PIM02

National Convention of Presidents of Water User Associations organized by MoWR RD & GR. - IndiaNPIM at Delhi (7-8 Nov.
2014)
StatusofParticipatoryIrrigationManagement(PIM)InIndia
PhanishSinha1
1.0
Background:WhyPIMisImportant
1.1
Secured water future is dependent upon water use efficiency and productivity in
agriculture:
Agriculturecontributes13.7%toGDPandgenerates52%ofemployment2.Around44%of
grosssownareaisunderirrigationcover,utilizing83%ofthecountrysavailablefreshwater
andcontributingto66%oftotalfoodgrainproduction.
Averagefoodgrainproductivityis2.0ton/hawhileafoodgrainproductivityof6.0ton/ha
is achievable (Sinha, 2002). Bridging this yield gap within the framework of maximizing
economic and social welfare in equitable manner, environmental and ecological
sustainability, meeting competing demand for water from other sectors, and mitigating
impactsofclimatechangeisacomplexandchallengingtask.
McKinseyandCompanypublishedareporttitledChartingOurWaterFuture 3whichsays
that by 2030, water demand in India will grow to almost 1500 BCM, driven by domestic
demandforrice,wheat,andsugarforagrowingpopulation,alargeproportionofwhichis
moving toward a middleclass diet. Against this demand, Indias current water supply is
approximately740BCM.Asaresult,mostofIndiasriverbasinscouldfaceseveredeficitby
2030 unless concerted action is taken. The most populous basins like the Ganga, the
Krishna, and the Indian portion of the Induswill be facing the biggest absolute gap. The
businessasusual trends are insufficient to close the water gap and the result in many
casescouldbethatfossilreservesaredepleted,waterreservedforenvironmentalneedsis
drained, ormore simplysome of the demand will go unmet, so that the associated
economicorsocialbenefitswillsimplynotoccur.
The report has dwelt on length the range of technical options for supply and water
productivitywhichexisttoclosethewatergapandalsothecostofeachoption.Themost
important realization on seeing this cost curve is that Indias gap between demand and
supply in 2030 can be closed only by improving agricultures water efficiency and
productivity.Some80%ofthecheapestsolutionstoclosethewatergaplieinagriculture.
The remaining 20% lie in additional water supply through rehabilitation of existing
Participatory Irrigation Management Specialist, Member, Governing Body of Indian Network on Participatory
Irrigation Management (IndiaNPIM) , Email: phanishsinha@gmail.com
2
http://win2vin.wordpress.com/2012/03/13/state-of-indian-agriculture-report-2011-2012/
3
http://www.mckinsey.com/client_service/sustainability/latest_thinking/charting_our_water_future
National Convention of Presidents of Water User Associations organized by MoWR RD & GR. - IndiaNPIM at Delhi (7-8 Nov. 2014)
infrastructureandlastmilecanals.Withthisoption,theannualexpenditureonclosingthe
watergapis$5.9billion.
In effect, Indias year 2030 water gap of around 756 BCM could also be solved with
improving agricultures water efficiency and productivity only, but it would imply a net
annual expenditure in 2030 of $ 8.4 billion. In comparison, infrastructure only solution
wouldrunupanannualexpenditurein2030of$23billion(3to4timesmore),andwould
onlymeet60%ofthegap.
Thismakesastrongcaseforincreasingwateruseefficienciesandproductivityinagriculture
but the McKinsey report does not elaborate upon capacity building and institutional
resources required to implement identified technical options. Before we ponder over
institutional framework to carry out identified technical options, we should take a look at
thesettinginwhichthisinstitutionalframeworkwillwork.
1.2
Thegapbetweenirrigationpotentialandutilizationonmajorandmediumirrigation
schemesneedstobeimproved:
Thetotalultimateirrigationpotentialofthecountryisestimatedat139.9millionhectare
(MajorandMediumIrrigationProjects:58.5mhaandMinorIrrigationProjects:81.4mha)
withfourStates(UttarPradesh,Bihar,MadhyaPradeshandAndhraPradesh)accountingfor
alittlemorethanhalfshare.
