ISSN 2277-0836; Volume 4, Issue 3, pp. 37-43; October, 2015.

Journal of Agriculture and Biodiversity Research

2015 Online Research Journals
Full Length Research
Available Online at http://www.onlineresearchjournals.org/JABR

Farmers Adaptation to Climate Changes in

the Production of Leafy Vegetables in Ekiti
State, Nigeria
Adeyemo R, *Akinola AA, Oke JT and Oyedele D.
Department of Agricultural Economics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Received 24 Mach, 2014

Accepted 20 April, 2014

The broad objective of the study was to access the cost and return of farmers adaptations to climate
change in the production of leafy vegetables. Vegetables are widely cultivated by both small scale
farmers and State enterprises. Vegetables can give high yield per unit area of land and hence generate
high income for the farmer. Vegetable production induces agricultural businesses and generates
employment. Data were collected using a pre-tested structure questionnaire from one hundred and
twenty farmers (120) sampled from Ekiti State. Data were analyzed using budgetary and multinomial
logit model. Results from the study showed among others that women dominate vegetable production
about 90% of the producers were married. Farmers used three adaptation techniques to combat climate
change; planting indigenous vegetable, planting at different times and use of irrigation. Budgetary
analysis indicated that vegetable production is a profitable business under different adaptation
practices. The gross margin was N61, 777 among the adopters of planting indigenous vegetable and
N49, 883 among those varying planting time. The gross margin values were N51, 313 and N59, 086 for
non-adopters and adopters of irrigation respectively. Major determinants of farmers adaptation to
climate change were age, educational level, year of schooling, farm size and amount of credit.
Therefore, increased access to information about climate change and credit facilities would boost the
farmers resilience to negative effect of climate change in the study area.
Key words: Climate change, adaptation practices, vegetable, budgetary analysis, multinomial logit, tropical
agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
The importance of vegetables as major and efficient
sources of micronutrients in African diet cannot be over
emphasized [1]. Vegetables supply essential micronutrient in human nutrition that act as preventive agents
to several ailments. Increased vegetables production may
improve food security and offer employment opportunities
to the populace, especially women who form a
substantial proportion. In sub-Saharan African, the
attention on vegetables as vital dietary components is
significant, for leafy and fruit vegetables have long been
known to be indispensable ingredients in traditional
sauces that accompany carbohydrates staples.

*Corresponding Author's E-mail: A.Akinola3(at)cgiar.org.

Vegetables production induces agricultural businesses in

the rural economy and generates employment and
incomes. Vegetables production balances the diet by
enhancing the supply of essential micronutrients.
Increasing vegetables supplies reduce its prices and
increase its consumption, thereby improving the health,
learning capabilities and working capacity of the
population. The production of vegetables is an important
component of the farming systems of the Northern States
of Nigeria where irrigation is practiced. This is because; it
is a very lucrative economic activity due to the availability
of market in the vicinity of the production areas and in the
Southern States where there is high demand for them.
But a sustainable production of vegetable to meet the
demand of the ever increasing population in the country
is of great concern.

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J Agric Biodivers Res

In Nigeria, the bulk of vegetables are produced under

fadama by small holders who cultivate small plots and
use low input technology. In Nigeria, the term fadama is
an Hausa name for irrigable land - usually low-lying
plains underlaid by shallow aquifers found along major
river systems. But fadama lands are under intense and
high demand for competing land uses resulting from
haphazard use, intensification of agricultural activities by
farmers, pastoralists, fisher folks and others [2]. Under
these conditions, the resource base of the fadama lands
deteriorates with eventual negative effect on vegetable
yield. Therefore, vegetable production could be seriously
threatened by climate change. Climate change affects
agriculture in several ways. It has a direct impact on food
production and agricultural productivity [3-5]. Potential
impacts of climate change on agricultural production will
depend not only on climate per se, but also on the
internal dynamics of agricultural systems, including their
ability to adapt to the changes [6]. The need to maintain
and/or improve vegetable productivity calls for farmers
adoption of mitigation practices. Success in mitigating
climate change depends on how well agricultural crops
and systems adapt to the changes. African countries
need tools to adapt and mitigate the adverse effects of
climate change on vegetable production, quality and
yield. Farmers at all levels need to acknowledge the
effects of climate change on vegetables and the possible
mitigation strategies.
Objectives of the study
These are:
i. To identify the adaptation practices adopted by
vegetable farmers.
ii. To determine the costs and returns and
iii. To analyse the determinants of climate change
adaptation practices.

