.6
35
700
50000
4095
Mascara
August1994
R5.6
172
292
10000
751
Temouchent
August 1999
R5.5
25
174
25000
600
Boumerdes
23 May 2003
R6.8
2287
11000
100000
19000
Blida
Magnitude
Earthquake
Table 1: Number of famous earthquakes that struck Algeria
21st May 2003 Boumerdes earthquake a geoseismology review:
Boumerdes is the capital city of Boumerdes Province in Algeria. It is located on

the Mediterranean Sea. It had a population of 15,000 in 1987 and 28,500 in 1998.
Boumerdes is a seaside city located in the north of Algeria about 50 km east of Algiers. Its
previous name, during French occupation of Algeria, was Rocher Noir, translated from French
as Black Rock.44
531
(Childers, 1989). The two-way asymmetrical model uses research to develop messages that
are likely to persuade strategic publics to behave as the organization wants (Madere, 2002).
Therefore, communication within this model is viewed as persuasive and manipulative.38
Two-way symmetrical model:
This model is based on the ideal of mutual understanding. It is truly two-way, taking the
form of a kind of dialogue between the organization and the public; both parties are capable
of being persuaded to modify their attitudes or behavior as a result of the public relations
activity. Edward Bernays was a leading proponent of this model, as are the academics and
professional bodies of today.39 The concept of symmetry indicates that public relations
should represent the environment to the organization and not just the organization to the
environment (Leisinger, 1991)... the two-way symmetric help the organization to cooperate
with and adapt to the environment the purpose of the two-way symmetric model is to
develop win-win solutions to avoid conflicts between organizations and publics
(Carpenter) the two way symmetric model uses communication to manage conflict with
strategic public (Madere,2002). In sum, the two-way symmetric model attempts to achieve
mutually satisfying relations between an organization and its publics.40
Table 4: The Public relations models
So the four PR models are divided into two categories: (a) One way communication: which is
press agentry and public information. The differences between the two are found by examining
the manner in which the communication is delivered. The first one is linked to propaganda. The
second is to disseminate information but the two models have a persuasive purpose. (b) Two way
communication: which is two-way asymmetric and two-way symmetric. The first one is
gathering information from publics to manipulate and control them while the second use
negotiation with the public and PR play the role of mediator.41
530
The classification was based on value, goals and behaviors held by organizations when they
practice public relations (Grunig & Grunig, 1989). Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig (1995) stated that
these models explain the values and a pattern of behaviors (practices) that communication
departments use to deal with publics31.
Press agentry model:
The goal of press agentry/ or publicity is propaganda32 and communication is one way
from sender to receiver. This model allows for economy with the truth or half-true
information. The most famous exponent is Phineas Barnum. This model is still widely
practiced in sports, theater and product promotion and accounts for about 15 per cent of
public relations activity nowadays. Those using it have something to promote or sell33.
Grunig described the purpose of the press agentry model is getting favorable publicity for
an organization in any way possible. The major job for practitioners in these organizations is
to acquire attention in the media for their organizations34.
Public information model:
This model is used to disseminate information to one or more publics. It is one-way,

from sender to receiver, but truth is important. The leading historical figure for this model is
Ivy Lee. It is estimated that this model is the most widely used today, by perhaps 50 per cent
of organizations, primarily government (local and national), non-commercial organizations

of all kinds, and business in general. They use press releases, leaflets, reports, guides, fact-
packs, videos and exhibitions to tell their publics about their existence or
functions35.Practitioners in this model act as journalist, whose job is to report objective
information about the organization (Grunig& Hunt). They also produce various
informational pamphlets, magazines consumer guidebooks, fact sheets, films, and
videotapes that are all designed to inform publics about the organization (Grunig & Hunt).
In both one-way model, the purpose of the communication is persuasive and public relations
practitioners who are responsible for disseminating the information serve as an advocate for
the organization (Carpenter, 2005)36 .
Two-way asymmetric model:
This model uses scientific persuasion, as propounded by Edward Bernays.
Communication is two-way, from sender to receiver and with feedback from the receiver,
but the power lies with the sender, whose intention is to persuade the receiver to accept and
support the sender organization. The purpose of the feedback they receive is solely to help
organizations target their messages in a way acceptable to their publics37. The concept of
asymmetry implies that public relations attempts only to change public attitudes and
behaviors rather than having the organization change due to public attitudes and behaviors
529
3- Public Relations:
Public relations has changed and progressed from the traditional PR as production of
messages, campaigns, and mass media effects on audiences (Bruning and Ledingham2000;
Bruning and Ledingham1998)23 to a professional PR that deal with all kinds of
communication between an organization and its publics in all fields such as politics,
economics, social and cultureetc.
Defining Public relations:

Edward Bernays said Public relations is a management function involving in tabulating
public attitudes, defining the policies, procedures and interest of an organization followed by
implementation a program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance24. Others
define PR as a tool of managing communication between organizations and their publics;

they said PR helps an organization and its publics to adapt mutually to each other25.
James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt defined Public relations as the management of
communication between an organization and its public26. Some think that PR is the art and
science of getting along well with other people27, Public relations is also an organizations
efforts to win the co-operation of groups of people: public relations helps organizations
effectively interact and communicate with their key publics28 while Cutlip, Center, and
Broom (1994) said PR has an influential role on public opinion they saw that: Public
relations is an effort to influence opinions through good character and responsible
performance based upon mutual satisfactory two- way communication29.Many definition

discussed many PR roles even organization reputations, this group think that:Public
relations is about reputation-the result of what you do, what you say and what others say
about you. Public relations practice is the discipline which looks after reputation- with the
aim of earning understanding and support, and influencing opinion and behavior. It is the
planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding
between an organization and its public30.
So, as a summary, public relation is all the communicational strategies used by an

organization to influence its public opinion, earning their support and mutual understanding
in aim to realize their goal and defend their reputation or their organization image.
Public relations Models:
Grunig and Hunt (1984) discussed the historical development* of PR and they proposed four
models of PR: press agentry (has existed since the mid- 19th century), the second model public
information (begin in the early 20th century), the third model of PR two-way asymmetrical
(came out during the First World War), the fourth model is the two-way symmetrical.
528
and practice their activities in a complex environment that affect and be affected by
organizations.
Environment:
The environment studies begin in an ecological field and shifted to other studies;
ecologists defined five levels of environment: Organism, population, communities,
ecosystem, biosphere, and organism means one individual animal. Population is the group of
the organism. Community is the group of animal and the other animals that live near it and
other biotic things that live near it [biotic means loving thing]. Ecosystem means the group
of the animals and the other animals that live near it and the abiotic things [abiotic means
nonliving thing]. Biosphere means the area of the world it lives in.19 Environment is the
circumstances or conditions that surround one; surrounding20 thats means An

environment is what surrounds a thing or an item. The environment is the surrounding. It
could be a physical element - physical environment that includes the built environment,
natural environment - air conditions, water, land, atmosphere etc or it could be human
environment - people surrounding the item or thing. This is also known as the social
environment and includes elements like the spiritual environment, emotional environment,
home, family etc.21 Environment is also the circumstances influences, stresses,
cultural,
demographic,
economic,
natural,
competitive,
political,
regulatory
and
technological factors (called environment factors) that effect the survival operations and
growth of an organization. In summary, environment is total of all surrounding of a living
organism, including natural forces and other living things, which provide conditions for
development and growth as well as of danger and damage22
According to Business Dictionary, environment is divided into internal/external
environment:
Internal environment:
Internal environment is all the conditions, entities, events and factors within an
organization which influence its activities and choices, particularly the behavior of the
employee. Factors that are frequently considered part of the internal environment include the
organizations mission statement, leadership, style and its organizational culture.
External environment:
External environment is all the conditions, entities, events and factors surrounding an
organization which influence its activities, choices and determine its opportunities and risks.
So, environment is all the physical and moral factors or activities that affect inside and
outside the organization whether positively or negatively.
527
Organization:
An organization in its simplest form is a person or group of people intentionally organized
to accomplish an overall, common goal or set of goals. Business organizations can range in
size from one person to tens of thousands.
Daft said that organizations are social entities that are goal-oriented; are designed as
deliberately structured and coordinated activity system, and are linked to the external
environment. An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals,
controls its own performance, and has a boundary separating it from its environment14. In
the French dictionary of communication they defined organization as an economical unit of
producing products or services15.
In the online business dictionary organization is also Social unit of people,

systematically arranged and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals on
a continuing basis.
All
organizations
have
management
structure
that
determines relationships and authority out defined tasks between functions and positions,
and subdivides and delegates roles, responsibilities, to carry. Organizations are open
systems in that they affect and are affected by the environment beyond their boundaries16.
An organization operates according to an overall purpose, or mission, and to overall values,
or priorities in the nature of how they carry out their activities. These values are the
personality, or culture, of the organization. Members of the organization often have some
image in their minds about how the organization should be working, how it should appear
when things are going well. So the organization image is its reputation, for that Organization
usually follows several approaches to reach their goals. Organizations have also major
subsystems, such as departments, programs, divisions, teams, etc. Each of these subsystems
has a way of doing things to, along with other subsystems; achieve the overall goals of the
organization. Often, these systems and processes are defined by plans, policies and
procedures. Organizations have feedback comes from its environment such as employees
who carry out processes in the organization, customers/clients using the products and
services, etc. Feedback also comes from the larger environment of the organization, e.g.,
influences from government, society, economics, and technologies.17
The definition of organization in public relations was defined according to the
relationship between organization and its publics18.
In sum, organization is a social, economical, political units ruled by people who have
common goals; they use well studied strategies to realize them. All this are gathered in
determined boundaries (building or other moral boundaries). These organizations live
526
Sperber and Wilson (La Pertinance, Communication et cognition, Paris, ditions de

