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LIGHTING FOR WORSHIP

LIGHTING & ELECTRONICS, INC.
Market Street Industrial Park Wappingers Falls, NY 12590 (845) 297-1244 FAX (845) 297-9270

Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................ 2
Basic Lighting Concepts .......................................... 3-5
- Qualities of Light
- Functions of Light
- Lighting Techniques
Lighting Non-Performing Areas ............................... 6-7
Lighting Fixture Choices .......................................... 8-9
Dramatic Lighting for Churches ............................. 10-12
Television Lighting Primer for Churches ................. 13-15
Making Sense of Technical Data Sheets ................ 16-17
Performance Lighting Math ....................................... 18
Common Lighting Terms ........................................ 19-21
Acknowledgements and References ......................... 21
Copyright 2002 Lighting & Electronics, Inc.

Introduction
The purpose of this publication is to provide information about general lighting concepts, equipment options,
terminology and other technical considerations as regards incorporating specialty lighting into a worship
setting. Performance (e.g., theatrical, stage or entertainment) lighting is the emphasis here. We are
providing a minimum of information regarding power distribution, and dimming and lighting control equipment. Manufacturers dedicated to those products are better qualified to supply information on those product
categories. Lighting in non-performing areas (sanctuary, altar, choir and congregation areas) are only
touched upon as a means of comparison and contrast to performance lighting fixtures.
Our intention is to keep the discussion simple and direct. We have not written this booklet for electricians nor
to create electricians. However, if you would like more detailed information regarding this subject, there are
several informative and easily-read books at your local library or bookstore. In addition, most equipment
manufacturers websites have specification data sheets, photographs, accessories and safety and assembly
instructions for each product they manufacture. The Entertainment Services and Technology Association
(ESTA) website, www.esta.org., is an excellent resource for entertainment product suppliers. The L&E
website can always be accessed at www.le-us.com.
Every production situation is different. Actively experiment with lighting to communicate your message nonverbally. Hopefully, the science contained in these pages will be helpful when coupled with your personal
creativity, enabling you to simply enhance a worship service or to add another level of inspiration to a seasonal production.
LIGHTING & ELECTRONICS, INC.
Market Street Industrial Park Wappingers Falls, NY 12590 (845) 297-1244 FAX (845) 297-9270

Basic Lighting Concepts

In order to light a production or a space you must first know some key things about light and
basic lighting concepts. The sections below will help in understanding the qualities of light, the
functions of light, lighting techniques and how they influence one another.

Qualities of Light
Qualities, such as intensity, distribution, color, and movement, give light
the ability to capture the functions for
which it is to be used. For example,
by distributing the light a certain way
and adding color to a fixture you can
quite easily create a mood and alter
the composition of a piece of work.
Intensity describes the brightness or
strength of the light source being
used. Through the use of a dimmer,
the intensity of a light is easily
regulated.
The distribution of light is how it
directly strikes a surface to reveal a
specific object. It depends on both
the direction and quality of the light.
The direction of light, whether from
the front, back, side or wherever it
may come from, affects the
audiences perception of size and
shape of the object being lit. The
highlights and shadows that it
creates gives them a sense of
direction. The quality of light is
describing its texture, whether or not
the light is diffused. When diffused
light is used, the overall effect lacks
intensity and seems soft compared to
the harshness that a more coherent
light provides.
Color is perceived as the most
dramatic and effective quality that
light has. Using gels (thin plastics
available in most any hue or tint)

which slide into frames, and then

mount on the light, helps create a
number of various effects. Vivid
colors will supply dramatic effects,
while pastel colors, on the other
hand, supply subdued effects.
Since all light is colored, a mixture of
colors is used to create white light.
The right color gels will help modify
or enhance the appearances of
costumes, clothing and settings.
Movement refers to a change in
intensity, distribution or color that in
turn alters the composition. Anything from a slight color shift, to a
dramatic blackout or even a simple
lighting cue is considered movement.

designers interpretation of theme

within the production and help to
emphasize it.
Mood, directly related to emotion, is the overall feeling that the
lighting can supply to the scene,
object, or character in a show. It
is usually distinguished by color;
for example, the use of red lights
characterize an intense and
exciting mood within scene, while
a mix of blue light would depict a
more somber and cool mood.

Functions of Light
The main objective of lighting within the
theatre is to provide both the actor and
the audience member with an atmosphere and meaning to the setting
which surrounds them. Its components
can more easily be described by four
subcategories: visibility, composition,
reinforcement and mood, which when
altered, help create the desired environment.

Through the use of colored gels

you are able to express a
number of different moods. Lit
with a plain, un-gelled light, the
picture above presents a
magical and dream-like forest
Visibility is seeing what is meant to be environment, while the picture
below, lit with a medium-blue
seen. It is not only what you see, but
what you are unable to see, that makes gel, alters that dream-like
it so important. This may mean seeing atmosphere, giving it more of a
dismal, nightmarish feeling.
the three-dimensional object without
any of its details, or just seeing its
silhouette, depending on the effect you
want to provide.
Composition is the overall picture of
the stage, which can include design
strategies ranging from symmetry,
balance, and abstractions, to just
symbolistic elements.
Reinforcement means that the lighting
choices should capture the scenic

Lighting Techniques
Front Lighting is most commonly
achieved by positioning two lighting
fixtures at approximately forty-five
degree angles above the subject or
object on either side. It provides a
natural look and is commonly used
for visibility purposes along with
color washes. If you are in search of
an effect where the light appears
harsher and shadows are much
steeper, this can be easily accomplished by moving the lights to
where they create a higher angle
towards the object. A lower angle
will in turn cause what is known as
flat lighting because shadows
disappear and there is no definition
of key features.

instruments and objects in the back to

be much more visible and, therefore, a
greater part of the setting. The most
common lights used are Par Cans and
Fresnels, but occasionally Ellipsoidals
are also used.

that needs to stand out. They

may also help improve the
visibility within a space, which is
useful for someone who needs to
read music and other similar
situations. Fresnels, PAR Cans
and Borderlights are especially
useful for this application.