A gap of 19 % in irrigation potential created (IPC) and irrigation potential utilized (IPU) is
reported on the major and medium irrigation schemes.4 Major and medium irrigation
projects are funded, planned, constructed, maintained and operated exclusively by the
governmentandthissectorisunderperformingprimarilyduetopoorservicedeliveryand
inadequate maintenance of irrigation systemscompounded by very low revenue recovery
andgallopingestablishmentexpenses.
Various evaluation studies of major and medium irrigation projects inIndia show that the
wateruseefficienciesatprojectlevelarearound3035%.Itisestimatedthatevenariseof5
percentirrigationefficiencycanincreasetheirrigationpotentialby1015millionha.5
1.3
Increasinglylargenumberofsmallandmarginallandholdingsdonotaugurwellfor
remunerativeagriculture
Anothermajorconcernisanincreasinglylargenumberofsmallandmarginallandholdings6,
where standalone agriculture is not economically viable and the task of irrigation water
delivery,irrigatedarearecording,revenuecollection,daytodaywaterdistribution,conflict
4
Of Indias 58.5 m ha Ultimate Irrigation Potential on Major and medium projects, the irrigation potential created is 42.3 m
ha and irrigation potential utilized is 34.4 mha (Water and Related Statistics ,December 2010, published by CWC,
Government of India)
5
The report on the State of Indian Agriculture placed by the Government to the Rajya Sabha in March 2012,
(http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=80852 )
6
The landholdings up to one hectare are termed as marginal landholdings and between 1-2 ha are termed as small
landholdings
management etc., also becomes extremely difficult and cumbersome for the government
agencies. Unless the marginal land holders form some organization for adopting modern
packageofagriculturalpractices,irrigationandotherinputmanagementtheproductivityof
marginallandholdingsshallkeepondwindling.Thereisagrowingconcernandrealization
thattheinstitutionalsetupforirrigationwatermanagementrequiresaparadigmshift.
Graph1:IncreaseinnumbersofsmallandmarginallandholdingsinIndia(Sinha,2002)7
Numberinmillions
100
80
Graph1:Increaseinnumbersof
smallandmarginallandholdingsin
India(unit:million)
74
60
40
20
35.7
44.5
50.1
94
62.1
56.1
14.7
16.1
17.9
20
22
26
13.4
197071
197677
198081
198586
199091
200001
201011
0
Landholdingcategory
Smalllandholdings
Marginallandholdings
Thereisanurgentneedtoevolvea strategy forequitableandoptimal utilizationofcanal

irrigation water in conjunction with ground water for better productivity through
communityparticipationandthereisnearconsensus(pleaserefertoNationalWaterPolicy,
12th FYP and NWM Comprehensive Mission Document) that promoting participatory
irrigation management (PIM) through Water User Associations (WUAs) can be the best
strategy for improving water use efficiency and productivity. The gradual reduction of all
pervadinggovernmental presence and matching enlargement of farmers role in irrigation
management is, therefore, crucial to the better performance of the irrigated agriculture
sector.
2.0
HistoryandCurrentStatusofPIM:
The Government of India (GOI) took up the initiative of PIM through the Command Area
Development (CAD) program in several States in 1985. Later on, the National Planning
CommissionsetupaSpecialWorkingGrouponPIMtoreviewandsuggestthestrategiesfor
the 9th Five Year Plan (19972002). PIM has also been actively promoted through State
Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMIs), the World Bank assisted Water
Resources Consolidation / Restructuring Projects, and by the Indian Network on
Participatory Irrigation Management (IndiaNPIM). Some NGOs like Society for Promoting
Participative Ecosystem Management (SOPPECOM), Samaj Parivartan Kendra in
7
The figures for 2010 -11 are projected on the basis of 2005-06 data published in Statistical Diary 2011 of Planning
Department , Government of Uttar Pradesh, India (http://updes.up.nic.in)
Maharashtra, and the Development Support Centre (DSC) in Gujarat have contributed
significantly in promoting PIM. Today, out of the total 28 States, some 25 States of India
haveadoptedthePIMapproachpartlyorfullybyformingWaterUserAssociations(WUAs).