stage was the random sampling of two villages from each

LGA while the third stage consisted of the selection of
fifteen respondents within each village via simple random
sampling technique. In all, a total of one hundred and
twenty (120) leafy vegetable farmers were selected for
interview.
A questionnaire was designed to facilitate the collection
of reliable and specific data. Data were collected in
November and December of 2012 using a pre-tested
structured questionnaire on climate change adaptation
practices, farmers outputs, production input variables
(farm size and labour used) and socio economic
characteristics of the farmers (age, level of education,
farming experience, household size, credit availability, off
season income and extension visits). The data obtained
were analysed using the descriptive statistics, budgetary
technique and multinomial logit model. Descriptive
statistics such as frequency distribution, percentages,
ranges and means were used to describe the values of
the selected socio-economic variables such as sex, age,
educational level, household size, farm size and
institutional factors such as access to financial capital,
membership of association or group were used to
compare farmers adaptation to climate change. A total
farm budget approach was undertaken to estimate
production costs, revenue and gross margin accruable to
each of the farmers. In this study, the gross margin of the
farmers was analysed as well as profitability ratio. The
equations used in estimating the various parameters
were defined below:
TC = TFC + TVC
GM = TR TVC
GR = Price of output x yield
NP = TR TC
NFI = GM TFC
Depreciation = Cost of purchase salvage value
Useful life
The profitability technique can be expressed as:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in Ekiti State, which lies within
the tropical zone in the rain forest and savannah region in
the South Western part of Nigeria. The State enjoys a
typical tropical climate with two district seasons; the
raining seasons which lasts roughly from April to October
and the dry seasons which prevails for the remaining
months. Majority of the inhabitants are essentially small
holder farmers who depend largely on agriculture for their
livelihood.
In the collection of data, a multi stage sampling
technique was employed. The first stage involves
purposive sampling of four Local Government Areas
(L.G.A.) with highest density of leafy vegetable farmers
and based on predominance of vegetable production in
those areas, they were purposively selected. The second

Operating expense ratio = TVC

GR
Net farm income = NFI
GM
Returns/Outlay = NFC
TC
= TR- TC
Where:
= Profit
FC = Fixed cost
VC = Variable cost
TFC = Total cost of production
GM = Gross Margin
NFI = Net farm income
TR = Total revenue from output

Adeyemo et al.

P = Price per output

Q = Total output produced
Model Specification
The Multinomial Logit Model
The multinomial logic used the cumulative distribution
function (CDF) to explain the behaviour of a dichotomous
dependent variable. Given the assumption of normality,
the probability that I*i is less than or equal to I i can be
computed by the normal CDF as:
P i = P(Y=1/X)
= P (I i* < I i)
=P (Z i < B1 + B2 X i)
=F (B1 + B2 X i)
Where I* = critical or threshold level of the index, such
that if I i exceeds I*, the family will adopt, otherwise it will
not. P(Y=1/X) is the probability that an events occurs
given the values of X, or explanatory variable(s) and
where Z i is the normal variable i.e. Z~N (0, Q2).
The term multi-linear logit was coined in the 1930s by
Chester Bliss and it stand for probability unit. The probit
model is defined as:
Pr(y =1/X) = (xb)
Where is the standard cumulative normal probability
distribution and xb is called the probit score or index.
Since xb has a normal distribution, interpreting probit
coefficients thinking in the Z (normal quantile) metric. The
interpretation of a probit coefficient is that one-unit
increase in the predictor leads to increasing the probit
score by b standard deviations.
Learning to think and communicate in the Z metric takes
practice and can be confusing to others. We will make
use of a number of tools developed by Long and Freese
to aid in the interpretation of the results.
The log-likelihood function for multi-linear logit is; In
L=wjIn (xjb) + wjIn(1- (xjb)
Where wj denotes optional weights.
The model relating to the intensity of adoption is specified
as follows:
Pi
=
F(B0+
B1X
+
1
B2X2+B3X3+B4X4+B5X5+B6X6+B7X7+B8X8+B9X9+B10X10)
Where,
Pi = Adoption status measured as dummy (0 = nonadopters, 1= adopters of indigenous vegetable, 2=
adopters of irrigation, 3= adopters of varying planting
time.)

