Project
On
RADIOACTIVITY
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that of class XII has
completed the physics project
entitled
RADIOACTIVITY herself and under
my guidance. The progress of the
project has been continuously
reported and has been in my
knowledge consistently.
Radioactivity:
Radioactivity is the decay or disintegration of the nucleus
of a radioactive element. The radiation emitted is the
alpha-particles, the beta-particles and the gamma rays
and a lot of heat. This phenomenon was first discovered
by a French Physicist, Henri Becquerel in 1896. Other
famous people parts of this radioactive era are; Lord
Rutherford, and the Curie couple, Marie and Pierre.
Radioactive decay is a stochastic (i.e., random) process at
the level of single atoms, in that, according to quantum
theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom
will decay. However, the chance that a given atom will
decay is constant over time.
A diagram showing an alpha particle () being ejected
from the nucleus of an atom. Protons are red and
neutrons are blue.
CONTENTS
1.
BECQUERELS
DISCOVERY
2.
THE CURIES DISCOVERY
3.
RUTHERFORDS
CONCLUSION
4.
RADIATIONS
5.
TYPES OF
RADIOACTIVITY
6.
UNIVERSAL LAW OF
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
7.
HALF LIFE
8.
IONIZATION
9.
HALF LIFE
10. OCCURENCE
11.
DETECTION OF
RADIATIONS
12. USES OF RADIOCTIVITY
13. HAZARDS OF RADIOCTIVE
SUBSTANCES
BECQUERELS
DISCOVERY
In March of 1896, during a time of overcast
weather, Becquerel found he couldn't use the sun
as an initiating energy source for his experiments.
He put his wrapped photographic plates away in a
darkened drawer, along with some crystals
containing uranium. Much to his Becquerel's
surprise, the plates were exposed during storage
by invisible emanations from the uranium. The
emanations did not require the presence of an
initiating energy source--the crystals emitted rays
on their own! Although Becquerel did not pursue
his discovery of radioactivity, others did and, in so
doing, changed the face of both modern medicine
and modern science. He was a member of a
scientific family extending through several
generations, the most notable being his
grandfather Antoine-Csar Becquerel (17881878),
his father, Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (182091),
and his son Jean Becquerel. (18781953)
THE CURIES DISCOVERY
Working in the Becquerel lab, Marie Curie and her
husband, Pierre, began what became a life long
study of radioactivity. It took fresh and open minds,
along with much dedicated work, for these
scientists to establish the properties of radioactive
matter. Marie Curie wrote, "The subject seemed to
us very attractive and all the more so because the
question was entirely new and nothing yet had
been written upon it." On February 17, 1898, the
Curies tested an ore of uranium, pitchblende, for its
ability to turn air into a conductor of electricity. The
Curies found that the pitchblende produced a
current 300 times stronger than that produced by
pure uranium. They tested and recalibrated their
instruments, and yet they still found the same
puzzling results. The Curies reasoned that a very
active unknown substance in addition to the
uranium must exist within the pitchblende. In the
title of a paper describing this hypothesized
element (which they named polonium after Marie's
native Poland), they introduced the new term:
"radio-active."
After much grueling work, the Curies were able to
extract enough polonium and another radioactive
element, radium, to establish the chemical
properties of these elements. Marie Curie, with her
husband and continuing after his death,
established the first quantitative standards by
which the rate of radioactive emission of charged
particles from elements could be measured and
compared. In addition, she found that there was a
decrease in the rate of radioactive emissions over
time and that this decrease could be calculated
and predicted. But perhaps Marie Curie's greatest
and most unique achievement was her realization
that radiation is an atomic property of matter
rather than a separate independent emanation.
Polish-born French physicist, famous for her work
on radioactivity and twice a winner of the Nobel
Prize. With Henri Becquerel and her husband, Pierre
Curie, she was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for
Physics. She was the sole winner of the 1911 Nobel
Prize for Chemistry. She was the first woman to win
a Nobel Prize, and she is the only woman to win the
award in two different fields.
RUTHERFORDS
CONCLUSION
In 1911, Rutherford conducted a series of
experiments in which he bombarded a piece of
gold foil with positively charged (alpha) particles
emitted by radioactive material. Most of the
particles passed through the foil undisturbed,
suggesting that the foil was made up mostly of
empty space rather than of a sheet of solid atoms.
