Sections 1

Q1) Define effective and Short Circuit Ratio& Explain the

Magnetic field affects.
SolutionEffective short Circuit ratio is defined as the difference between
the short Circuit ratio and the ratio of the reactive power supplied
by capacitors banks and filters and the rated dc power of the
convertor.
Magnetic field affects Most e.h.v. transmission lines consist of one 3-phase circuit on
a tower with horizontal
Configuration of the 3 phases, Based on Maxwell's method of
images, we can calculate the magnetic field generated at
any point in space in the vicinity of the 3-phase line. In most
applications, the field intensity at
ground level is the most important quantity. But the equations

derived will be very

Q2) Short notes on primary Shock currents.

) Primary Shock Currents. These cause

direct physiological harm when the current
exceeds about 6-10 mA. The normal resistance of the
human body is about 2-3 kilohms so that
about 25 volts may be necessary to produce primary
shock currents. The danger here arises
due to ventricular fibrillation which affects the main
pumping chambers of the heart. This
results in immediate arrest of blood circulation. Loss of
life may be due to (a) arrest of blood
circulation when current flows through the heart, (b)
permanent respiratory arrest when current
flows in the brain, and (c) asphyxia due to flow of
current across the chest preventing muscle
contraction.
The 'electrocution equation' is i2t = K2, where K = 165
for a body weight of 50 kg, i is in
mA and t is in seconds. On a probability basis death due
to fibrillation condition occurs in 0.5%
of cases. The primary shock current required varies
directly as the body weight. For i = 10 mA,
the current must flow for a time interval of 272 seconds
before death occurs in a 50 kg human
being.
Solutions -

(a

(b) Secondary Shock Currents. These cannot cause

direct physiological harm but may
produce adverse reactions. They can be steady state 50
Hz or its harmonics or transient in
nature. The latter occur when a human being comes
into contact with a capacitively charged
body such as a parked vehicle under a line. Steady state
currents up to 1 mA cause a slight
tingle on the fingers. Currents from 1 to 6 mA are
classed as, 'let go' currents. At this level, a
human being has control of muscles to let the conductor
go as soon as a tingling sensation
occurs. For a 50% probability that the let-to current
may increase to primary shock current,
the limit for men is 16 mA and for women 10 mA. At
0.5% probability, the currents are 9 mA for
men, 6 mA for women, and 4.5 mA for children.
Q3)bundle spacing explain
Solutions -In almost all cases, the sub-conductors of a
bundle are uniformly distributed on a circle of
radius R. There are proposals to space them nonuniformly to lower the audible noise generated

by the bundle conductor, but we will develop the

relevant geometrical properties of an Nconductor
bundle on the assumption of uniform spacing of the subconductors
The spacing between adjacent sub-conductors is termed
'Bundle Spacing' and denoted by
B. The radius of the pitch circle on which the subconductors are located will be called the
'Bundle Radius', denoted as R.
Q4) field of point charge and its properties
Solutions
The properties of electric field of almost all electrode
geometries will ultimately depend on that
of a point charge. The laws governing the behaviour of
this field will form the basis for extending
them to other geometries which shows the source point
S1 where a point
charge + Q coulombs is located. A second point charge q
coulomb is located at S2 at a distance
r metre from S1. From Coulomb's Law, the force acting
on either charge is
F = Q.q /4 e0e r r2

Q4)Aeolian vibrationsSolutions The resulting oscillation or vibrational forces

cause fatigue of conductor and supporting
structure and are known as aeolian vibrations. The
frequency of detachment of the Karman
vortices might correspond to one of the natural
mechanical frequencies of the span, which if
not damped properly, can build up and destroy
individual strands of the conductor at points of
restraint such as at supports or at bundle spacers. They
also give rise to wave effects .
Q5)corona inception gradient
Solutions - Corona-inception gradients on conductors
under impulse conditions on cylindrical
conductors above a ground plane are equal to those
under power frequency but crest values
have to be used in Peek's formula. The increase in
effective radius will in turn change the
capacitance of the conductor which has an influence on
the voltage coupled to the other phaseconductors