39

X1 = Sex of respondents (1=Male, 0=Female)

X2= Age (in year)
X3= Educational status of the household head (years)
X4=Household size
X5=Land ownership (1=owned, 0=otherwise)
X6= Farm size (ha)
X7= Perceived impact of technology of yield (1=Positive,
0=Negative)
X8=Farming experience (years)
X9= off farm income ()
X10= Extension visits (1=Yes, 0=No)
The independent variables included are age of the
household head in years, farming experience (measured
in years), the number of people in the household, off-farm
income measured in Nigerian naira (N), education of
household head (years of formal education), perceived
impact of climate on yield (dummies), effective extension
contacts measured by regularity of visits by extension
agents (dummies) and, farm size. The effect of age on a
decision whether to adopt or employ new technologies
might be negative or positive. Previous studies show that
the age of individuals affect their mental attitude to
change from using or not using a new ideas and
influences farmers decision in several ways. Younger
farmers have been found to be more knowledgeable
about new practices and may be more willing to bear risk
and adopt new technology because of their longer
planning horizons. The older the farmers, the less likely
they are to adopt new practices as he gains confidence in
his old ways and methods. On the other hand, older
farmers may have more experience, resources, or
authority that may give them more possibilities for trying a
new technology. There is no agreement on the sign of
this variable as the direction of the effect is location- or
technology-specific. The same assertion is true of
farming experience [7-10]. Education was expected to be
positively related to the adoption of innovations since as
farmers acquire more education, ability to obtain,
process, and use new information improves and they are
likely to adopt [7-9,11,12].
Extension contact was expected to positively influence
adoption as these support services facilitate the uptake of
new technologies. The extension contact variable
incorporates the information that the farmers obtain on
their production activities on the importance and
application of innovations through counseling and
demonstrations by extension agents on regular bases.
The effect of this information on adoption varies
depending on channel, source, content, motivation, and
frequency. Respondents who are not frequently visited by
extension agents have lower possibilities of adoption than
those frequently visited [9,13-15]. Off-farm income and
credit facilities were expected to influence adoption
positively. It was considered to be capital that could be
used either in the production process or be exchanged
for cash or other productive assets [12,14,16,17]. Lack of

40

J Agric Biodivers Res

liquidity could constrain adoption process, Off-farm

income will have a positive effect on adoption by relaxing
the constraint [18,19]. Perceived impact of the technology
was expected to influence positively on adoption as
farmers who perceived the positive effect of a technology
on yield would readily adopt [14,18]. Household size
could have either positive or negative influence on
adoption [9,10,12,15,16,20]. A large family size could
reflect the presence of a greater labor force being
available to the household for timely farm operations. On
the other hand, a negative relationship of the variable
with adoption could imply greater use of pressure in
relation to large family. Farm size was hypothesized to
have a positive relationship with technological adoption
[9,10,17,18,20].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section discusses the results of the research as
analyzed by the analytical techniques employed to
achieve the study objectives.
Socio- Economic Characteristics of Respondents
The sex distribution of the respondents shows that about
53 of the total respondents were male while the
remaining 67 respondents were female. This shows that
cultivation of vegetable in the study area is predominantly
a female dominated enterprise. Cultivation of vegetable is
generally accepted to be gender biased. Age of a farmer
to a large extent, has an important bearing upon
effectiveness in the performance of various management
and operational duties on the production of leafy
vegetables, therefore, it affect adaptation to climatic
change among leafy vegetable farmers. The age of a
farmer is crucial to engaging him/her, physically in farming
activities. The results show that about 32 respondents
were less than 30years of age, 33 were between the age
brackets of 31-50, and about 31 respondents were 51-70
while 24 respondents were above 70 years of age.
The marital status is an important factor that
determines the per capital income of the farmer. When a
farmer has so many wives, there will also be more
children and this will certainly reduce the farmers per
capita income because more number of people will
depend on him for survival hence reducing his real
income. On the other hand, the family member could
serve as source of labour for the farmer on his farm. With
a large family, lesser number of hired labours will be
used. This will work if the children are youth. The pool of
the results has shown that 91 respondents were married,
25 were widowed while just four were single. This shows
that vegetable farming is mostly practiced by married
people.
Labour is an important input in production and it takes
the largest share of variable cost of production. Farmers
in the area are mostly small holders and they rely heavily