Side Lighting gives you the addiConclusions

tional flexibility of hanging more lights
along the side of a performance
Creating a mood would not be
space. It can be very effective with
possible without the color and
intensity that light can have. In the
same way, the techniques used to
hang lights bring out the best
qualities that will fit the needs of a
production; front lighting creates
more visibility, while using techFront lighting remains a great
niques such as background
technique for lighting people. At
the use of bold colors and is comlighting create bold effects that will
certain angles, lights in front help
monly used during musical producadd to the overall composition of a
define the facial features better
tions because it provides a very
production. Although the qualities,
than other lighting positions are
presentational look to a piece.
functions, and techniques of
able to. Generally, Ellipsoidals,
Frequently used are Ellipsoidals and lighting are very plainly divided into
Fresnels and PAR Cans are most
Par Cans, but you may see Fresnels their own categories with specific
commonly used for front lighting.
and Strip Lights as well.
characteristics to each, they are
clearly dependent upon one
Back Lighting is another techBackground Lighting, known also
another. It is important to rememnique of lighting that has its own
as cyc lighting, allows you to create
ber that even though the three may
unique characteristics. When
a bold and powerful effect by having
rely on each other most of the
something is lit from behind as well lights that are mounted above and
time, they can also serve to work
as overhead, it separates the object below a backdrop. The colors
against one another. For example,
from the background, creating
chosen should accent the forefocusing too much on building the
depth. It is great for creating
ground of the space. This technique right mood by adding too many
silhouettes, and when used in
is also useful in the lighting of
lights, or even using down lights at
conjunction with front lighting it
silhouettes and is created through
the wrong angle that become
adds another dimension to the
the use of Striplights, Cyc Fixtures,
distracting, could hinder the
entire composition. A more intense and, sometimes, Scoops.
visibility of an audience member.
light source is needed than one
That is why when working on
would use for front lighting. This is Down Lights, which are hung from
lighting for any event, it is a mixture
a quite common technique in a
above, are used to draw the eye to a and balance of these three which
concert setting because it allows
specific area or specific person
allows for success.

BACKGROUND OR BACKDROP
BACKGROUND LIGHTING

BACKGROUND LIGHTING

BACK LIGHTING

SIDE
LIGHTING

SUBJECT ILLUMINATION AREA

SIDE
LIGHTING

DOWN OR TOP LIGHTING

FRONT LIGHTING

CONGREGATION

The diagram above is a simple light plot illustrating the five lighting positions
described on the preceding page. The performance area is divided into four
quadrants for front, side (left and right), and back lighting. Down lighting is depicted in the center of the performance area and is focused straight down. Finally,
the background lighting is shown focused to the rear of the performance area and is
illuminating backgrounds or backdrops.

Lighting Non-Performing Areas

Understanding the significance of light on an area is key before determining the specific needs
of your locale. It has the ability to define space, enhance color, texture and form as well as be
functional by providing the necessary visibility for a room. Although light may go unnoticed, it
undoubtedly has psychological effects on the people who are exposed to it. Brightly lit, sunny
spaces are welcoming, comforting and full of life, while rooms with little or poor lighting appear
unfriendly, bland and chilling. Lighting can change the mood and attitude of a person and can
hinder essential things like concentration if done improperly.
The Basic Terminology

Techniques of Distribution

There are a variety of different terms

in which light is measured that help
when designing and making crucial
decisions about your particular
needs. Light is commonly expressed
in footcandles, which technically
means one lumen per square foot,
but are merely the measurement
used to distinguish the given quantity
of light in a certain area. The amount
of light that a birthday cake candle
emits from a foot away is equal to
about one footcandle; the higher the
candlepower, the brighter the light.
For example, auditoriums or assembly spaces average about 15-30 footcandles, while a lecture hall, where
more close detail work would be done
and a brighter light required, averages about 70-150 footcandles. The
average footcandle amounts vary
slightly from this in religious facilities
because lighting is distributed
differently. In a church for example,
the altar is usually provided with
about 100 footcandles, the choir with
about 30 footcandles, the pulpit with
around 50 footcandles, and main
worship area with an average of 25
footcandles.

Especially in non-performance type

environments, the distribution of light is
crucial in order to fulfill the overall
objective. The different techniques are
broken up by categories, with the most
common being general lighting.
General lighting, which when used is
hardly noticed, tends to be in the form
of nondescript fixtures or fixtures that
are hidden, just to give basic, natural
light to a room. Their main purpose is
function and they are not meant to
stand out or be blatantly visible. Used
in conjunction with general lighting are
supplementary units, sometimes
referred to as task lighting. Task
lighting is used to localize light, adapting it to the specific features of a room.
Desk lights or hanging fixtures that fall
right above a table are considered task
lights, and help to add extra focus to a
certain area. Wall sconces and similar
types of supplementary lights can be

Color temperature is a way in which

light is compared and measured.
Described in degrees Kelvin, it
depicts the tone of light, how the light
looks to us in terms of white, not its
actual temperature. While this term
evaluates the effects of the light itself,
color rendering refers to how the light
affects color. It is the way in which
the light makes the color of an object
appear. Color rendering always
needs to be considered when choos- used to add highlights and draw
ing the appropriate fixtures because it attention to paintings, murals, sculpis a feature of light that can alter the tures and wall segments.
entire appearance of a room.

How Much Light Will I Need?

In order to select fixtures and
choose their arrangement, one first
needs to determine the amount of
overall light that will be needed.
Elements, such as the size of an
area and ceiling height, may
require more fixtures because of
their size, while the color of a room
may require less because lighter
colors absorb about 1/3 the
amount of light that a darker color
would. Most importantly, knowing
the function for which the light is
going to be used will give one a
better idea of how much of it is
needed. The objective may be to
create a setting with optimal
visibility or, on the other hand,
create a more dim, subtle environment. All the details may seem
trivial, but will affect ones choices
and should be taken into careful
consideration. Keeping in mind
the specific characteristics of the
room and the function the light is
being used for will help lead to
success.
Making the Right Choices
Once the amount of light is
determined, it is time for fixture
selection. This involves paying
attention to the aesthetic components of the lighting fixture.
Consider the look you want the
light itself to have, as well as the
look you want the fixtures to have,
and how that in turn will help
create the desired mood. Lighting
fixtures should never deter from
the beauty of the architecture or
from the overall dcor of the room,
but instead enhance their surroundings and add functionality in
a space. Also remember to

7
choose fixtures that will best fit the
needs of your lighting desires as well as
your economics. For settings such as
churches, where light tends to be static,
looking for lamps with longer lives and
lower wattages are often good choices.
Compare the different fixtures that are
available as well, without focusing too
much attention on the initial cost of the
equipment. For example, many lights
are available with either quartz or metal
halide lamps, both having their advantages and disadvantages. Many metal

halide lamps only use 150 watts or less,

making them very efficient, and have a
lifespan of 10,000 hours or more, while
quartz lamps use about 200 to 1000
watts and last 100 to 2,000 hours, but
have the ability to dim, whereas halide
fixtures do not. If dimming is a feature
you are interested in, does having the
ability to dim the light outweigh the
expense of having to change the bulb
five to ten times more often and outweigh the energy cost savings? Make
sure you look into things such as
whether or not the fixture is user friendly,
its overall efficiency, and the flexibility
that particular fixture will give you.
Arrangement
Lastly, its time to decide on the quantity
and arrangement of your previous
choices. Both the arrangement and the
quantity of lights depend on which
techniques you choose to use, whether
it be general lighting, task lighting, or
most likely, a good balance of each.
Placement should be based on a
combination of understanding basic

techniques, along with simply personal tastes. While lighting can

cause distractions, shadows and
glare if done improperly, it can be

an amazing adjunct architectural tool

and can transform any place into an
attractive and inviting environment.