Minuit, 1989) according to codes model they define communication as coding and decoding
messages7.
The dictionary mentioned that in organization communication are the entire actions to
give a good image for the society by using different techniques of communication such as:
public relations, press relations, publicity, product packaging, ext8.
Seeger, Sellnow and Ulmer define communication throw crisis and say: Communication
is an ongoing process that enables organizations to monitor their environments before and
during crisis, to understand and respond appropriately, to construct a consistent
interpretation, and to resolve the crisis and reestablish order. Crises take many forms, yet
communication is the common thread among these forms. If an organization is faced with a
false, destructive rumor, accurate communication by the organization is essential. During
natural disasters, communication is essential in coordinating recovery.9
3.1.2 Internal and External Communication:
Internal communication:
In the Public Relations Encyclopedia internal communication PR directed to and among

employees in an organization10 while the internal publics are groups of people inside the
organization, supervisors, administrative assistants, clerks, and other staff members11 and
the internal public relations messages can be understood through comprehension of the
various relationships that exist within the organization12.

External communication:
External communication are the entire actions of institutional, commercial and

communications from an organization (firms, public administrations, association) to
ameliorate its image to its public by using: public relations, sponsorship, publicity and
direct marketing13.
So as we see all the definitions are focusing on the communication inside or outside the
organization to define internal or external communication, this lead to think that there is a
relationship between place and communication for this, all the communicational activities,
strategies and methods used inside organizations is internal communications while all the
communicational activities, strategies and methods used outside the organization is
external communication.
2- Organization and Environment:
In this part we will discuss some terminological terms about organization and
environment, because they have a close relationship. Organizations live and practice its
activities in an environment. So what is an organization and what is its environment?
525
more the complexity creates a responsibility on managing these interactions in a scientific

way by dealing with it under human communication studies.
In our lives there is a term called crisis, this term is used in all sciences even in
communication there is crisis communication. So what is communication? What is
internal/external communication? And how can we define crisis communications and what
are their theories and strategies?
Defining Communication:
In wiki answers: Communication has been derived from the Latin word 'communis'
that means 'common'. Thus 'to communicate' means 'to make common' or 'to make known'.
This act of making common and known is carried out through exchange of thoughts, ideas
or the like. The exchange of thoughts and ideas can be had by gestures, signs, signals,
speech or writing. People are said to be in communication when they discuss some matter,
or when they talk on telephone, or when they exchange information through letters.
Basically, communication is sharing information, whether in writing or orally. Julia T.
Wood defined communication as a systemic process in which people interact with and
through symbols to create and interpret meanings4.
In the French encyclopedia dictionary of information and communication science the
communication was defined as follows: the actions of making relations with someone, or
making something in common with a person or group of persons so, communicate is making
common. Communication is also the technical way that people use to communicate.5
Harold Lasswell proposed a communication model composed of five questions, who says
what to whom in which channel with what effect? His model includes considerations of a
variety of factors to determine the impact of a communication.
Schema 2: Lasswell communication model
Abraham Moles (Thorie structural de la communication et socit, ditions Masson,

Paris, 2e dition, 1988) said that communication is the action of integrating an organism or
system situated in a point R to the environment of another individual or system situated in
other place or other era E, by using the common elements of knowledge. 6
524
descriptions, and explanations of processes occurring in local contests words, especially

when they are organized into incidents or stories, have a concrete, vivid, meaningful flavor
that often proves for more convincing to a readeranother researcher, a policy-maker, a
practitionerthan pages of numbersThe great advantage of qualitative research is that it
can change direction easily and refocus data collection for the next field trip. Conceptual
frameworks are simply the current version of the researchers map of the territory.1 In
qualitative research an important step is the development of a rich, theoretical
framework The use of theory, in doing case studies, is not only an immense aid in
designing the appropriate research design data collection, but also became the main vehicle
for generalizing the results of the case study. 2
My study is a qualitative study based on previous case studies literature review to support
and develop my theoretical view about PR models and their role in natural crisis, which is
The 21 May Boumerdes earthquake (North of Algeria).
III.
Data collection:
Unlike typical quantitative research procedures, case study data are not collected using
structured, predetermined, formal, and specific methods that follow a detailed plan of
operation. Data are instead collected using a more informal design that is flexible and
evolves during the data collection process. Change in data gathering procedures, said Miles
and Huberman, are expected during the course of most case studies.3
This study, as many other case studies, used theoretical propositions to provide an initial
structure for gathering data. These propositions provided a structure for the study and a
common framework for both case study sites. The theoretical framework for this study is the
effective public relations theory, communication theory.
This research is a qualitative study; it is totally based on previous literature (academic
papers, books, previous master and doctoral thesis, daily newspapers, and websites etc.). I
choose a famous Algerian news paper called SAWT AL AHRAR which means voice of
freemen; there was no need for multiple newspaper sources, because I was searching
informational news, not these about opinions and I used two numbers of El Djeich
magazine, the official magazine published by the Ministry of Defense.
IV.
Literature review:
1- Communication:
This complex world with all its components: humans, animals, plants, buildings,
technologies etc, are all connected, and by interaction they create communication. This
communication becomes more complex with the development of the human relations,
technologies and the variety of environment that have impact on organizations. More and
523
I.
Introduction:
Surviving, this short and strong word is the aim and goal of life for any organism, people,
organizations or other real or virtual organism. They seek to survive within a complex
environment that includes interactions and relations between many units in many fields.
Crisis is a small word but represents a threat to the surviving of an organization. Crises
are dramatic change, usually for worse. It may be a disaster, an event which involves loss of
life or extensive damage to property, or it may be a situation when an organization finds
itself under unwelcome scrutiny because of its behaviors or that of its staff. A crisis may
occur as a result of an accident or act of GOD.
Organizations always pretends crisis and try to find pre-solutions by planning and
time, especially when it is natural disasters.
learning from previous crises. Yes, crises are pretended but it is difficult to know the exact
Volcanoes, tsunami, landlines, floods, volcanic eruptions, tropical storms and earthquakes
are natural crisis often causes threats to the organization such as the Boumerdes earthquake,
the second largest earthquake recorded in central Algeria since 1716. The earthquake caused
a lot of damages and causalities; it put the government in critical condition, and damaged its
reputation, the main shock caused the loss of 2,278 lives, injuring more than 11,450 victims,
least 128 000 houses.
and making about 200,000 homeless and the earthquake destroyed or seriously damaged at
The environment can be a new field in PR but it is very important to describe the
communication in any company, cause the communication is internal communication (all