The leading States areAndhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh. By the
endofAugust2011,atotalnumberof72613WaterUsersAssociations(WUAs),coveringan
area of 14.82 million ha, have been formed in India (Table 1), many of which are,
unfortunately,onpaperonly.Ifweassumeideallythatall72612WUAsarefunctional,even
thentheareacoveragebyPIMisaround12%(Table1)andthereisalongwaytogotobring
theentirecommandareaofalltheirrigationschemesinalltheStatesunderPIM.
Table1:StatewiseNumberofWaterUsersAssociations(WUAs)andAreaCovered
Sr.
Nr.
State
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
AndhraPradesh
Arunachal
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
HimachalPradesh
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
MadhyaPradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
TamilNadu
Tripura
UttarPradesh
Nr.ofWUA
formed8
10748
43
720
80
1324
57
1834
2800
876
39
0
2662
4163
1687
2815
73
151
110
23
18989
957
1130
0
1641
0
245
AreaCovered IrrigationPotentialCreated
(000hectare)9 (000ha)intheStateonMajor/
10
Mediumandminorschemes
4169.00
9699.7
9.02
92.6
47.04
790.3
209.47
8127.9
1244.56
1578.8
7.01
56.0
486.64
7229.1
200.00
4669.2
35.00
263.0
2.76
770.0
0.00
1025.8
1363.07
4543.2
174.89
2030.2
1692.26
7639.0
1102.42
9363.8
49.27
157.4
18.75
96.9
14.00
13.6
3.15
135.0
1692.60
3744.9
116.95
9130.4
983.07
9235.6
0.00
33.8
840.94
5825.7
0.00
113.6
121.21
29222.1
%area
coveredby
WUA
43.0
9.7
6.0
2.6
78.8
12.5
6.7
4.3
13.3
0.4
0.0
30.0
8.6
22.2
11.8
31.3
19.3
102.9
2.3
45.2
1.3
10.6
0.0
14.4
0.0
0.4
Source: Note on Status of Participatory Irrigation Management issued by Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India (http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File421.pdf(.Thefigures for UP have been
updated by the author.
9
Source: same as above.Thefigures for UP have been updated by the author.
10
Source: Water and related statistics 2010 (pages 134-135) published by Central Water Commission,
Government of India
Sr.
Nr.
State
27 Uttarakhand
28 WestBengal
Total
Nr.ofWUA
formed8
0
10000
72613
AreaCovered IrrigationPotentialCreated
(000hectare)9 (000ha)intheStateonMajor/
Mediumandminorschemes10
0.00
1023.8
37.00
5351.6
14817.56
121963
%area
coveredby
WUA
0.0
0.7
12.0
3.0 ImpactofPIM
ThesuccessofWUAsinhandlingirrigationmanagementhasbeenmixed.WhereverWUAs
havebeenformedbasedonprinciplesoforganizingonwatermanagement(seeSection5.1)
andprinciplesofchangemanagement(seeSection5.2)andproperparticipatoryprocedures
(e.g.,WUAssupportedbyDSCinGujaratandMadhyaPradesh,WaghadWUAssupportedby
SamajParivartanKendraandTUGsinKarnatakasupportedbyDhanFoundation)theresults
are encouraging. But wherever the PIM is implemented in topdown fixed target mode, it
has failed to take off. In a nutshell, PIM has so far failed in India not because the idea is
wrong,butbecausethepeopleimplementingit(oftenengineers)havenotunderstoodthe
process and it has been imposed on farmers from above. So far , a suitable model for
implementing PIM on large scale in India has yet to be found it doesnt mean however
that the idea is wrong, rather the implementation. A few impact studies are discussed
below:
3.1
ImpactofPIMinUPWaterSectorRestructuringProjectPhase1(UPWSRP)
418WUAswereestablishedandregisteredunderSocietiesRegistrationActin2004.The
WUAs were entrusted with a limited activity of maintenance of the minor with funding
arrangement through UPWSRP. Impact of this intervention on following indicators was
evaluatedon395minorsonwhichdatawasavailable:
(i)
Increaseinirrigatedarea.