Lighting Fixture Choices

There is a broad variety of entertainment lighting fixtures from which to choose. To add to the
potential confusion, a fixture can be classified in any number of ways: by the intended lamp
type, by the lenses used, or by the reflector type employed. Most often, however, we characterize it by its intended application. We either want to focus on a very defined area for the purpose
of drawing attention to it (highlighting) or to cover a broad area with light and color (washing).
The primary purposes of each fixture type is outlined within each description.
Within the broad category of performance lighting there are various levels of technical sophistication that range from the high tech moving lights, complete with on-board computer electronics, to a fixture constructed from only a socket and a lamp. For the purpose of our descriptions
here, we are only focusing on the most common and most cost-effective performance fixtures.
These fixtures, however, are the same ones that you would find on a high school and college
stage or in a Broadway production.

Ellipsoidals: This fixture is used primarily for spot lighting and longer throw applications. The ellipsoidal

spotlight produces a concentrated smooth field of light that is of a fixed size. The ellipsoidals beam can be
adjusted from a sharp edge focus to a soft diffused edge. Available in various focal lengths, these fixtures
also incorporate shutters for shaping the beam of light and pattern holders for projecting images. Lamps
used in this class of fixture typically range between 500 to 1000 watts. The most popular and most efficient
lamps currently chosen are the 575 to 600 watts.

Followspots: Followspots produce an intense hard or soft edged beam, which is adjustable from spot to

flood at a variety of distances. This fixture is operated manually to accentuate a subject. Normally mounted
on a stand, followspots can be easily moved to a desired location. Most units are available with color booms
allowing for rapid color changes. Followspot size, wattage, throw distance and price vary greatly.

Fresnels: The fresnel is a lensed fixture that produces an even field of light with a soft edge. Beam
spreads can be adjusted from narrow spot to wide flood . Fresnels are most useful when precise lighting
control is required and typically are used for area, side, back and wash lighting. A barn door is often used to
control and crop the beam. Depending upon the fixture, wattage capacity ranges from 100 to1500 watts for
theatrical units and goes as high as 10,000 watts for TV fresnels.

PAR Cans: These fixtures are most often used for wash lighting applications. Professional, yet inexpen-

sive, PAR lights offer easy focusing, relamping and coloring. Lamps are available in a wide range of wattages
(90 to 1000 watts) and beam spreads, maximizing the flexibility of these compact and lightweight fixtures.

Floodlights: Floodlights are lightweight and versatile fixtures used for general washes of light. There are

several categories of floodlights. Scoops produce a diffused, soft edged field of light effective where smooth
washes of light and color are required. Floods produce a very broad beam with maximum light output and
even color temperatures. Compact and portable, these fixtures are ideal for use in confined spaces. Wattage ratings range from 100 to 1500 watts, depending upon the fixture.

Cyc Lights: Cyc lights are a family of fixtures that are designed to provide a smooth even wash of light that
is typically used for lighting backdrops and other vertical surfaces. Cycs are available in strips (multi-lamp
units) or as individual lamp fixtures and are suitable for groundrow or hanging mount. Most cyc lights are
equipped with asymmetrical reflectors, which allow these units to deliver a wide wash of light both horizontally
and vertically.

Striplights/Borderlights: Designed to provide a general wash of light, striplights are generally used for
background lighting, cyclorama lighting and common washes in the form of downlights. These fixtures
contain a strip of lights in a single housing that is wired on multiple circuits. Borderlights often use PAR
lamps (wattages between 35w and 250w per lamp or 2400 watts per circuit), while striplights utilize low
voltage MR-11 or MR-16 lamps (wattages between 35w and 75w per lamp or 2400 watts per circuit).

Fluorescent: Dimmable fluorescent striplights let you create incredibly soft, even washes of light. They

are completely dimmable on most dimmers. Light weight and low heat output make these fixtures a perfect
choice for general washes and fill lighting.

Blacklights: Blacklights produce an ultraviolet (UV) light. Ultraviolet light will only illuminate fluorescent

colors. These fixtures historically have not been used in houses of worship; however, recently they are being
used for special effect lighting.

Metal Halide Fixtures: These fixtures are defined by the type of lamp used. The utilization of metal
halide lamps offers excellent color rendering, warm to cool color appearance and extended lamp life with
reduced heat and lower energy costs. They are designed for use in applications that do not require dimming
capabilities.
Available in PAR, Ellipsoidal, Fresnel and Cyc fixtures, these units can be used for general down lighting and
to accent the pulpit, altar and choir.

Dramatic Lighting for Churches

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by Eric Von Fange

What does lighting do?

Why go to all the bother to light a
church cantata or dramatic production? Does it really make any
difference? Proper lighting enhances the emotional impact
received from any presentation, and
because God created man to
respond to his feelings, it does
make a difference. The lighted area
focuses attention. The colors set
the mood. The lighting changes
draw the audience into a smooth
visual transition from one scene to
another. Quality dramatic lighting
adds a dimension to your production that is difficult to achieve any
other way.
The Basics
Dramatic lighting is comprised of
basic elements working together to
produce a desired effect. The
elements of dramatic lighting are as
follows:

right, and left. If the platform is

deep, three more areas can be
added, center rear, right rear, and left
rear. The baptistery may also be
used. Then you must determine
where the people are going to be!
Watch a rehearsal or go over the
script with the director. Keep several
sketches of the platform with you.
(Make one and Xerox it.) Pencil in
the areas where people will be.
Remember to include the choir and
musicians when they are the focal
point instead of the actors. Make a
list of these areas. See if you can
combine any areas to save your
lighting resources.