on the household labour supply to carry out both the farm

and non-farm (domestic and social) activities. There is
always scarcity of labour at the peak of the season
because of the seasonality of Nigerian agricultural
system [18]. Labour inadequacy in supply constitutes a
major hindrance to agricultural production. Household
labour size is between the ranges of 7-9 and it has about
63 of the total supply of labour.
Education is an important determinant of adoption
decisions as well as an item of human capital
development. The number of years of formal education
measures the literary level of the farmers. To a greater
degree, it determines the ability to read and/or write by
farmers. In addition, it affords farmers the opportunity to
clearly weigh and compare the advantages and
disadvantages of various innovations or technology
introduced in order to make a rational decision for
adoption. As the farmers level of education increases, its
effect on agricultural production is meant to be positive.
This is due to the fact that an educated farmer is at
advantage in understanding and adopting new
techniques of production. The more educated a farmer is,
the more his decision making on the farm is enhanced as
he becomes a better manager of farm resources for
increased productivity from the set of farm inputs. The
data revealed that over 60% of the respondents went
through post secondary education.
Extension visit afforded farmers easy exposure to new
technologies. The greater the visits by extension agent,
the better the farmers are informed about new technology.
Investigation revealed that 81 of the respondents had
contact with extension agents in the last production
season, while the remaining 39 respondents had no
contact with the extension agent. A greater proportion of
the respondents that adopted varying planting time were
visited on the last production season while 38 and 23
resistant indigenous vegetable adopters and irrigation
adopters were also visited. It could therefore be seen that
extension visits is a determinant of adaptation practices
employed in the face of changing climate in the
production of leafy vegetables.
Information dissemination is the key lubricant of the
wheel of adoption decision process. The source and the
frequency are very germane in innovation adoption
process. The major sources and or /channels of
information in the study area were mass media, friends
and family, extension agents/officers, local farmers and
fadama programme. The results have shown that two of
the respondents were informed through mass media, 25
by friends and relatives, 69 by extension officer, and 12
by local councillors. The pool of the results has shown
that most of the farmers have been informed through
extension agents.
Adoption of climate change adaptation practices
Farmers were interested in climate change/adaptation
practices but were unable to invest heavily in them due to

Adeyemo et al.

certain constraints such as accessibility and affordability

of technology and the technicality involved. However,
three areas of adopting strategies/techniques were
recognized on the field. These are planting of resistance
indigenous vegetables, using of irrigation method and
varying the planting period. Respondents were thus
classified into non-adopters of climate change adaptation
practice. A farmer is classified as a non-adopter of
adaptation practices if he did not use any of the
adaptation techniques. On the other hand, a farmer is
classified as an adopter of climate change mitigation
practices if he uses any one of the adaptation practices.
Adopters of planting indigenous vegetable were 31.6
percent, that of irrigation were 19.2 percent and that of
varying planting period was 45 percent. The high rate of
adoption of planting indigenous vegetables and varying
planting time among small holder farmers might be due to
one or a combination of the following; less labour
intensive, highly cost effective and compatibility to most
crops. The result showed that majority of the people in
the study area invested in varying planting periods,
followed by planting indigenous vegetables. Irrigation was
the least adopted technology because of the cost
involved.

41

implies that increased level of education would increase

the farmers adoption of climate change adaptation
practices. In the same vein, while farm size and amount
of credit were positively and significantly influenced by
irrigation adoption, extension visits influenced varying
time of planting. Increased farm size and amount of credit
would increase the probability of farmers adoption of
irrigation practices, while increased number of extension
visits would increase the adoption of varying time of
planting.
Age was a positive determinant of adoption of
indigenous vegetable. A one unit increase in age of the
farmers increased probability of planting indigenous
vegetable by about 0.5 percent. This implied that the
older a farmer is, the greater the likelihood that he would
adopt the planting of indigenous vegetable. This result
might suggest the insistence of older farmers to continue
to plant indigenous vegetable. Contrarily, age negatively
influenced the adoption of irrigation practices. A one unit
increase in age of farmers decreased the probability of
using irrigation by about 0.3 percent. This implies that,
the older a farmer is, the less the likelihood that he would
adopt irrigation practices. This might not be unconnected
with increased labour demand and equipment that attend
to irrigation practices; this agreed with [18].