(ii)
Equityinirrigationofheadandtailareas.
(iii)
Reductioninthecostofsiltclearanceoftheminors.
3.1.1 Increaseinirrigatedarea:
ItwasseenthataverageirrigatedareainaWUAinrabiseasonrosefrom76.84hato80.37
ha(4.6%)inyear200405(Rabi1412Fasli11)incomparisontopreviousfiveyearsaverage.
Furtherriseof6.9%inaverageRabiirrigatedareawasseeninyear200506(Rabi1413Fasli)
incomparisontoyear200405(Rabi1412Fasli).KindlyrefertoGraph2below.
Similarresultswereobtainedforkharifirrigatedareaalso.
3.1.2 Reductionininequityofheadtailareasirrigation
11
In India, particularly Northern India land revenue and irrigation records are maintained in fasli year Fasli
year is a 12 month period and is counted from July to June.
In additionto the increase in the totalareairrigatedfollowing involvement of the WUA in

the maintenance of the irrigation system the inequity between head and tail end farmers
decreased, with the area in the tail end increasing over the two years following the
involvementoftheWUA(Table2,Graph3).
Graph2:IncreaseinirrigatedareaafterpartialmanagementtransfertoWUA
Average irrigated area in Rabi (ha)
IncreaseinaverageirrigatedareainRabiSeason
88
86
84
82
80
78
76
74
72
85.95
80.37
76.84
Last5yearaverage
Rabi1412Fasli(Yr.20045) Rabi1413Fasli(Yr.20056)
Crop Year
Table2:Increaseinequityofrabiirrigation
Sl.No. Description
1.
5YearsaverageIrrigationpriortohandingover
AverageIrrigatedArea(ha)
Head
Middle Tail
35.89
24.35
16.60
2.
IrrigationinYear200405(rabi1412fasli)
33.44
28.47
18.46
3.
IrrigationinYear200506(rabi1413fasli)
25.31
32.93
27.71
Graph3:IncreaseinequityofRabiirrigation
Averageirrigatedarea(ha)
Increaseinequityinirrigation
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
35.89
33.44
32.93
25.31
28.47
27.71
24.35
16.6
Head
Middle
18.46
Tail
Averageirrigatedarea(past5years)inrabiinha
Averageirrigatedareainrabiinhainyear20045(rabi1412fasli)
Averageirrigatedareainrabiinhainyear20056(rabi1413fasli)
Graph3clearlyshowsthatthepercentageincreaseinirrigatedareatowardstailportionis
more than at head of the system. Similar results were also shown in Kharif season which
10
indicates positive impact on irrigation equity after hand over of the canal to WUA for
maintenanceandwaterdistribution.
3.1.3 ImprovedEffectivenessofMaintenanceWork:
One of the objectives of bringing about institutional change in irrigation subsector in the
formofWUAsistoincreasetheeffectivenessofmaintenanceworkbyutilizingindigenous
knowhow,communitysupervisionandlocalwisdom.
TheresultsinTable3andGraph4showthatthenumberofminorswherethenumberof
minors desilted at less cost has increased from 34% to 53% while the number of minors
withhighercostsofsiltclearancehasgonedownfrom25%to17%:
Table3:ReductionincostofsiltclearanceafterIMT
Sl.No. Costofsiltclearanceper
hectare
1.
LessthanRs50/ha
2.
BetweenRs50/hatoRs
100/ha
3.