Some alpha particles, however, "bounced back,"
indicating the presence of solid matter. Atomic
particles, Rutherford's work showed, consisted
primarily of empty space surrounding a welldefined central core called a nucleus.
In a long and distinguished career, Rutherford laid
the groundwork for the determination of atomic
structure. In addition to defining the planetary
model of the atom, he showed that radioactive
elements undergo a process of decay over time.
And, in experiments which involved what
newspapers of his day called "splitting the atom,"
Rutherford was the first to artificially transmute
one element into another--unleashing the
incredible power of the atom which would
eventually be harnessed for both beneficial and
destructive purposes.
Taken together, the work of
Becquerel, the Curies, Rutherford
and others, made modern medical
and scientific research more than
a dream. They made it a reality
with many applications. A look at
the use of isotopes reveals just
some of the ways in which the
pioneering work of these
scientists has been utilized.
RADIATIONS
1. Alpha-particles: This type of radiation is positively
charged. It is relatively massive. It has a low
penetrating power. Its about 1-20th as fast as light. It
is exactly like the helium atom.
2.Beta-particles: This type of radiation is negatively
charged (but can also be +vely charged). It is
relatively light. It is about as fast as light. They are
high energy electrons. It has a medium penetrating
power.
3. Gamma Rays: This radiation is neutral in charge.
Has a very high penetrating power. It is at the speed
of light. It is an electromagnetic wave with very short
wavelength. It is very light.
TYPES OF
RADIOACTIVITY
I. NATURAL RADIOCTIVITY
This is the type of radioactivity which consists of a
spontaneous decay of the radioactive nucleus. The
phenomenon is experienced by naturally
radioactive substances. The radiation might come
out individually or combined and, as always, with a
lot of energy.
Some radioactive substances are:
Americium -241: Used in many smoke detectors for
homes and business. To measure levels of toxic lead in
dried paint samples. To ensure uniform thickness in rolling
processes like steel and paper production and to help
determine where oil wells should be drilled.
Cadmium -109: Used to analyze metal alloys for
checking stock, sorting scrap.
Calcium - 47: Important aid to biomedical researchers
studying the cell functions and bone formation of
mammals.
Californium - 252: Used to inspect airline luggage for
hidden explosives...to gauge the moisture content of soil
in the road construction and building industries...and to
measure the moisture of materials stored in silos.
Carbon - 14: Helps in research to ensure that potential
new drugs are metabolized without forming harmful byproducts.
Cesium - 137: Used to treat cancers. To measure correct
patient dosages of radioactive pharmaceuticals. To
measure and control the liquid flow in oil pipelines. To tell
researchers whether oil wells are plugged by sand. And to
ensure the right fills level for packages of food, drugs and
other products. (The products in these packages do not
become radioactive.)
Chromium - 51: Used in research in red blood cell
survival studies.
Cobalt - 57: Used in nuclear medicine to help physicians
interpret diagnosis scans of patients' organs, and to
diagnose pernicious anemia.
Cobalt - 60: Used to sterilize surgical instruments. To
improve the safety and reliability of industrial fuel oil
burners. And to preserve poultry fruits and spices.
Copper - 67: When injected with monoclonal antibodies
into a cancer patient, helps the antibodies bind to and
destroy the tumor.
Curium - 244: Used in mining to analyze material
excavated from pits slurries from drilling operations.
Iodine - 123: Widely used to diagnose thyroid disorders.
Iodine - 129: Used to check some radioactivity counters
in vitro diagnostic testing laboratories.
Iodine - 131: Used to diagnose and treat thyroid
disorders. (Former President George Bush and Mrs. Bush
were both successfully treated for Grave's disease, a
thyroid disease, with radioactive iodine.)
Iridium - 192: Used to test the integrity of pipeline
welds, boilers and aircraft parts.
Iron - 55: Used to analyze electroplating solutions.
Krypton - 85: Used in indicator lights in appliances like
clothes washer and dryers, stereos and coffee makers. To
gauge the thickness of thin plastics and sheet metal,
rubber, textiles and paper. And to measure dust and
pollutant levels.
Nickel - 63: Used to detect explosives. And as voltage
regulators and current surge protectors in electronic
devices.
Phosphorus - 32: Used in molecular biology and
genetics research.
Plutonium - 238: Has safely powered at least 20 NASA
spacecraft since 1972.
Polonium - 210: Reduces the static charge in production
of photographic film and phonograph records.