located on the same tower. The increased coupling

factor on mutually-coupled
travelling waves was recognized in the 1930's and 40's
under lightning conditions. At present,
switching surges are of great concern in determining
insulation clearance between conductor
and ground, and conductor to conductor.
Section 2
Q2)basic function of extra high voltage transmission
Solutions
The basic functions of extra high voltage transmission
is to deliver the transmission of current without the loss
of heating due the high current by maximizing the
voltage the transmission due high current is reduced
This is happen when current is high due to the
implication of ir2 heating .heating is done due to
current and thus the high voltage transmission reduced
the heating and in this way it reduces not only the
heating but also protect the conductors and increase the
life span of conductors . it reduces the extra cost of
conductor because for the transmission of high current
more conductors are required .
Reduces short circuit etc

The main objective of EHV transmission is to deliver

the transmission of power safely without having the
power loss, heating loss , conductor loss and problem
related to above mentioned .
It also reduces the affect of corona loss
In this way ehv transmission deliver safe power to
station to substation and to the home and industries .
Q2)effects of resistance in conductors
Solutions -Conductors used for e.h.v. transmission lines
are always stranded. Most common conductors
use a steel core for reinforcement of the strength of
aluminium, but recently high tensile
strength aluminium is being increasingly used,
replacing the steel. The former is known as
ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) and the
latter ACAR (Aluminium Conductor
Alloy Reinforced). A recent development is the AAAC
(All Aluminium Alloy Conductor) which
consists of alloys of Al, Mg, Si. This has 10 to 15% less
loss than ACSR. When a steel core is
used, because of its high permeability and inductance,
power-frequency current flows only in

the aluminium strands. In ACAR and AAAC

conductors, the cross-section is better utilized
effects of resistance in conductor it causes heating
effects and due to heating effects it causes the loss of
conductors due to the phenomenon of heating.
Resistance is the property which prohibits the flow of
current in the conductor in this way it causes the ir2
heating and it damages the conductors slowly and
slowly .
It causes the extra cost of conductor replacement.
Q)4 capacitance of long objects
Solutions
Electrostatic induction to adjacent lines such as
telephone lines can be determined by Maxwell's
Potential Coefficients and their inverses. If ground
resistance and inductance are to be
considered, Carson's formulas given in Chapter 3 are
used. However, for a long object such as
a lorry or vehicle parked parallel to a line under it, an
empirical formula for its
Fig. 7.1 Calculation of capacitance of long object located
near an e.h.v. line.

capacitance due to Comsa and Ren is given here. The

object is replaced by an equivalent
cylinder of diameter D and height h above ground as
shown below. Figure gives the actual
dimensions of the object where a = length of object, b =
width, v = height, t = height of tyres.
Then, h = t + v 0.5 b, and D = b. Other dimensions of
line are shown on the figure. The
capacitance of the vehicle, including end effects, is
C = 1 2 a.C C ...(7.1)
where C1 = ln( / ) , pF /m
4

Q5) cost of transmission lines and equipments

Solutions -COSTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES AND

EQUIPMENT
It is universally accepted that cost of equipment all over
the world is escalating every
year. Therefore, a designer must ascertain current
prices from manufacturer of equipment
and line materials. These include conductors, hardware,
towers, transformers, shunt reactors,
capacitors, synchronous condensers, land for
switchyards and line corridor, and so on. Generating
station costs are not considered here, since we are only
dealing with transmission in this book.
In this section, some idea of costs of important
equipment is given (which may be current in
2005) for comparison purposes only. These are not to be
used for decision-making purposes.
(1US$ = Rs.50; 1 Lakh = 100, 000; 1 Crore = 100 Lakhs
= 10 Million = 107).
(a) High Voltage DC 400 kV Bipole
Back-to-back terminals : Rs. 50 Lakhs/MVA for 150
MVA
Q6)maximum charge conditions on three phase lines

Solutions
Several examples of conductor configurations used on
transmission lines following world-wide
practice are given in the Table 4.1. The maximum
surface voltage gradients are also indicated.
These are only examples and the reader should consult
the vast literature (CIGRE Proceedings,
etc.) for more details. Most conductor manufacturers
use British units for conductor sizes and
the SI units are given only for calculation purposes.
These details are gathered from a large
number of sources listed in the bibliography at the end
of the book.
The conductor sizes given in the table are not the only
ones used. For example, the
following range of conductor sizes is found on the North
American continent.
345 kV. Single conductor 1.424, 1.602, 1.737, 1.75,
1.762 inches dia
2-conductor bundle1.108, 1.165, 1.196, 1.246 inches
dia.
500 kV. Single conductor 2.5 inches dia
2-bundle1.602, 1.7, 1.75, 1.762, 1.82 inches dia
(ACAR).