GreaterthanRs100/ha
Year200405
No.ofminors
90
111
68
%
34%
41%
Year200506
No.ofminors
204
116
%
53%
30%
25%
67
17%
Graph4:ReducedcostofsiltclearanceinCanalsafterIMT
Reducedcostofsiltclearance
53%
41%
34%
30%
25%
17%
LessthanRs50/ha
BetweenRs50/hatoRs
100/ha
Year200405
GreaterthanRs100/ha
Year200506
3.2
DharoiirrigationschemeofGujarat
IntheDharoiirrigationschemeinGujaratwherePIMhasbeenadoptedsincelast10years,
theareairrigatedhasincreasedfrom8,198hapriortoPIMto13,120ha.About2737tailend
farmersstartedreceivingwater,casesofbreachingofthecanalanddisputesoversharingof
waterwerereduced,andtherewas100%recoveryofwatercharges(DSC,2009,referenced
byS.A.Kulkarnietel,2012).
11
3.3
WaghadprojectofMaharashtra
InWaghadprojectofMaharashtra,aProjectLevelWaterUsersAssociation(PLWUA)was
establishedin2003andtheStateGovernmenttransferredtheO&Moftheentireproject
toPLWUAin2005.Theprojecthas24WUAscovering9642hacommandarea,2523wells,
andabout16,000farmers.Theirrigatedareabothundercanalandwellhasincreasedfrom
7377hain2003to10,400hain2008,100%recoveryofwaterchargesandanaveragefarm
incomeofRs.60,000perha(Kulkarnietal,2007).
Oneof the positiveimpactsofPIM istheintroductionofvolumetric supplyandpricingof
watertoWUAs.TherearesomesuccessstoriesofvolumetricsupplyinMaharashtraState
(Kulkarni et al, 2007). The State has made it mandatory to allocate water to WUAs on
volumetricbasis.IrrigationwaterissuppliedtoWUAsattheminor/tertiarylevelwhereitis
measuredbyaninbuiltmeasuringstructurelikeStandingWaveFlume(fordischarge>300
lps)orCutThroatFlume(fordischarge<300lps,Figure1)andchargedonvolumetricbasis,
which enables the WUA to know how much water it is receiving against the planned
allocation,andtouseitmoreefficiently.TheWUAhasthefreedomtoprovidewatertoits
member either on croparea or supply time basis (proxy to volumetric basis at the field
level) and also to decide water charges to be paid by the members. The prevailing water
rates on volumetric basis charged by the government at the minor level in Maharashtra
StateareshowninTable4. TheWUAschargeaservicefeeinadditiontothisamountto
covertheirMOMcosts.
Figure1:Cutthroatflumeusedfordischargemeasurement
Table4:VolumetricwaterratesforWUAsinMaharashtraState
Season
Kharif(Rainy)
Rabi(Winter)
Hotweather(Summer)
Waterrates(Rs/1000m3)
47.6
71.4
144.8
WUAs usually charge higher water rates to their members than the Water Resources
Departmentinordertocovertheadditionalcostsassociatedwithmanagement,operation
and maintenance of the onfarm system. By providing improved levels of service and
assuredwatersupplyandtransparencyinthebillingsystem,farmerswillinglypaythehigher
rates. An important factor in the improved level of service provision isthat theadditional
12
service fee charges enable the WUA to employ paid field staff to manage the water
distribution and maintain the system on a daily basis. Table 5 shows a comparison of
assessment of water charges by Water Resources Department and the recovery from
members by some WUAs in Maharashtra State. Water charges recovered from WUA
members include expenses towards O&M and benefit, besides assessment from the
IrrigationDepartment.Ascanbeseen,someoftheO&Mexpensesperunitareaarequite
significant,withbeneficialimpactsonthemaintenanceofthesystem.