Promethium - 147: Used in electric blanket
thermostats. And to gauge the thickness of thin plastics,
thin sheet metal, rubber, textiles, and paper.
Radium - 226: Makes lightning rods more effective.
Selenium - 75: Used in protein studies in life science
research.
Sodium - 24: Used to locate leaks in industrial pipelines.
And in oil well studies.
Strontium - 85: Used to study bone formation and
metabolism.
Technetium - 99m: The most widely used radioactive
isotope for diagnostic studies in nuclear medicine.
Different chemical forms are used for brain, bone, liver,
spleen and kidney imaging and also for blood flow
studies.
Thallium - 204: Measures the dust and pollutant levels
on filter paper...and gauges the thickness of plastics,
sheet metal, rubber, textiles and paper.
Thoriated tungsten: Used in electric are welding rods in
the construction, aircraft, petrochemical and food
processing equipment industries. It produces easier
starting, greater arc stability and less metal
contamination.
Thorium - 229: Helps fluorescent lights to last longer.
Thorium - 230: Provides coloring and fluorescence in
colored glazes and glassware.
Tritium: Used for life science and drug metabolism
studies to ensure the safety of potential new drugs. For
self-luminous aircraft and commercial exit signs. For
luminous dials, gauges and wrist watches and to produce
luminous paint.
Uranium - 234: Used in dental fixtures like crowns and
dentures to provide a natural color and brightness.
Uranium - 235: Fuel for nuclear power plants and naval
nuclear propulsion systems. Also used to produce
fluorescent glassware, a variety of colored glazes and
wall tiles.
Xenon - 133: Used in nuclear medicine for lung
ventilation and blood flow studies.
II. ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY
In this radioactivity, normally unreactive elements are
made reactive by bombarding them with radiation. Curie
and Joliot showed that when lighter elements such
as boron and aluminum were bombarded with -particles,
there was a continuous emission of radioactive radiations,
even after the source had been removed. They showed
that the radiation was due to the emission of a particle
carrying one unit positive charge with mass equal to that
of an electron.
Neutron activation is the main form of induced
radioactivity, which happens when free neutrons are
captured by nuclei. This new heavier isotope can be
stable or unstable (radioactive) depending on
the chemical element involved. Because free neutrons
disintegrate within minutes outside of an
atomic nucleus, neutron radiation can be obtained only
from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and highenergy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers
or particle accelerator collisions). Neutrons that have
been slowed down through a neutron moderator (thermal
neutrons) are more likely to be captured by nuclei than
fast neutrons.
A less common form involves removing a neutron
via photodisintegration. In this reaction, a high energy
photon (gamma ray) strikes a nucleus with energy
greater than the binding energy of the atom, releasing a
neutron. This reaction has a minimum cutoff of
2 MeV (for deuterium) and around 10 MeV for most heavy
nuclei. Many radionuclides do not produce gamma rays
with energy high enough to induce this reaction.
The isotopes used in food irradiation (cobalt-60, caesium137) both have energy peaks below this cutoff and thus
cannot induce radioactivity in the food.
Some induced radioactivity is produced by background
radiation, which is mostly natural. However, since natural
radiation is not very intense in most places on Earth, the
amount of induced radioactivity in a single location is
usually very small.
The conditions inside certain types of nuclear
reactors with high neutron flux can cause induced
radioactivity. The components in those reactors may
become highly radioactive from the radiation to which
they are exposed. Induced radioactivity increases the
amount of nuclear waste that must eventually be
disposed, but it is not referred to as radioactive
contamination unless it is uncontrolled.
Universal law of
radioactive decay
Radioactivity is one very frequent example of exponential decay.
The law describes the statistical behavior of a large number of
nuclides, rather than individual ones. In the following formalism,
the number of nuclides or nuclide population N, is of course a
discrete variable (a natural number)but for any physical
sample N is so large (amounts of L = 1023, Avogadro's constant)
that t can be treated as a continuous variable. Differential
calculus is needed to set up differential equations for modeling
the behavior of the nuclear decay.
One-decay process
Consider the case of a nuclide A decaying into another B by some
process A B (emission of other particles, like electron
neutrinos
e and electrons e in beta decay, are irrelevant in what follows).