Budgetary analysis
Conclusion
Table 1 show that the revenue accrued to leafy vegetable
production in the area was N71, 906 among the nonadopters of any adaptation techniques and N 87,390
among the irrigation adopters. The revenue value for
irrigation was a reflection of the yield results. The
revenue values were N84558 and N72444 among the
adopters of planting indigenous vegetables and varying
time of planting respectively. Total variable cost was N28,
304 among the adopters of irrigation compared to other
adopters categories. It was N20, 593 among the nonadopters. This might be due to non-investment costs. The
gross margin was N61, 777 among the adopters of
planting indigenous vegetable and N49, 883 among
those varying planting time. The gross margin values
were N51, 313 and N59, 086 for non-adopters and
adopters of irrigation respectively. The higher value in
cost observed for planting at varying time was
necessitated by increased cost of labour and chemical
that accompanied planting in the planting period. This
suggests the reason behind the returns for varying
planting time as against non-adaptation,
Multinomial logit estimates
The results as shown in Table 2 revealed that the log
likelihood value was -62.19 and chi-square value was
78.99. The values supported the fitness of the model.
The results further revealed that the level of education
positively and significantly influenced the adoption of the
three identified adaptation practices. It was significant at
5% level of probability for each of the practices. This

Adoption of any agricultural practice and mitigation

practices is crucial to development of agriculture which is
a vital sector in the economy. The study assessed the
cost and returns of farmers adaptation to climate change
in the production of leafy vegetable in Ekiti State of
Nigeria. Results from the data analysis have indicated
that female farmers dominated the production of
vegetables. Farmers used various adaptation practices
like varying the planting period, planting resistant
indigenous vegetable and the use of irrigation technology
on the plots. The costs and returns analysis have shown
that vegetable production in the area of study is
profitable. The results from the multinomial logit model
have indicated that the major determinants of farmers
adaptation to climate change were age, educational level,
year of schooling farm size and amount of credit. The
more a farmer spends time in school the more he is likely
to apply adaptation practices.
The analysis have further shown that the use of
irrigation and planting resistant breeds of indigenous
varieties and varying the time of planting have aided the
sustainability of the vegetable in the face of the changing
climate. However, policy thrust should take advantage of
age of farmers for effective adoption of relevant
technologies that will improve their livelihoods. The study
concluded that vegetable production in the area should
be pursued while extension agents should be on hand to
advice the farmers of ways of cutting costs in the
purchase and use of irrigation equipments on the farming
plots

42

J Agric Biodivers Res

Table 1: Costs and Returns per hectare under Different Adaptation Methods.

Item
Revenue (N)
Variable cost(N)
Seed
Fertilizer
Labour
Chemicals
Other expenses
Total variable
cost
Fixed cost (N)
Rent
Depreciation
Total fixed cost
Gross margin
Net income

Non-adaptation

Irrigation

71,906

Planting indigenous
vegetable
84,558

87,390

Varying
planting time
72,444

2,966
2,648
11,221
2,555
1,200
20,593

2,782
1,010
13, 993
2,998
1,997
22,781

2,702
1,648
17,972
3,700
2,280
28,304

2,700
1,333
12,655
3,000
2,870
22,560

1,200
650
1,850
51,313
49,463

1,250
630
1,880
61,777
59,897

1,470
2,100
3,570
59,086
55,516

1,300
980
2,280
49,883
47,603

Source: Field survey, 2012.

Table 2: Multinomial logistic model.

Variable
Age
Education level
Farm size
Household size
Credit amount
Off farm income
Extension visit
Farm expenses
Chi squared
Log likelihood
Restricted log
likelihood

Planting indigenous
vegetable
0.4520* (0.0011)
0.7314** (0.3112)
0.1342 (0.0191)
0.0117 (0.0071)
0.3179 (0.0333)
0.0091 (0.0009)
0.7122 (0.1134)
0.0034 (0.0714)
78.99
-62.19
-116.24

Irrigation
-0.2955*** (0.0941)
0.3520** (0.0053)
0.8930* (0.007)
0.0025 (0.0940)
0.0014* (0.111)
0.1934 (0.6113)
0.3933 (0.2221)
0.2116 (0.2341)

Varying planting time

0.2811 (0.0043)
0.7000**(0.1114)
0.1852 (0.0062)
0.0111 (0.0011)
0.0869 (0.1341)
1.2113 (0.0260)
0.3331***(0.0413)
0.6413 (0.0001)

Source: Data analysis, 2012

***= significant at 1%; **= significant at 5% and * = significant at 10%; Figures in parenthesis are standard errors.

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