The positioning of these lights can

have almost as much effect as the
color of the lights.

Read the script!

If the lights are too high, they will

give the actors Racoonitis, deep
shadows on the eyes and face. A
lot of communication is done
though the eyes. It is important to
keep them in the light. With the
lights at the proper angle, the face
has nice modeling and the actors
shadows drop off before hitting the
scenery walls.

Think about the mood of each scene

or song. What feeling does the
scene leave with you? Is it warm or
cold, strong or quiet? Pencil in the
moods for each of the areas on your

Direction The angle that the light

is coming from in relation to the
talent or set pieces.

Color Hue of light perceived by the

observer.
Movement Changing the color,
brightness, or location of the lighting
on stage.

Mix and Match

Any dramatic lighting uses these
components to help convey the
message of a production. Quality
dramatic lighting has the right
proportions of the elements at the
right time. All the elements are
important, but a weakness in one
area can often be made up by
carefully working with the others.
How do you know what to light?
Watch the blocking! Make a sketch
of the stage. Then divide the
platform into areas, such as center,

If the lights are too low they will

wash out all details in the scenery
and the actors faces. This makes
for a Plastic look. It may also
leave shadows from the actors on
the scenery walls. This may be
distracting. If low placement is your
only option, keep the lights to the
side as much as possible to throw
the shadows off the staging area.
Racoonitis!???

Where do the lights come from?

Brightness Relative intensity of

one light compared to another.

Timing When and for how long,

the lights fade up, remain on and
fade out.

The lights need to create character for the actors.

list. Notice the numbers of actors. Is

there a mob scene, or a solo? How
large of an area is needed? Will the
actors move from area to area, or talk
to people in other areas? Does the
audience need to participate? Are
there any special effects required?
Write all of these things down also.
Place the lights!
You now have a detailed idea of
where you need the lights to hit and
what the moods are. It is time to lay
out the fixtures. Under normal
circumstances each area should
have at least three lights: One from
either side and one from the rear.

All the areas where performers will

be during the production should
have a minimum of one light hitting
them. It is desirable to have three.
My normal formula for placing the
lights is to put the front lights for
each area approximately 45 degrees up and to either side of the
talent and to have a backlight
straight behind and up at a 45
degree angle.
Combine them!
With each area having its own lights
it is possible to bring up several
areas together to cover a large
crowd scene, or to bring up only
one area to cover an intimate solo.
An area that has an unusual event
(such as the crucifixion in an Easter
play) may need special lighting in
addition to the normal area lights.
Wash Lighting
Another method that may be used
by itself or as a supplement to the

11
areas, is wash lighting. Washes

These usually have four metal flaps

that can be positioned to shape the
light beam.

make you feel cheery or melancholy?

Is the feeling delicate or very intense,

PAR Fixtures

cover a large area with a color. If the

production is a cantata without
drama, several washes would work
well to light the production. Washes
can also be used to set the mood for
the entire acting area, with the area
lights accenting the drama in a
particular location. This can look
very nice. Wash lights are generally
placed to the sides and slightly
forward of the acting area. These
lights do not need to be as high as
the area lights.
Ellipsoidals
The ideal light fixture for theatrical
frontal light is an ellipsoidal spot.
The ellipsoidal spot is very controllable. It has a special reflector and
lens system that allow it to have
either a sharp or soft edged light
beam. Sharply focused you can
light up the right side of a persons
face and not have any spill light on
the left side of their face (assuming
they sit still). When the ellipsoidals
are softly focused they may be
blended smoothly. In the church,
the ellipsoidals light beam can be
shaped to cover only the area
desired. This focuses the attention
of the audience to where the acting
is taking place.
Fresnels
The fresnel has a flat lens with
concentric circles on it in the front of
the fixture with a lamp with a reflector behind the lamp. By moving the
lamp and reflector in relation to the
lens, the light beam is focused either
narrower and brighter, or wider and
less intense. A fresnel is also quite
controllable by adding barn doors.

PAR fixtures are very simple metal

cans with a socket at one end. They
are not very controllable, but the light
beam angle can be changed by
switching lamps. Several different
beam widths are available from very
narrow spot to wide flood. A one
piece lamp/reflector is put inside the
can. The PAR lamps look like a round
car headlight. PARs are very efficient
light sources because of the nature of
the lamp/reflector. They are good for
washes and backlights. With careful
lamp selection PARs may also be
used as area lights and specials,
although they will have more light spill
than either ellipsoidals or fresnels.
Color!
Different colors can be placed in a
color frame on the front of most light
fixtures to color the light. Color can

etc...? During scenes that are

buoyant and happy the warm colors
should dominate the platform. For
scenes that are more moody use the
cooler colors. If a scene is very
intense, deeper colors may be used.
There are many different colors
available, so experiment during
rehearsal to find just the right colors
for each scene of your production.
How Bright?

The intensity level of the light needs

to be set also. On moody scenes
keep the levels down to make the
audience use more effort to see what
is happening. They will capture more
of the intensity of the scene this way.
A general rule for rehearsals is to
start with the lights at fifty percent of
their maximum brightness and adjust
from there. Full up looks should be
reserved for finales and scene
add much to a production. Each area climaxes. The audiences attention is
normally has a warm color from one
placed by varying the lighting levels
front side, a cool color from the
of the different areas during the
opposite front side, and a backlight
production. The brighter areas will
color to match the action. Pink and
receive more attention. So if a
amber are warm colors, blue and
particular area is more important in a
lavender are cool colors. An amber or scene, have it slightly brighter than
pale lavender will do well for the
the other areas.
backlight depending on the dominant
Setting Ques?
mood of the scene in that area. Save
greens for scenery; they are not
As the actors go from place to place
particularly flattering for people.
the lighting must keep up with what
they are doing. This is accomplished
Whats the mood?
by planning ahead of time what lights
To use colors, decide what the mood
will be on, when they are on, and
is for each scene. Does the scene
how brightly they are on.