The decay of an unstable nucleus is entirely random and it is
impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay. However,
it is equally likely to decay at any time. Therefore, given a sample
of a particular radioisotope, the number of decay
events dN expected to occur in a small interval of time dt is
proportional to the number of atoms present N, that is
Particular radionuclides decay at different rates, so each has its
own decay constant . The expected decay dN/N is
proportional to an increment of time, dt:
The negative sign indicates that N decreases as time
increases, as each decay event follows one after another.
The solution to this first-order differential equation is
the function:
Where N0 is the value of N at time t = 0.
We have for all time t:
Where Ntotal is the constant number of particles
throughout the decay process, clearly equal to the
initial number of A nuclides since this is the initial
substance.
If the number of non-decayed A nuclei is:
Then the number of nuclei of B, i.e. number of
decayed A nuclei, is
HALF-LIFE
Given a sample of a particular radionuclide, the half-life is the
time taken for half the radionuclide's atoms to decay. For the case
of one-decay nuclear reactions:
The half-life is related to the decay constant as follows: set N =
N0/2 and t = T1/2 to obtain
This relationship between the half-life and the decay constant
shows that highly radioactive substances are quickly spent, while
those that radiate weakly endure longer. Half-lives of known
radionuclides vary widely, from more than 10 years, such as for
the very nearly stable nuclide 209Bi, to 1023 seconds for highly
unstable ones.
The factor of ln (2) in the above relations results from the fact that
concept of "half-life" is merely a way of selecting a different base
other than the natural base e for the lifetime expression. The time
constant is the e -1 -life, the time until only 1/e remains, about
36.8%, rather than the 50% in the half-life of a radionuclide.
Thus, is longer than t1/2. The following equation can be shown to
be valid:
Since radioactive decay is exponential with a constant probability,
each process could as easily be described with a different
constant time period that (for example) gave its "(1/3)-life" (how
long until only 1/3 is left) or "(1/10)-life" (a time period until only
10% is left), and so on. Thus, the choice of and t1/2 for markertimes, are only for convenience, and from convention. They
reflect a fundamental principle only in so much as they show that
the same proportion of a given radioactive substance will decay,
during any time-period that one chooses.
Mathematically, the nth life for the above situation would be found
in the same way as aboveby setting N = N0/n, {{{1}}} and
substituting into the decay solution to obtain
OCCURRENCE IN
NATURE
According to the Big Bang theory, stable isotopes of the
lightest five elements (H, He, and traces of Li, Be, and B)
were produced very shortly after the emergence of the
universe, in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis.
These lightest stable nuclides (including deuterium)
survive to today, but any radioactive isotopes of the light
elements produced in the Big Bang (such as tritium) have
long since decayed. Isotopes of elements heavier than
boron were not produced at all in the Big Bang, and these
first five elements do not have any long-lived
radioisotopes. Thus, all radioactive nuclei are, therefore,
relatively young with respect to the birth of the universe,
having formed later in various other types of
nucleosynthesis in stars (in particular, supernovae), and
also during ongoing interactions between stable isotopes
and energetic particles. For example, carbon-14, a
radioactive nuclide with a half-life of only 5730 years, is
constantly produced in Earth's upper atmosphere due to
interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen.
Nuclides that are produced by radioactive decay are
called radiogenic nuclides, whether they themselves
are stable or not. There exist stable radiogenic nuclides
that were formed from short-lived extinct radionuclides in
the early solar system. The extra presence of these stable
radiogenic nuclides (such as Xe-129 from primordial I129) against the background of primordial stable
nuclides can be inferred by various means.
Radioactive primordial nuclides found in the Earth are
residues from ancient supernova explosions which
occurred before the formation of the solar system. They
are the long-lived fraction of radionuclides surviving in
the primordial solar nebula through planet accretion until
the present. The naturally occurring shortlived radiogenic radionuclides found in rocks are the
daughters of these radioactive primordial nuclides.
Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive
nuclides are cosmogenic nuclides, formed by cosmic ray
bombardment of material in the
Earth's atmosphere or crust. The radioactive decay of
these radionuclides in rocks within
Earth's mantle and crust contribute significantly
to Earth's internal heat budget.
DETECTION OF
RADIATIONS
1. USING A DOSIMETER OR A FILM BADGE: A dosimeter is a
device worn by radioactive workers. It is basically a film which
darkens on incidence of radiation. It is used to know the level
of radiation the worker has been exposed to.