the communication process done inside the company whether horizontal or vertical
communication) or external communication (the communication process done outside the
company whether with competitive companies or the publics company).
So, the natural crises as they create internal relationship between the government and
its public they also create external relations between the affected state and other friendly or
enemy states. These activities are seen as disaster diplomacy activities related to the crises
that includes international aids and mutual condolences. These activities always realize deep
relations and many purposes within public relations and international public affairs.
So
What are environment levels and what are their relationships with communication? And
What is the relationship between PR and Communication?
II.
Methodology:
This study uses a case study and this one is a form of a qualitative research that often uses
several research methodologies to contextually examine a particular situation or
phenomenon. Qualitative data are attractive. They are a source of well-grounded, rich
522
Crisis: A rethinking about the relationship between

Public Relations, Communication, and Environment
KHALDI SOUAD
UNIVERSITY OF BECHAR
Abstract:
This study looks to extract the public relations models (James Grunig) practiced in post disaster
diplomacy by the Algerian government related to the 21 May 2003 BOUMERDES Earthquake
and their roles in internal/external communication.
This research is based on a self interpretation (new concepts) of these terms: Public Relations
models, environment levels, and internal/external communication. The interpretation of these

terms was inspired from their interaction, overlap and their use in a specific relation which is
disaster diplomacy activities used by government and foreign states toward affected government
in an attempt to create a new framework that deal with terms within the context of the
relationships and understanding them by using its approaches and tools.

As findings from this study; internal communication (all the communication strategies
practiced inside the country at micro-mezzo environment levels) and external communication
(communication diplomacy practiced between states in post disaster diplomacy at macro
environment level).
Environment in this research is all the communicational strategies done inside and outside the
country that surround and have a direct impact on state whether positive or negative.
Keywords: Public relations, Crisis, Boumerdes earthquake, environment, communication.
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tudiants trangers. Ainsi la rapidit de dbit au cours dun message oral, soit dans
la salle et avec les enseignants aussi ou bien hors de la salle et avec les collges
Nous avons remarqu aussi durant l'analyse des rsultats des enregistrements, que
ces difficults consiste au niveau des voyelles, des semi-voyelles, et non pas des
consonnes.
Et de l, la prononciation correcte des voyelles dans la langue franaise joue un
rle trs important dans le succs de la communication orale pour les tudiants
trangers dans nos universits algriennes, pour nous liminons le problme
d'viter les deux parties de communiquer les uns avec les autres.
Notes :
1-JEAN. Cazeneuve .Les cahiers de la publicit .Anne 1963.P: 11
2-Disponible sur internet : < http://www.google.dz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=
Bibliographie :
Ouvrages :
A.MARTINET. Elments de linguistique gnrale. Paris: Armand Colin. 1999.