12
This information is put together in
rough form from the sketches of the
scenes that were done earlier. Use
this to locate the talent in the different
areas.
Write it down, (or get a memory
console!)
Notation may be used to make it
easier to keep track of things. For
example, to designate dimmer five at
full, seven at half, and twelve at
twenty-five percent write:
5, 7/5, 12/25. The left side is the
dimmer and the right side is the
intensity. If a dimmer is at full, no
intensity is listed. If a dimmer is not
used, it is not written down for that
scene. All of this is organized into a
Que sheet that the lighting console
operator utilizes to remember what to
do. The nicest way to do this is to
have a complete typed script of the
production, including all of the words
from any music as it will actually be
performed. A wide margin is included to allow space to write down
the lighting Ques. This is put into a
loose leaf notebook. It is helpful to
have several copies of this as during
rehearsals the lighting is refined and
the original can get messy. Oh, how
wonderful it is to have a memory
lighting console that does most of
this for you!!!
Dimmers and Control Stuff
The lighting console controls the
lighting dimmers. The dimmers often

operator of the console needs to have a good view of what is happening on the platform. This may be from the front row of the balcony or
wherever works out best for your situation. The lights are plugged into
the dimmers in a logical order (by area, by color, etc...). More than
one light may be plugged into a dimmer if they work together, such as
two blue wash lights, as long as the dimmer is not overloaded.
Conclusion !!!!!
Lighting can greatly enhance your productions. Most of the time,
lighting is a compromise. The goal is to produce the best look with
the resources available to you (people, time, placement, equipment,
and money). After using dramatic lighting for a while, you will develop
your own style of lighting. Try it - youll like it!

Eric Von Fange is the owner of The Light Source in

Fort Mill, SC. He is also well known for his achievements in church lighting design and production. The
Light Source is a manufacturer of hanging hardware
used by the entertainment industry.
Both, this article, Dramatic Lighting for Churches and
the article to follow, Television Lighting Primer for
Churches have been reprinted in their entirety.
(C) Copyright 1992 By Eric Von Fange

are at another location closer to the

light fixtures or power room. The

Television Lighting Primer for Churches

by Eric Von Fange

When its time to start televising the first service, everyones attention often goes to acquiring TV cameras.
However, even the best cameras in the world will make poor pictures if the lighting is not right. Proper
television lighting makes the picture pleasing to the viewer, helping him to get the most out of the production.
Our message is Jesus Christ, and we must be careful to present Him clearly to the world. We communicate
with our eyes. If the viewer cannot even see the pastors eyes when he is preaching, how can he receive the
full impact of the message? Proper lighting will help to get the message across.
Television cameras needs:
Television cameras have basic illumination needs. A certain amount of light must be present in order for the
camera to perform up to specifications. Anything below this level will look grainy or soft on camera. In a low
light situation, a fast moving preacher will leave part of himself or his background lagging behind in the
picture because the sensitivity on the camera must be raised so high that the tubes retain the image for a
while before discharging. Modern cameras need between 100 and 200 footcandles as a minimum level,
depending on several variables (lenses, distance, age of tubes, quality of the camera).
Another camera limitation is the contrast ratio. This is the ratio of intensities between the lightest and the
darkest parts of the picture. A television camera will not properly function with a contrast ratio greater than 30
to 1. Things that are brighter than the high end of the ratio will bloom (be a white blob on the screen), while
things darker than the low end of the ratio will be black.
Here is an example of exceeding the ends of the ratio. Shoot with the primary subject inside with a window to
the outside in the shot in the background (say at 11 am on Sunday morning). The sun is much brighter than
the television lighting. Assuming that the camera is irised for the inside, the window blooms, and no exterior
details can be seen. If the camera is adjusted to make a legal picture, what is outside will be clearly seen,
but almost everything inside will be black. What is included in the shot can be very important.
The properties of light:
Light itself has certain properties that are governed by the laws of God (physics). Light reflects, or to put it
another way, bounces off of things. A camera sees the reflected light and makes a picture. The farther light
has to travel, the less intensity it has. In fact, light decreases by the square of the distance traveled. If a
lights output is 100 footcandles at 10 feet, at 20 feet there will be 25 footcandles, at 30 feet, 11, at 40 feet
only 6. This is why such powerful lights are needed for television. The law also applies to the light that is
reflected back to the camera. The farther that it has to travel, the more intensity that it loses.
Light has many properties that are important to proper television lighting. The quality of light may be either
hard or soft. Quality is the lights shadow making ability. If a light produces a sharp, crisp shadow behind an
object, it is considered a hard light source. If it produces little or no shadow, then it is considered a soft light
source.
The size of the light source has a lot to do with how soft it is. On a bright sunny day (the sun is very small
compared to the whole sky), it is easy to see your shadow. If you were to hold out your hand you could count
the fingers on your shadow. On a cloudy day (the entire sky is the light source), you dont even have a
shadow. Obviously, there are ranges of hard and soft light.
Intensity is one of the properties of light important to television. The intensity is basically the brightness of the
light. However, it is the relative intensity that is more important to the picture than the overall intensity.
Things near the high end of the contrast ratio draw attention to themselves; things on the low end, tend to
withdraw from the picture. A camera must have a minimum amount of light, but filters could always be put in
to adjust for too much light. The intensity can be changed in a light fixture several ways (lowering the voltage
with a dimmer, moving the fixture back, adjusting the optics, changing the lamp wattage, or putting something in front of the light such as a metal screen or plastic diffusion).
Color is another quality of light. Television cameras are particularly sensitive to color. The color of a light
source is measured in degrees Kelvin, a scientific temperature scale. The color temperature of a light