Table5:WaterchargesassessmentbytheWaterResourcesDepartment(WRD)andthe
costrecoverybysomeselectWUAs(200708)inMaharashtra
NameofWUA
JaiYogeshwar,Ozar
JyotibaPhule,Ozar
Banaganga,Ozar
WaghadPLWUA
Datt,Chanda
Jagadamba,Nevasa
WRDwater Totalwater
Area
Water
Irrigated supplied charge
chargesand
(ha)
(1000m3) assessment servicefee
toWUA
recoveredby
(Rs.)
WUAfrom
members(Rs.)
308
732
133,571
209,000
134
243
45,970
9,3060
61
203
40,653
64,320
3,439
7,024
1,268,425
1,479,684
509
771
111,548
240,783
648
555
80,393
105,979
WUA
O&M
expenses
(Rs)
WUA
O&M
expenses
(Rs/ha)
56,708
38,666
17,434
154,824
184
289
286
45
Money
placed
inWUA
savings
account
(Rs.)
18,721
8,424
6,230
56,435
AnothermajorachievementofthePIMisincreaseinirrigatedareaespeciallyatthetailends
ofthecanals.Thisisduetogreaterdialogueandcooperationbetweenheadandtailenders,
better maintenance of the canal system leading to increased canal carrying capacity,
increased cost recovery, better maintenance of infrastructure leading to better control of
water,andimprovedequityofwaterdistribution.Increasingthesupplyofwatertothetail
endsmakegoodbusinesssensefortheWUAsasitincreasesthenumberofuserswillingto
pay the service charge, thus spreading the MOM costs over a greater number of water
users.
However, the incidence and magnitude of such impacts and the level of success of PIM
reformsandsustainabilityvaryacrossandwithinIndianStatesanddependonanumberof
factorssuchasclarityandstrengthofinstitutionalandlegalframework,higherlevelpolitical
willandlocallevelleadership,financialandtechnicalresources,accesstosupportservices,
incentivesystem,capacitybuildingandtrainingetc.
DespitepositiveimpactsofPIMinIndiainsomeinstances,itsexpansionhasbeensluggish.
There are many challenges and threats to achieve sustainable PIM and its upscaling to
entire public managed irrigation schemes. According to a recent IWMI study (Mukherji et
al., 2009; referenced by S.A.Kulkarni et al, 2012), in most Asia, transferring management
from bureaucratic irrigation systems to farmers group has, as yet, neither significantly
improvedproductivity,operationandmaintenance,norhasitproducedothernetbenefits,
andthattherewasaneedtolookbeyondconventionalPIM/IMTrecipes.
13
TheprimecauseforpoorimpactofPIM/IMTinIndiaisconsideredtolieintheoftenpoor
implementationofPIMprogrammes,whichhavegenerallybeenverytopdown.WUAsare
socialorganizationsandtheirsustainabilitylargelydependsuponsoundnessofcommunity
water management principles in their design. If community water management principles
areoverlookedinthedesigntoachievequickresultsandchangemanagementprinciplesare
ignored during implementation on ground, it will be impossible to effect devolution of
irrigationmanagement.Thishasbeenexperiencedinmanyoftheprogrammes.Itisevident
that success of PIM largely depends on having a WUA strong enough to assume effective
management, operation and maintenance of the irrigation system, otherwise any state
withdrawal leaves behind a vacuum and amounts to disinvestment in irrigation system
(Gulatietel,2005).
4.0 WomenparticipationinPIM12
InIndia,womenspendalmosttwothirdsoftheirtimeinonfarmactivities.However,they
remain"voiceless"whenitcomestotakingdecisionsinsharingandmanagementofwater
forirrigation.Thus,genderequityinParticipatoryIrrigationManagement(PIM)isacrucial
issue.