BAYLON, Christian .FABRE, Paul. Initiation la linguistique .2e dition. Paris :
Armand Colin.
D. ANZIEU et J-Y. MARTIN. La dynamique des groupes restreints. PUF. Paris. 1968.
Franoise. Argod-Dutard. Elments de la phontique applique. Paris. Almand Colin.
2006.
G. AMADO, A. GUITTET. La dynamique des communications dans les groupes. Armand
Colin. Paris.
M.A. ROBERT. Psychologie du groupe. Ed. Vie Ouvrire. Bruxelles, 1969.
3-Disponible sur internet : < http:// SsKoygkCops7N3dKYv5hqHcpCg&sig2=
Sites internet :
http://www.ph-ludwigsburg.de/html/2b-frnz-s-01/overmann/baf3/3m.htm
http://www.linguistes.com/phonetique/phon.html
http://lesla.univ-lyon2.fr/IMG/pdf/doc-285.pdf
https://www.google.com/search?q=sch%C3%A9ma+de+la+parole&source=
https://www.google.com/search?q=sch%C3%A9ma+de+communication+de+jakobson
&tbm
http://books.google.dz/books?id=zhd3EDtMihMC&pg=PA63
Dictionnaire :
Jean, DUBOIS. Dictionnaire linguistique et des sciences du langage. Canada, 1994.
556
- Il n'y a pas de similitude pour la voyelle [ ], ltudiant algrien la prononce sans

fautes ni confusion, mais le malien la prononce de manire errone, et par
exemple, quand il lit le mot [l tw] ctait [ litw ], nous concluons qu'il y a
confusion entre le voyelle [ ] et [ i ] .
- Aussi, il y a un autre confusion pour le voyelle [ y ] et [ i ] pour ltudiant
tranger, par exemple : [
yp] tait prononc [
ip].
Concernant les consonnes :

Nous avons constat qu'il n'y avait pas de diffrence en ce qui concerne les
consonnes, que ce soit pour les tudiants trangers ou bien les tudiants algriens,
parce que chacune des parties a lu correctement. Et il ny a eu aucune confusion

entre ses derniers : [b] , [d] , [f] , [ ] , [k] , [l] , [m] , [n] , [ ] , [ ] , [p] , [ ] , [s] ,
[ ] , [t] , [v] , [z] , [ ].
Concernant les semi-voyelles :
En ce qui concerne les semi-voyelles, nous avons remarqu qu il y a une
confusion pour la semi-voyelle [ y ] seulement, bien sur toujours cette confusion

est lie aux tudiants africains maliens-, par exemple quand ltudiant malien
prononce le mot : coiffure ca donnait : [ kwafir ] et non pas : [ kwafyr ]. Mais

ltudiant algrien prononc correctement.
Conclusion :
Durant notre recherche, nous avons essay de rpondre la problmatique qui

consiste trouver la raison des difficults de communication orale entre les
tudiants trangres (maliens) et les tudiants algriens.
Pendant notre observation et aussi les analyses des enregistrements, nous pouvons
confirmer que la mauvaise prononciation subie par ces tudiants trangers en
raison de ce qui suit:
- La confusion entre / u / et / e /
- La confusion entre / e / et / i /
- La confusion entre le / u / et / i /
chaque fois o il y a une communication, nous avons remarqu que ce sont
toujours les mmes causes de ces difficults de communication orale chez les
555
Daprs ce qui prcde, nous constatons
que ltudiant malien prononce
diffremment confusion - la voyelle u par rapport ltudiant algrien qui

prononce la voyelle correctement. Cela conduit un des messages asmantiques
voire une transmission errone du message.
La confusion entre / e / et / i / :
Pendant la transcription de notre corpus (les deux enregistrements) nous avons
remarqu lomniprsence dune autre confusion entre / e / et / i /, par exemple le
mot avec : ltudiant malien prononce ce mot comme suit [avik], mais pour
ltudiant algrien nous avons remarqu le contraire, il prononce le mot
correctement [av k]. De l, nous pouvons dire que il y a un autre problme

phonatoire pour ltudiant tranger malien- au niveau de voyelle / e /. Autre
exemple : ltudiant malien prononce la phrase suivante de les laisser comme
suite [di li lisi], mais ltudiant algrien il le prononce [d le lese]. Cette autre
confusion conduit souvent un chec dans la communication orale entre les
tudiantsetc.).
tudiants trangers maliens- et leur entourage universitaire (enseignants et
La confusion entre le / u / et / i / :
Durant notre transcription de ces enregistrements, nous avons dcouvert
une
dernire confusion et entre le / u / et / i /, nous pouvons renforcer cette observation

travers l'exemple suivant : la prononciation du mot du fils : pour ltudiant
malien il est prononc comme suit [de fis], mais ltudiant algrien il le prononce
de cette manire : [dy fis].Donc, on peut dire que il y a une confusion entre / u / et /
i / pour les tudiants africains (malien) par rapport aux tudiants algriens.
Concernant les voyelles :
Aprs que les tudiants Algriens et trangers lisent des lettres par voie orale, nous
avons remarqu ce qui suit:
- Toutes les voyelles suivantes : [ a ] , [ i ] , [ y ], [ o ] sont similaires dans la
prononciation pour les deux parties ( les tudiants algriens et les tudiants
trangers maliens).
554
typographiques. Puis ltudiant malien nous a dit que la rapidit lors de la

communication, lui cause des soucis dincomprhension par les interlocuteurs, que
ce soit avec les tudiants ou mme avec les enseignants, car ces derniers sont
contraints de se rapprocher de lui pour bien couter et bien comprendre et la
plupart du temps ils demandent une rptition.
Mais de lautre cot pour l'tudiant algrien nous avons remarqu que lors de la
lecture du texte il ne respect pas la liaison, aussi autre remarque pour cet tudiant
algrien il na pas respect lui aussi les signes typographiques.
Par exemple :
-Que nous allons [k nuzal].