13

14
source is measured by comparing it to a piece of tungsten that has been heated to have approximately the
same color. This light color is then identified by the degrees in Kelvin the tungsten was heated to. Normal
Quartz lighting has a color temperature of 3200 degrees Kelvin. This is the most common lamp color used
in television. Household type incandescent lamps have a color temperature of approximately 2600 to 2900
degrees. Daytime sun has a color temperature of 5600 degrees Kelvin. The north sky is 10,000 degrees.
The higher the color temperature the more blues that are present. The lower the color temperature the
more red/yellows are present.
A television camera will not automatically adjust the way our eyes do for different colors. It is best not to mix
color temperatures in the picture. TV cameras have a tolerance of about plus or minus 200 degrees Kelvin.
This allows for some dimming of fixtures, (down to about 70%), without the picture being adversely affected.
It is best to keep the main light (key light) for a subject near its full level when subjects are being shot as the
center of attention. Backgrounds and foregrounds are not that critical and may be dimmed completely out
of the range as needed.
Television lighting functions:
Enough of all that technical stuff, lighting is supposed to be fun! It is even more fun when you coordinate
the lighting with the director and talent so that every base has been covered. Start out by deciding what is
going to be included in the shots. Will the director have the cameramen shooting EVERYTHING, or only a
few selected areas? Knowing this is essential to doing a good job. If you are going to shoot only the pulpit,
dont forget the background; it is part of the picture, too! One of the basic rules of television lighting is that,
If you dont light it, you wont see it. Some ambient light may make it visible, but it would look much better
with the proper lighting. Find out where the cameras are going to be. What is their normal range if they
move about? This gives you a basis to deciding where the lights will go.
Each main subject needs a key light. The purpose of the key light is to provide definition by bringing out
the subjects features. A hard light source makes features stand out with the shadows that it creates. So a
hard light source is normally used as a key light for this reason.
To soften the shadows made by the key light a fill light is used. The fill light is much less intense than the
key light, and is often a soft light source so that its shadow is negligible. It is good to see only one shadow
on a subject, that of the key light. The fill light is generally located on the opposite side of the camera from
the key light.
One more function of light is necessary for good lighting of the subject - a back light. The purpose of the
back light is separation. It places a rim of light around the subjects head and shoulders. This makes the
picture more three-dimensional by popping the subject out from the background. Television is a twodimensional media that tries to imitate three-dimensional reality. The back light is very important for helping
to do this.
There are many ways of putting the key, fill, and back lights together. The angles and intensities strongly
affect each other. Generally, for single camera operation the key light is placed to the side of the camera.
The fill light is on the opposite side of the camera approximately 90-110 degrees from the key light. The
back light makes a straight line with the key, the talent being the midpoint. If the talent looks where the
camera was when the lights were set, he will look good from any camera angle. But if he turns his head to
follow the camera, with the exception of a narrow range, his lighting will suffer greatly.
The background lighting needs to be separated from the foreground lighting. This allows the lighting
person to vary the ratio between them. When the pastor is wearing a light colored suit the background can
be brighter than when he is dressed in dark clothing. For the song service the background would be
brighter than during the sermon. It is almost always best for the background to be less intense than the
subject. This will help the viewers attention to be focused on the subject not the background.

15
Multiple camera lighting:
There is a way to cover multiple camera angles at the same time. I call this the key double fill method. This
gives great freedom to the talent, and allows the cameras to shoot from almost anywhere across the front of
the set. This lighting style works very well for churches. For this to work, the intensity of the fill lights is
important. If the fills are too bright, the lighting will look bad. Run the fill lights about half the intensity of the
key light.
In order to light a larger area than one light will cover by itself, simply install multiple units. Keep the angles
the same and blend the lights together at the edge of their beams. Do this for the key, fill, and back lights.
The easy way to do this is calculate the beam width (the diameter of the light beam when it drops to half of
the center intensity). Many light fixture manufacturers publish these specifications. You may also use a light
meter and tape measure to find out. Space (and/or aim) the light fixtures this distance apart.
Lighting fixtures:
There are several types of fixtures available that are helpful in lighting for television. Fresnels are the most
flexible television fixture. A fresnel can change its intensity, beam size, and beam shape. Color media can
be put in to change the color of light and diffusion can be put in to make the light soft. There is a broad
range of prices to go along with their capabilities. The old rule stands, you get what you pay for. If your
application calls for a fixture that will hold up to heavy daily usage with the physical abuse of being moved
around, then you need to purchase a top-of-the-line product. These will last for years. You may also want to
purchase these because of their great optics. They have a higher output with the same wattage lamp, a
smooth light beam, and very clean barn door cutoffs. Theatrical style fresnels have been improved in the last
few years and you can purchase several of them for the price of one top-of-the-line TV fresnel.
PARs are the least flexible fixture; however, they are very useful. A 1000 watt PAR 64 puts more light out
than any other 1000 watt fixture. A PAR is a hard light source. They can be used as key, fill, and back lights.
The trick to using them is in selecting the lamp. There are several types available:
Very wide flood, GFF

Wide flood, FFS

Medium flood, FFR

Narrow spot, FFP

Very narrow spot, FFN (Not recommended for TV!!!)

Each lamp type has its own beam spread, and is useful at a certain distance. If you are in close, the wide
lamps will work better. As things get farther away, the medium flood and narrow spot work better. Which
lamp to use can be worked out by trial and error with a light meter, or with the manufacturers specifications.
It is much easier to do this on paper than up on a ladder.
Scoops are sometimes useful in church lighting. They do a nice job of spreading light everywhere. A scoop
is a soft light source. One difficulty with soft light sources in larger churches is that their intensity falls off
quickly. However, they work well in churches with lower ceilings. They are also good for placing a base light.
Base lighting puts some light on everything in order to reduce the contrast ratio. This makes the picture a
little flatter, but is desirable for less expensive and older cameras. These are also more comfortable to sit
under and are useful to light the congregation when the ceiling is low.
Ellipsoidals are rarely used for lighting people for television. They have a very harsh light and are not very
flattering. Ellipsoidals are very controllable and have many uses for lighting backgrounds in television production. Light can be shaped with the fixtures shutters to exactly hit a small area needing a boost, without
spilling over onto the rest of the background. Patterns can be projected from them to make the background
more interesting. This can be an inexpensive set enhancement. Ellipsoidals are sometimes used for a
special solo area. This works well when a strong feeling is required for a song.
Cyc lights are useful when a large vertical area needs to be illuminated evenly. Several fixtures are often
ganged together with different colors so they may be blended together or used individually depending on the
colors required. They have a specially shaped reflector that concentrates light for the longer part of the throw
allowing an even coverage. The placement of these lights is rather critical for optimum coverage. The
fixtures should be back from the wall a distance approximately 1/3 the height of the wall. The spacing from
side to side is usually about 8' for the average usage.
Proper television lighting will enhance a productions message by focusing the viewers attention. When the
subjects lighting is pleasing, the viewers are more likely to continue watching instead of turning to another
program.

Making Sense of Technical Data Sheets

16
Although each fixture manufacturer provides technical product information differently in terms of format, the
specific information presented is very much alike. This information should help you answer questions about
the qualities of a particular light fixture, the lamps available for use in it and, ultimately, whether the fixture in
question is the right fixture for your application.

Physical
Attributes:

This data can be provided by a dimensionalized drawing or by a simple listing of the

data. In all cases, the height (top to bottom), the width (side to side), and the length
(front to back) of the fixture will be listed. In addition, the weight and color frame size
are also shown.

Accessories:

A listing of compatible accessories is also listed. These accessories may include:

color frames (with dimensions), barn doors, top hats, hanging and clamping
devices, safety cables and available color media.

