Notes for 110.

311 Complex Analysis

14th Lecture
22 October 2015
Abstract
We analyze more examples of Cauchys integral formula and provide a proof of the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra.

Cauchys Integral Formula

We begin with some examples of Cauchys Integral Formula from the last lecture.
Example 1:
Show that if an entire function f (z) satisfies |f (z)| C|z|k for some given k, then f (z) is a polynomial of
degree at most k.


R
k
 f (z) 
f (z)
C(2R)
dz.
on the circle |z a| = R.
Proof. We know f (k+1) (a) = (k+1)!

2i
|za|=R |za|k+2
|za|k+1 
Rk+2
 (k+1) 
k
k

This
is at most C(2R)
C2
(a) is bounded by
R2 when R > |a|. This circle has length 2R. Then f
Rk+2

k
 (k+1)!  C2k
C2 (k+1)!
R > a. Letting R , we know f (k+1) (a) = 0 a C. Hence f (k) (z) is
 2i  R2 2R
R
constant. By the last example in the last lecture, f (z) is a polynomial of degree at most k.

Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Here is a reminder of the theorem:

Theorem 1 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Any polynomial p(z) of degree n has n roots (counted with
multiplicity).
Proof. It suffices to show for n 1 that p(z) has at least one root. This is because:
If z1 is a root of p, then p(z) = (z z1 )p(z)
p1 (z) : polynomial of degree n 1
We can assume p1 (z) has n 1 roots by induction; thus p(z) has n roots.
Suppose p(z) = az z n + an1 z n1 + + a0 and has no root. Then

1
p(z)

has no pole and is an entire function



0|
Take R > min 1, 2 |an1 |++|a
; then for any |z| > R:
|an |
|p(z)| |an z n | |an1 z n + + a0 |

n1
X
|an | Rn
|aj | Rn1
j=0

|an | Rn
=

|an | R n
R
2

|an | R
Rn1
2

 Thus

1
p(z)

Likewise,

is bounded on |z| > R.

1
p(z)

Therefore,

is bounded on |z| R as well.

1
p(z)

is a bounded entire function, hence constant.

So p(z) is also constant, which contradicts that n 1.

Cauchys Integral Formula, Circle Case

Suppose a disk |z a| r, boundary included, is inside the domain of analyticity of f . Then Cauchys
Integral Formula gives
Z
1
f (z)
f (a) =
dz
2i |za|=r z a
Z 2


f (a + reit
1
d a + reit
=
it
2i t=0
re
Z 2
1
f (a + reit
=
rieit dt
2i t=0
reit
Z 2


1
f a + reit dt.
=
2 0

That is, f (a)

RR is the average value of f on the circle |z a| = r. The corollary: from above, we could say
f (a) = r1 2 |za|r f (z) dx dy. Proof: Take the average on every circle centered at a with radius r,
then take the weighted average over these circles.

Maximum Principle

Lemma 1. For an analytic function f , if |f | achieves its maximum value in the disk D = {|z a| r} at
a, then f is a constant function in D.
RR (z)
(a)
Proof. Write w = f (a),
then 1 = f w
equals the average value D f w
dx dy in the disk. For each z,

RR f (z)
RR
 f (z) 
f (z)
(z)
|f (a)| |f (w)|,  w  1 and Re w 1. So Re D w dx dy = D Re f w
dx dy 1. As equality is
(z)
achieved, we must have Re f w
= 1 z. This implies

f (z)
w

= 1 for every z in the disk.

Theorem 2 (Maximum Principle). If f is analytic in a domain D, continuous on D, and |f (z)| achieves

its maximum at a point a inside D, then f is a constant.
In other words, a non-constant analytic function must achieve its maximal absolute value on the boundary
of the domain.

4.1

Proof of Maximum Principle

Suppose f (b) 6= f (a) for some b D. As D is connected, we can find a piecewise smooth path in D from
a to b. Let c be the furthest point from a on the path (not by Euclidean distance, but by the travel distance
along the path from a), such that f (c) = f (a). Now fix a tiny disk |z c| r in D centered at c (see Figure
1). Then the disk contains points c0 with f (c0 ) 6= f (a). But |f | achieves at c its maximum in the disk.
This is a contradiction to the previous lemma!

Figure 1: Plot used in proof of maximum principle.