-Fais attention [fezatsj].
-Il les attache [illezata].
La
mauvaise
prononciation
est
Des difficults lies une mauvaise prononciation :

le
deuxime
facteur
qui
gnre
une
incomprhension lors de la communication. Effectivement lors lcoute et de la

transcription des enregistrements, on a constat que ces derniers sont orns de mots
et dexpressions quon ne peut ni identifier ni comprendre Donc, nous pouvons

classer les difficults de prononciation de la manire suivante:
La confusion entre / u / et / e / :
Parmi les extraits, rencontrs nous avons remarqu une certaine confusion entre le /
u / et / e /, par exemple dans le mot [derwa] pour ltudiant malien, mais aprs
notre demande de rptition, nous avons pu identifier le mot qui est du roi ,
mais pour ltudiant algrien on na pas constat une confusion , [dy rwa] il a lu le
mot correctement sans la moindre erreur, aussi
dautres exemples sont les
suivants:
[Se te mt] pour ltudiant malien, mais pour l'tudiante algrienne [Se ty
mt].
[kstreksJ] pour ltudiant malien, mais pour ltudiante algrienne

[kstryksJ].
553
La peur de ne pas comprendre le message pour le destinataire est considr

comme un facteur cl dans le problme de la communication orale, auquel cas,
nous constatons que cette peur affecte ngativement sur la communication orale.
Le manque de connaissances pour le rcepteur, ou que lmetteur utilise des
termes incomprhensibles ou inconnus pour le destinataire est l'une des difficults
de communication orale.
Interprtation des rsultats :
Grce ces deux (02) enregistrements, nous essayons de trouver les raisons qui
ont conduit aux difficults dans la communication verbale entre les tudiants
trangers maliens et les tudiants algriens. Ce que nous avons observ au cours de
l'analyse des enregistrements en optant pour la transcription : cest que deux
raisons majeures engendrent et causent
lincomprhension, voire lchec
communicatif, des messages entre ces derniers, et cela se reflte dans ce qui suit:
Des difficults lies la rapidit :
Lors de notre premire discussion avec les tudiants maliens pour avoir leur
accord de participation dans notre corpus en leur expliquant la nature et lobjectif
de notre travail, nous avons t contraints maintes reprises de leur demander de

rpter leurs propos car ils prononaient les mots dune manire hyper-rapide au
point ou on ne peut nullement saisir, diffrencier et comprendre leurs dires.
Donc, la premire raison est lomniprsence de la rapidit, cette dernire conduit
une prononciation incomprhensible et un chec de communication. Quand les
tudiants taient en plein enregistrement la difficult de lhyper-rapidit est reste
omniprsente, lors de la lecture, malgr leur respect pour la liaison, mais la
lecture des mots tait rapide, ils taient incomprhensible, les comprendre tait du
quasi impossible, lexemple suivant est illustratif :
Nous remarquons que ltudiant malien prononce le mot [elkstrwe] dune manire
rapide, donc on se retrouve dans lobligation de lui demander de rpter le mot
pour lidentifier et le comprendre lorsque ce dernier a lu le mot pour la deuxime
fois ici on a pu comprend le mot qui est il construit , aussi nous avons remarqu
que ltudiant pendant la lecture du texte il na pas
552
marqu les signes
tristesse, peur); Par exemple, dans le cas de la joie consiste nous une sourire, grce
l'activation des muscles faciaux.
* Emotion: lmotion est un des gnrateurs des expressions faciales.
Lmotion se traduit via de nombreux canaux_ comme la position du corps, la voix
et les expressions faciales. Une motion implique gnralement une expression
faciale correspondante (dont lintensit peut tre plus ou moins contrle selon les
individus), mais linverse nest pas vrai : il est possible de mimer une expression
reprsentant une motion sans pour autant ressentir cette motion. Alors que les
expressions dpendent des individus et des cultures, on distingue gnralement un
nombre limit dmotions universellement reconnues.
* Expression faciale : une expression faciale est une mimique faciale charge
de sens. Le sens peut tre lexpression dune motion, un indice smantique ou une
intonation dans la Langue des Signes.
Linterprtation dun ensemble de mouvements musculaires en expression est
dpendante du contexte dapplication. Dans le cas dune application en interaction