Photometrics:

Most photometric or illumination data is comprised of two kinds of information.

Spread -

This shows the degrees of beam angle (50% of full intensity or

CenterBeam CandlePower (CBCP)) and field angle (10% of full intensity or
CenterBeam CandlePower (CBCP)) in each focus position for the
particular fixture. In addition, the beam spread factor (also known as the
multiplying factor (mf)) is identified. In some cases, the spread is determined
by the lamp used, not the fixture.

Example

Focus
Spot
Beam (50% CBCP)
Field (10% CBCP)
Flood
Beam (50% CBCP)
Field (10% CBCP)

Angle

mf

8
30

0.14
0.32

26
50

0.46
0.93

By using this information, you can determine the beam diameter of a

fixture at any distance (throw distance x mf = beam diameter). Or, in the
case of a cyc or wall wash fixture, you can determine the on-centers of
each fixture at any distance away from the wall (distance from the wall/cyc
x mf = fixture on-centers). See the section on stage math.

Intensity -

Every lighting instrument has a variety of lamps that can be used in it.
Each lamp differs in candlepower, color temperature, wattage and hours of
life. The fixture manufacturer lists that information within this section for each
lamp that is compatible with the fixures lampholder to the maximum wattage
for which the fixture is rated.
This information can be used to select the right lamp for the lighting job to be
done. By using the CBCP of any lamp and dividing it by the throw distance2,
the footcandles at that distance can be determined (CBCP / throw distance2
= fc). See the section on stage math.

17
Furthermore, the estimated hours of life and color temperature are two other
considerations in lamp selection. Lamps with similar wattages and candlepower often have large variations in estimated life. What appears to be an
economical selection can prove to be more expensive in the long run. Color
temperature is an important factor if you are video taping or filming. Most video
lighting requires 3200 degrees Kelvin (K). As a general rule, a lamp with high
color temperatures will have a shorter expected life.

Example:
Lamp
400w
500w
500w
575w
575w
575w

Specifications:

HX400
EHD
EHC
FLK
FLK/LL
HP600

CBCP
Spot
31,700
21,900
26,600
42,200
32,650
50,600

CBCP
Flood
16,550
12,400
15,100
25,600
20,000
30,700

Hrs

Lumens

3200
3000
3200
3200
2950
3200

300
2000
300
300
2000
300

10,000
10,600
13,000
16,500
12,800
15,500

This section is usually a narrative describing:

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

The maximum lamp wattage to be used in the fixture.

Whether the fixture has been underwritten by an independent Nationally
Recognized Testing Laboratory (UL, ETL, etc). Testing companies establish
methods of manufacture, identify minimum component requirements and
ensure that a fixture meets safety standards for its intended use.
The socket used in the unit, the family of lamps to be used and the
electrical environment in which it is designed for use (120Volt/240V).
The materials used in manufacture (steel versus aluminum; extrusion
versus sheet metal versus casting; paint finish, etc).
An indication of how relamping is to be performed.
A list of the inclusions supplied with the instrument.

Example:
The luminaire shall be a UL/C-UL Listed 600 watt max fresnel spotlight with a medium two pin
socket to accept tungsten halogen lamps. The lens shall be mounted on an adjustable carrier
to allow smooth slide focus from narrow spot to full flood. The socket shall be mounted in front
of a highly reflective, patterned aluminum reflector. Each unit shall be supplied with a 4-1/2"
diameter heat resisting fresnel lens. The code gauge steel housing shall be supplied with
integral color frame holders on two sides and bottom as well as a hinged top retaining clip.
Ventilation shall be designed to minimize light leaks while delivering maximum air flow.
Relamping shall be accomplished by opening the lamp access door on the bottom of the
housing.
The instrument shall be supplied with a color frame, rigid strap yoke, and a three foot three wire
lead encased in a fiberglass sleeve. All painted surfaces shall be baked enamel.

Performance Lighting Math

18

The following is a collection of math formulas that can prove useful to lighting designers and electricians.
You can also download a simple spreadsheet that has several useful lighting calculations built into it from the
L&E website at www.le-us.com Look under the broad heading Technical Resources and then, Stage
Lighting Math.
Horizontal distance (H):
Power:
H = ( (D * D) - (V * V) )
Watts = Volts * Amps
H = V / TAN (C)
Amps = Watts / Volts
H = D * COS (C)
Distances, Intensities, Spreads, and Angles:
H = D * SIN (K)
H = V * TAN (K)
As seen in the drawing below:
D = throw distance, V = vertical height, H = horizontal
distance,
Vertical height (V):
C = focus angle off horizontal, K = focus angle off vertical,
V = ( (D * D) - (H * H) )
F = beam or field angle of fixture
V = H * TAN (C)
X = beam spread (beam oval width), Y = beam oval length
V = D * SIN (C)
mf = beam spread multiplying factor
V = D * COS (K)

Candlepower:
Candlepower = Footcandles * (D * D)
Beam angle multiplying factor (mf):
mf = 2 * TAN (F / 2)
mf = X / D
Beam angle (F):
F = 2 * ATAN (mf / 2)
F = 2 * ATAN (X / (2 * D) )
Beam spread (oval width X if not straight on):
X = D * (2 * TAN (F / 2))
X = D * mf
Beam oval length (Y)
(when beam hits surface at angle):
Y = V * ( TAN (K + F/2) - TAN (K - F/2) )
Throw distance (D):
D = X / mf
D = ( (V * V) + (H * H) )
D = H / COS (C)
D = V / SIN (C)
D = H / SIN (K)
D = V / COS (K)
D = (Candlepower / Footcandles)
Focus angle off vertical (K):
K = ATAN (H / V)
K = ASIN (H / D)
K = 90 - ASIN (V / D)
K = 90 - C

V = H / TAN (K)

Focus angle off horizontal (C):

C = ATAN (V / H)
C = ASIN (V / D)
C = 90 - ASIN (H / D)
C = 90 - K

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM SUBJECT(H)

FOCUS ANGLE OFF HORIZONTAL

(C)

BEAM OR FIELD
ANGLE (F)

W
RO
TH

D)
E(
NC
A
T
DIS

FOCUS ANGLE
OFF VERTICAL
(K)

STAGE FLOOR
SUBJECT (FOCUS
AREA)

BEAM OVAL
WIDTH (X)

BEAM OVAL LENGTH (Y)

VERTICAL DISTANCE
FROM SUBJECT (V)