Therehavebeenfewinitiativestosupportwomen'sinclusioninWUAs.Women'sstatusin
theWUAisrestrictedasonlylegalownersoflandhavevotingrightsandmostlandisunder
ownership of men. Additional obstacles in women's inclusion despite the water sector
reformsandPIMactsare:
LegalTherearenospecialprovisionsforwomen'sparticipationinthePIMacts.(only
exceptionisMadhyaPradeshSichaiPrabandhanMeKrishkonKiBhagidariAdhiniyam
1999). The provisions for women participation in some PIM Acts are summarized
below:
Table6:ProvisionofwomenparticipationintheWUAsinselectStatePIMActs13
State
A.P.
NameofPIM/PIMEnablingAct
AndhraPradeshFarmersManagement
ofIrrigationSystemsAct1997
Bihar
BiharIrrigation,FloodManagement
andDrainageRules2003(section3.6
regardingIMT)madeu/s115(1)&(2)
ofBiharIrrigationAct1997
GujaratWaterUsersPIMAct2007
Gujarat
Karnataka
IrrigationandCertainOtherLaw
(amendment)Act2000
Provisionsforwomenparticipation
No reservation for women in
management committees or at any
otherlevel.
No reservation for women at Village
Level Committee and System Level
Committee (Distributary and Minor
Level)
otherlevel.
otherlevel.
12
Based on a report compiled by Bonani Dhar and Pankaj Kumar published in News dated 2nd August 2006
(http://www.gender.cawater-info.net/index_e.htm)
13
This table has been prepared by the author after perusal of State PIM Acts.
14
State
M.P
MadhyaPradeshSinchaiPrabandhan
MeKrishkonKiBhagidariAdhiniyam
1999
Provisionsforwomenparticipation
The wives of valid landholders are the
members of WUA irrespective of land
holding or not.(amendment in sec 3,
subsec 4 of the Act vide MPs
extraordinary Gazette No 55 dated 25
022005).
Out of 6 Subcommittees, one Sub
committee named as Womens
Participation SubCommittee in order
to involve women in the command
area.
One third representation of women in
Maharashtra MaharashtraManagementof
managementcommitteeatalllevelsof
IrrigationSystemsbytheFarmersAct
WUAs has been provided in the Act.
2005
But the membership is tied up with
land holding title. Therefore lack of
availability of women members on the
ground.
Orissa
OdishaPaniPanchayatAct2002
As nearly as may be but not less than
one third of the total number of seats
intheExecutiveCommitteeofanyPani
Panchayat (minor level) shall be
reserved for women. But the women
should be landholders under the
commandareawhichisaconstraint.
Rajasthan
RajasthanFarmers'Participationin
ManagementofIrrigationSystemAct, managementcommittees.Outof5sub
2000.
committees, one women may
preferably be nominated in each of
Nirman Upsamiti and Sinchai Up
samiti.
TamilNadu
TheTamilNaduFarmersManagement No reservation for women in
ofIrrigationSystemsAct2000
otherlevel.
UP
UttarPradeshPIMAct2009
Ateverylevel,ifawomenisnotelected
to the management committee, a
women from the command area shall
be coopted as a member in the
management committee. But the
women should be landholders under
the command area which is a
constraint.
PoliticalSincemembershipandvotingrightsaretiedupwithpossessionoflandtitle,
the representation of women elected in most medium and minor systems is poor.
The cooption of women on reserved vacancies in management committees
generallyreflectsvestedpoliticalinterests.
Social So far WUA activities are focused on construction works related to system
rehabilitation or desilting, maintenance and repair works, participation in which is
dominated by men. The membership and voting rights of women depend land
15
holding title in their names. Traditionally, land titles are in the name of male
members.
Capacity buildingWomen's participation remains very low in training programs,

which has been a major barrier for women not being able to come to decision
makingforumsatparwithmen.Therearenospecifictrainingmodulesandtargets
forwomentraining.