Homme-Machine o lon dsire connatre une indication sur ltat motionnel dun
individu, on cherchera classifier les mesures en termes dmotions. Pour une

application en Langue des Signes, les mesures seront combines pour construire un
sens, qui ne reflte pas forcment ltat motionnel de lindividu.
- Le silence:
Silence est une partie importante du processus de communication, car il peut tre
exprim nous dans la plupart des cas, toutes les choses ncessaires sans avoir
couter les autres.
Les difficults de la communication orale:
D'abord, parce qu'il ya une diffrence entre le message crit et oral, comprendre un
message oral doit utiliser des gestes parfois, car il est considr comme la moiti
du message. Mais malheureusement, les gestes et l'audition est l'un des problmes
qui entravent la communication orale pour certains auditeurs.
551
-La gestuelle:
Les gestes c'est lensemble des mouvements du corps utilise par quelqu'un pour
exprimer une chose surtout les gestes des bras, des mains, et de la tte). Donc
lindividu utilise dans sa vie quotidienne certaines des attitudes et des gestes pour
exprimer un esprit particulier et destins transmettre un message non-verbale,
parmi eux des gestes brusques et les gestes lents ainsi que d'intimider et tous, ces
gestes pour l'aider sur le succs du processus de communication, dans certains cas.
Le premier moyen de communication entre les humains taient travers des gestes
que, parfois, ils se compltent et accompagnent la parole et donc cest un message
non-verbal. Ces moyens comprennent, par exemple, les bras et les jambes et la
poitrine et la tte, il ya aussi dans certains autres cas, le comportement de la
dfense et de l'agression.
- Le regard :
Il est le plus important linstrument de communication dans le corps humain, car
ils contiennent beaucoup de nerfs, et parce que nous ne pouvons pas garder la force
souple nous Baisser le rideau de temps autre pour rduire la tension.
Et comme un moyen de communication, le regard peut exprimer, mais dans le cas

de savoir si la communication ou bien le dialogue et en face--face, sont
troitement associs aux relations orales qui contribuent la valeur expressive.
Dans les relations verbales chez les humains et en relation au regard, ont trouvent
trois axes : Captation, appel, retrait et tre avec.
-Le visage:
Les expressions du visage et l'un des plus moyens de communication l'importance

qu'ils sont puissant et naturel que dans le domaine des sciences comportementales
expressions du visage sont un langage spcial et important parce que les
expressions et les motions sont troitement lis les uns aux autres et souvent les
confond et est ce qui nous conduit dfinissons chaque lment par suite:
* Mimique faciale: est un tat de visage qui se produit au niveau du visage, en
utilisant diffrentes muscles du visage pour exprimer un cas particulier (joie,
550
sons ou bien quil est mdiatis par des signes et des symboles codifis : on a alors
affaire un langage parl ou crit 1
Caractristiques de la communication orale :

Grce cet lment sera en apprendre davantage sur les caractristiques les plus
importantes de la communication orale, qui nous nous servirons comme suit :
-Le verbale :
La communication verbale est une faon structure et codifie dexprimer une
ide, un besoin, un dsir, etc. Cest une manire directe et spontane de sadresser
lautre. Il ne faut toutefois pas croire que chaque fois quon ouvre la bouche, on
ralise une communication efficace ! Plusieurs critres, sils sont respects,
assurent lefficacit de la communication verbale. Essentiellement, il sagit de
formuler un message bref avec des termes simples, clairs et prcis. Il faut aussi
transmettre ce message en temps et lieu opportuns, en employant un vocabulaire et
un dbit convenables pour le rcepteur 2
On peut constater dpres ce qui prcde que la richesse du vocabulaire nest pas le
facteur le plus dterminant en communication. En effet, pour favoriser la rception

du message, il vous faut aussi croire ce que vous exprimez et employer un ton
appropri. De plus, quand vous recevez un message, vous avez avantage
comprendre au-del des mots, en prtant attention aux motions qui accompagnent
les ides mises.
-Le non verbal:
La communication non verbale: silences, gestes, postures, expressions faciales,

ton de la voix, rythme de llocution, vtements, regard, visage compltent le
message auditif. Elle exprime les motions, les sentiments, les valeurs. Cette
communication renforce et crdibilise le message verbal lorsquelle est adapte,
mais peut dcrdibiliser ce mme message si elle est inadapt .3
Donc, la communication non verbale Constitue de gestes, dattitudes, de
symboles, dexpressions faciales et de mouvements corporels.
549
Enregistrement n1 : Le lieu : Dpartement de Franais Khenchela-.