Footcandles:
Footcandles = Candlepower / (D * D)

Common Lighting Terms

Accent Light: Illumination used to make something stand out. It may be done with intensity and/or color.
Backlight: Illumination on a subject from behind, causing a separation of the subject from the background,
often creating a fringe of light around the subject.
Barn Door: A device with two to four doors to mask light from a surface.
Beam Angle: The angle at which the beam edges are 50% of the maximum intensity.
Beam Pattern: The general shape of the beam.
Blacklight: A luminaire that produces an ultraviolet (UV) light..
Borderlight: A strip of sockets in a single fixture, usually with multiple circuits.
Candlepower: A term interchangeable with intensity.
Circuit: A closed path through which an electrical current flows.
Color: To place color media in front of a fixture.
Color Changer: An apparatus that attaches to a fixture and allows one to introduce one or more colors into
the beam.
Color Filter: A color media (glass, plastic, etc.) for modifying a beam of light.
Color Frame: An apparatus used to hold color media.
Color Temperature: The temperature, in degrees Kelvin, that is a measure of the color appearance of the
light.
Connector: Plugs and receptacles used to make an electrical connection between two or more separate
conductors.
Connector Strip: Power distribution equipment consisting of a metal housing with receptacles installed for
the purpose of supplying electricity to light fixtures.
Control Console: A remote device used to control dimmers.
Crosslighting: Illumination from two sources on opposite sides of the subject.
Cutoff: A general term for anything used to block a portion of a light beam, e.g., shutters, barn doors, etc.
Cyclorama Light: A luminaire mounted at the top and/or bottom of a vertical surface in order to light it in a
smooth, uniform manner.
Dimmer: An apparatus used to control the intensity of a luminaire.
Distribution Equipment: Any electrical device that routes electrical current to another device, usually
luminaires.
Down Light: Downward illumination, almost perpendicular with the floor.
Edison Connector: The standard household parallel blade connector.
Ellipsoidal Spotlight: A spotlight that utilizes an ellipsoidal reflector and framing shutters.

19

20
Even Field: A field that has a relatively uniform decrease in intensity as viewed from the center to the edge of
the field.
Fade: To gradually increase or decrease the intensity of light.
Field: The circular area of the base of a cone shaped beam where the intensity is at least 10% of the maximum intensity.
Field Angle: The angle at which the beam edges are 10% of the maximum intensity.
Fill Light: Supplementary illumination used to reduce shadows.
Fixed Focus: An optical system whereby the lenses in a luminaire remain at a fixed distance from one
another, although they may move as a group within the system.
Fixed Lens System: An optical system where the lens or lenses in a luminaire remain stationary, i.e., they
lack the ability to move.
Fixture: A term that is often used interchangeably with luminaire.
Flood Light: A luminaire consisting of a reflector, lamp, and sometimes a single lens, used to direct a large
amount of light on a relatively large area.
Focal Length: The distance between a particular point of a lens or reflector, and the focal point.
Focus: To aim and adjust a luminaire to give the beam its desired attributes.
Focusing Instrument: A luminaire whose beam can be adjusted from spot focus to flood focus.
Follow Spot: A narrow beam focusing instrument that is designed to follow a subject on stage.
Fresnel Spotlight: A spotlight employing a fresnel lens that produces a soft edged beam and adjusts from
spot to flood.
Front Light: Illumination from the general direction of the viewer at 45 degrees from full front.
Illumination: A term for light.
Intensity: A measure of the strength of a light source.
Lamp: Any light source in a self contained package.
Leads: The electric cable or sleeved, insulated wires, attached to a luminaire.
Light Distribution: The way in which light is spread over a particular background.
Luminaire: A complete fixture for the purpose of generating usable and somewhat controllable light.
PAR Lamp: A type of lamp with a parabolic aluminized reflector.
PAR Light: A luminaire that utilizes a PAR lamp.
Pattern: A very thin, heat-resistant metal plate with a design cut out of its surface. Also known as a gobo.
Pattern Holder: A metal frame with a knob used to place patterns into the pattern slot of a luminaire.
Pinspot: A spotlight with an extremely narrow light beam.

21
Power Distribution: Electrical equipment that is designed to intake electricity and route it to an output wiring
device.
Safety Cable: A cable that is threaded through the equipment being hung, as well as a supported structure
and then clipped to itself, acting as a safety support.
Safety Screen: A metal wire screen or heat resistant glass used in front of an open face fixture to prevent
pieces of broken glass from falling out, should the lamp break.

Scoop: An open face flood light with a large, diffused reflector.

Spotlight: A generic term describing luminaires capable of emitting a beam pattern that is round or elliptical.
Striplight: A multi-lamp luminaire with its lamps mounted in a straight row.
Throw Distance: The distance between a fixture and the subject to be illuminated.
Trunnion: A flanged triangular bracket, used in pairs, to support/mount a striplight.
Wash: An even illumination of a large area.
Yoke: A U-shaped metal bracket that attaches to a fixture, allowing pan and tilt, and securing the fixture to its
mounting location.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank and acknowledge the following for providing photographs and
illustrations used in this booklet.
Key:

l left

r right t top

b bottom

m middle

Alpha Sound and Lighting, Santa Clarita, CA - 9l, 9rm, 9rb, 12lb.
Stuckl, Spielleitung Christian. 1990. The Passion Play of the Community of
Oberammergau. Germany: Oberammergau. - 10m, 11l, 11m, 11r, 12r.
Heather Wolensky, Wappingers Falls, NY - 3l, 3rb, 3rt, 4l, 4mt, 4mb, 4r.
We are particularily grateful to Mr. Eric Von Fange of The Light Source, Fort Mill, SC for
allowing the use of his articles titled: Dramatic Lighting For Churches and Television
Lighting Primer for Churches. Both articles were reprinted in their entirety.
References
Bradshaw, Vaughn. 1985. Building Control Systems. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Cunningham, Glen. 1993. Stage Lighting Revealed. Ohio, Betterway Books.
Parker, Oren W., and R. Craig Wolf. 1990. Scene Design and Stage Lighting. USA:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Copyright 2002 Lighting & Electronics, Inc.

LIGHTING & ELECTRONICS, INC.

Market Street Industrial Park Wappingers Falls, NY 12590 (845) 297-1244 FAX (845) 297-9270

22

LIGHTING & ELECTRONICS, INC.

Market Street Industrial Park Wappingers Falls, NY 12590 (845) 297-1244 FAX (845) 297-9270