3-bundle1.165 inches dia.

4-bundle0.85, 0.9, 0.93 inches dia.
735-765 kV 4-bundle1.165, 1.2, 1.382 inches dia.
GRADIENT FACTORS AND THEIR USE
From the Mangoldt (Markt-Mengele) formula given in
Section 4.5, it is observed that the
maximum surface voltage gradient in the centre phase
of a horizontal 3-phase ac line is a
function of the geometrical dimensions and the
maximum operating voltage V. As shown in
Table 4.1, the maximum operating voltages show a wide
variation. It is therefore advantageous
to have a table or graph of the normalized value called
the 'gradient factor' in kV/cm per kV or
V/m per volt or other units which will be independent of
the voltage. The gradient factor is
denoted by gf = Ecm/V .

sectionsIII
Q7) interactions between ac and dc

Q8)what are the mechanical consideration in line

performance
Solutions
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LINE
PERFORMANCE
In this section a brief description will be given of the
enormous importance which designers
place on the problems created by vibrations and
oscillations of the very heavy conductor
arrangement required for e.h.v. transmission lines. As
the number of sub-conductors used in a
bundle increases, these vibrations and countermeasures
and spacings of sub-conductors will
also affect the electrical design, particularly the surface
voltage gradient. The mechanical
designer will recommend the tower dimensions, phase
spacings, conductor height, sub-conductor
spacings, etc. from which the electrical designer has to
commence his calculations of resistance,
inductance, capacitance, electrostatic field, corona
effects, and all other performance
characteristics. Thus, the two go hand in hand.
The sub-conductors in a bundle are separated by

spacers of suitable type, which bring

their own problems such as fatigue to themselves and to
the outer strands of the conductor
during vibrations. The design of spacers will not be
described here but manufacturers' catalogues
should be consulted for a variety of spacers available.
These spacers are provided at intervals
ranging from 60 to 75 metres between each span which
is in the neighbourhood of 300 metres
for e.h.v. lines. Thus, there may be two end spans and
two or three subspans in the middle. The
spacers prevent conductors from rubbing or colliding
with each other in wind and ice storms, if
any. However, under less severe wind conditions the
bundle spacer can damage itself or cause
damage to the conductor under certain critical vibration
conditions. Electrically speaking, since
the charges on the sub-conductors are of the same
polarity, there exists electrostatic repulsion
among them. On the other hand, since they carry
currents in the same direction, there is
electromagnetic attraction. This force is especially
severe during short-circuit currents so that
the spacer has a force exerted on it during normal or

abnormal electrical operation.

18 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering
Three types of vibration are recognized as being
important for e.h.v. conductors, their
degree of severity depending on many factors, chief
among which are: (a) conductor tension, (b)
span length, (c) conductor size, (d) type of conductor, (e)
terrain of line, (f) direction of prevailing
winds, (g) type of supporting clamp of conductorinsulator assemblies from the tower, (h) tower
type, (i) height of tower, (j) type of spacers and dampers,
and (k) the vegetation in the vicinity of
line. In general, the most severe vibration conditions
are created by winds without turbulence
so that hills, buildings, and trees help in reducing the
severity. The types of vibration are: (1)
Aeolian Vibration, (2) Galloping, and (3) Wake-Induced
Oscillations. The first two are present
for both single-and multi-conductor bundles, while the
wake-induced oscillation is confined to a
bundle only. Standard forms of bundle conductors have
sub-conductors ranging from 2.54 to 5
cm diameters with bundle spacing of 40 to 50 cm
between adjacent conductors. For e.h.v.

transmission, the number ranges from 2 to 8 subconductors for transmission voltages from
400 kV to 1200 kV, and up to 12 or even 18 for higher
voltages which are not yet commercially
in operation. We will briefly describe the mechanism
causing these types of vibrations and the
problems created by them.