2. A GEIGER COUNTER: This consists of a Geiger-Muller tube
(which consists of a wire), a scale/rate meter, and often a
loudspeaker. The walls of the container acts as the cathode
while the central wire acts as the anode. The radiation enters
through a thin window. Each particle or ray ionizes several gas
atoms. Ions attracted to the cathode, electrons to the anode.
Other atoms are hit on the way creating an avalanche of more
ions and electrons. The loudspeaker amplifies a click sound for
each pulse showing the randomness of the decay.
3. Pulse (Wulf Electroscope)
4. Cloud Chamber
5. Bubble Chamber
6. Scintillation Counter (for detecting gamma rays)
USES OF
RADIOACTIVITY
1. Radiology: This is used for research and study in the
medical field.
2. Radiotherapy: This is used in the treatment of
diseases, especially cancer. Due to the penetrating power
of gamma rays, they are used to collectively and controllably
destroy malignant cells.
3. Irradiation: This is the exposure of controlled gamma rays to
fruits or vegetables to delay ripening and improve freshness
length of the irradiated foodstuffs.
4. Gamma-Radiography: This is the production of a special
type of photograph, a radiograph. It is used for quality control
in industries. The making of a radiograph requires some type
of recording mechanism. The most common device is film. A
radiograph is actually a photographic recording produced by
the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film,
producing what is called a latent image of the subject.
5. Radiocarbon or carbon dating: All living matter contains
carbon-14 absorbed from the atmosphere. This radioactive
element has a half-life of about 5300 years. The element
continues decaying even after death of the living organism.
This phenomenon is used to estimate the amount of years the
organisms have been in existence. This is very useful to
archaeologists and researchers.
6. Tracers are a common application of radioisotopes. A tracer
is a radioactive element whose pathway through which a
chemical reaction can be followed. Tracers are commonly
used in the medical field and in the study of plants and
animals. Radioactive Iodine-131 can be used to study the
function of the thyroid gland assisting in detecting disease.
7. Nuclear reactors are
devices that control fission
reactions producing new
substances from the fission
product and energy. Nuclear
power stations use uranium
in fission reactions as a fuel
to produce energy. Steam is
generated by the heat
released during the fission
process. It is this steam that
7. Other uses of radioactivity: Sterilization of medical
instruments and food is another common application of
radiation. By subjecting the instruments and food to
concentrated beams of radiation, we can kill microorganisms
that cause contamination and disease. Because this is done
with high energy radiation sources using electromagnetic
energy, there is no fear of residual radiation. Also, the
instruments and food may be handled without fear of
radiation poisoning.
Radiation sources are extremely important to the
manufacturing industries throughout the world. They are
commonly employed by nondestructive testing personnel to
monitor materials and processes in the making of the
products we see and use every day. Trained technicians use
radiography to image materials and products much like a
dentist uses radiation to x-ray your teeth for cavities. There
are many industrial applications that rely on radioactivity to
assist in determining if the material or product is internally
sound and fit for its application.
HAZARDS OF
RADIOACTIVE
SUBSTANCES
The dangers of radioactivity and radiation were not immediately
recognized. The discovery of X-rays in 1895 led to wide spread
experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many
people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in
technical journals as early as 1896. In February of that year,
Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of Vanderbilt
University performed an experiment involving x-raying Dudley's
head that resulted in him losing hair under where the tube was
placed (reported in the The X-rays Science news supplement). A
report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, of his
suffering severe hand and chest burns in an x-ray demonstration,
was the first of many other reports in Electrical Review. Many
experimenters including Elihu Thomson at Thomas Edison's
lab, William J. Morton, and Nikola Tesla also reported burns. Elihu
Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an x-ray tube over a
period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other
effects were sometime blamed for the damage including
ultraviolet rays and (according to Tesla) ozone. Many physicians
claimed there were no effects form x-ray exposure at all.
The genetic effects of radiation, including the effect of cancer risk,
were recognized much later. In 1927, Hermann Joseph
Muller published research showing genetic effects, and in 1946
was awarded the Nobel Prize for his findings.
Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many
physicians and corporations began marketing radioactive
substances as patent medicine in the form of glow-in-the-dark
pigments. Examples were radium enema treatments, and radiumcontaining waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie protested
this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the
human body were not well understood. Curie later died
from aplastic anemia, likely caused by exposure to ionizing
radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis
and death of enthusiasts, radium-containing medicinal products
had been largely removed from the market (radioactive
quackery).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
NCERT Physics Textbook for class XII
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