La date : Mardi 21 Avril 2012 12h :00 , la salle 04.
La dure : 20 minutes.
Dans cet enregistrement, les deux groupes dtudiants lisent des textes voix
haute, ces textes ont bien t choisis car il contient des voyelles, des consonnes et
des semi-voyelles.
Enregistrement n2 : Le lieu : Dpartement de Franais Khenchela-.
La date : Mardi 21 Avril 2012 12h :45 , la salle 10.
La dur : 15minutes.
Cet enregistrement est celui de la lecture des mots qui contiennent des voyelles,
des consonnes, des semi-voyelles pour bien dcortiquer les difficults et distinguer
les diffrentes prononciations (des deux groupes).
Le mot Communiquer
La communication orale :
vient du latin communicare cest--dire "mettre en
commun". Donc il faut communiquer pour vivre .Et sans paroles et changes Pas
de vie personnelle ou professionnelle Parce que la communication est le partage et
l'change d'informations, ainsi que de convaincre le monde de la communication et

de sduire aujourd'hui est un monde o l'image donne l'impression d'immdiat et
bon. Art de parler en public depuis l'Antiquit, qui dfend Quintilien, car il est
considr comme un outil prcieux d'Aristote et de Cicron et d'autres, et malgr le
passage du temps et mme de nos jours n'a pas t abandonn comme les besoins
de l'argumentation et de persuasion qui existait au sein des groupes sociaux.
Nous communiquons avec nos semblables pour les informer ou pour exercer sur
eux une influence. De toute manire, cette opration qui est base du phnomne
social et culturel, suppose la fois des moyens dexpression et des organes de
perception. Il est possible que chez certains animaux ce soit lodorat ou tel autre
sens inconnu de nous qui entre en jeu dans le processus. Chez lhomme, les modes
de communication le plus aptes tre labors sont indiscutablement ceux qui
sadressent la vue et loue. Le message audio-visuel peut dailleurs prsenter
deux formes diffrentes, suivant quil consiste directement en des images et des
548
Pour cerner lintrt de notre travail, nous nous interrogeons sur les questions
suivantes : quelles sont les origines des difficults de la communication orale entre
les tudiants trangers m aliens et leur entourage ? Quelles sont les facteurs qui
mnent ces obstacles et ces difficults communicatifs chez ces tudiants
trangers ? Les objectifs de ce travail de recherche sont
comme suit : la
prsentation des difficults de la communication orale entre les tudiants trangers,

montrer limportance de la prononciation correcte (en langue franaise) pour la
russite dune communication orale et aussi mettre laccent sur le ait que les
difficults de communication orale entre les tudiants trangres et algriens
peuvent tre dorigines linguistiques et culturelles, mais aussi linfluence de la

langue maternelle des tudiants africains maliens-sur la prononciation de la
langue franaise.
Corpus :
Vu que notre tude se proccupe et se vocalise sur la communication orale , nous
avons choisi les enregistrements comme moyen de collecte de corpus analyser et

tudier afin de bien reprer les difficults communicatives entre les tudiants
algriens et maliens , pour ce fait nous avons compar les pratiques langagires en
langue franaise qui est la seule langue de communication commune entre les
deux groupes- entre les tudiants algriens ,qui reprsentent le groupe tmoin , et
les tudiants maliens. Notre corpus est constitu de deux enregistrements
diffrents, le premier enregistrement contient des textes lus par les deux groupes
dtudiants et le second enregistrement comporte les lectures de mots contenants
des consonnes, des voyelles et des semi-voyelles par le groupe tmoin et le groupe
des tudiants maliens. Les interlocuteurs et les participants composants notre outil
dinvestigation qui est les enregistrements sont des tudiants trangers (maliens) :
trois tudiants (03) gs entre 21ans et 24ans inscrits en 3me anne licence au
dpartement de langue franaise luniversit de Khenchela et des tudiants
algriens : trois tudiants (03) gs entre 21 ans et 23 ans qui sont aussi inscrits
dans le mme dpartement et tudient dans le mme niveau universitaire. Le cadre
spatio-temporel de nos enregistrements est comme suit :
547
Les changes verbaux entre norme et ralit : Cas des tudiants maliens de
luniversit de Khenchela.
Maitre HASSANI Rima Aida
Universit batna
Rsum : A travers lanalyse dun corpus constituant les pratiques langagires des
tudiants maliens en Algrie, cet article tente de cerner et didentifier lorigine et la
nature des insuffisances en communication verbale, voire dchec communicatif
chez cette catgorie dtudiant trangers maliens.
,/,- 0)
*1 2 34
'(
*1 2 67 )
)* +
$1 8 1 9 : ; % < = 98
! " # ! $ %&
Mots cls : communication verbale- insuffisance analyse- tudiants maliens.
C67 CA B
? @1
:C
0#0>8
Introduction :
Comme il est bien connu que les universits algriennes reoivent depuis plusieurs
annes un grand nombre dtudiants trangers, en particulier les payes africaines
francophones (Afrique Noire).
Les tudiants trangers qui sont en Algrie dans le but de poursuivre leur
formation universitaire sont obligs de communiquer avec leurs collgues ou leurs
enseignants au milieu universitaire. Mais par fois ce nest pas une communication
russite, et les messages changs entre tudiants maliens et les algriens
tudiants et aussi tout lentourage avec lequel ils sont censs communiquer- sont
incomprhensibles. Quand on parle de difficults de communication on parle de
loral et non du volet crit.
Nous allons
essayer dans notre contribution de connaitre la nature de ces
difficults de la communication orale.
546

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Crisis: A rethinking about the relationship between Public

Construction dune chelle dvaluation de Capacits Technologiques

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