Assaidabove,themainlegalfactorinhibitingwomen'sparticipationinPIMiswomen'slack
of legal rights over land which has longterm repercussions. This restricts their ability to
control resources and access credit. To correct this imbalance, Maharashtra Government
hastakenadecisiontoincludenameofwifeinlandtitle.14MadhyaPradeshistheonlystate
wherePIMActprovidesforwomenparticipationinaproactivemanner.UnderMPPIMAct,
wifeofalegallandholderistakenasamemberofWUAirrespectiveoflandholdinginher
name.Thishasempoweredthemtocasttheirvotesasmembersaswellastocontestthe
electionsofWUAs.Inadditiontoit,MPPIMActistheonlyactinIndiawhichprovidesfor
constitution of a women participation subcommittee under a WUA to ensure the
participationofwomen.15
PIMprogrammesneedtofacilitatewomen'sinclusioninWUAs.Ensuringadequatenumber
ofwomenmemberswithinWUAsprovidesthemtheconfidencetoparticipatefullyinthis
traditionallymaledominatedspace.
TherulesofWUAsneedtobechanged,allowingwomentorepresenttheirhusbandsand
vote.
InatankmanagementprojectinKarnataka,theWUAconsistsofallwaterusersregardless
oflandholdingsandreservesseatsforwomenwithinthemanagingcommittee.Alongwith
theabovementionedmechanismsforincludingwomen,PIMActsmaybeamendedmaking
mandatory the appointment of women office bearers (or even chairpersons) to
subcommittees and reserving seats for women on the WUA Executive Committee.
Presently, a few PIM Acts which have provided for reservation of women in the WUA
Executive Committee have not achieved the purpose of women participation due to
qualifyingcriterionoflandtitleinthenameofawomen.
Atthesametime,merelyincreasingwomen'srepresentationinWUAswillbeinsufficientif
thegoalistoimprovetheirparticipation.Itisimportanttobuildthecapacitiesofwomento
14
Dr. Sanjay Belsare, Er. I.S.Chaudhari, Shri Bharat Kawale, The Maharashtra Management of Irrigation
Systems by Farmers Act 2005 and Rules 2006 and Some Suggestions / Amendments for Sustainability of
WUAs , Proceedings of All India Seminar on Sustainable Management of Irrigation System through PIM:
Techno-legal Issues in Farmers Organizations organized by The Institutions of Engineers (India) and Command
Area Development Chambal at Kota , Rajasthan (6-7 January 2012)
15
Amitabh Mishra, Suggestive Measures for successful implementation of PIM in Madhya

PradeshProceedings of All India Seminar on Sustainable Management of Irrigation System through PIM:
Techno-legal Issues in Farmers Organizations organized by The Institutions of Engineers (India) and Command
Area Development Chambal at Kota , Rajasthan (6-7 January 2012)
16
allowthemtoemergefromtheshadowsofmaleWUAmembersandactivelyparticipatein
decisionmaking. For instance, the Madhya Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project
(MPWSRP) is training women functionaries and presidents of WUAs to improve their
leadership skills, better exercise their voting rights and empower them to express their
viewsintheWUAmeetings.
Giventhecrucialrolewomenplayinirrigationmanagement,itisnecessarytoimprovetheir
technical competence. Areas identified for training include new irrigation technologies,
improved irrigation and agriculture methods and practices and day to day functions of
WUAs.Women,astheprimarywatermanagersonfarms,wouldgreatlybenefitfromsuch
trainingsinceitwouldenhancetheirunderstandingofwateruseefficiencyandagriculture
productiontechnologies.Inaddition,thetrainingprogrammeswillimprovetheiroutreach.
Most programmes hold trainings away from where women live. Thisadversely affects the
involvement of women because attending requires travelling and taking additional time
awayfromtheirhouseholdresponsibilities.InsteadtrainingprogrammesforwomeninPIM
needtobeasclosetotheirhomesaspossible.Forexample,intheOdishaCommunityTank
Management Project, the training contractor (CUTM) are carrying out the training in the
village, not in a central training centre. Thus the trainers travel, not the trainees, and
traineesaretrainedintheirownenvironment.AlsoCommunityResourcePersons(CRPs)are
trained from the village, who then carry out training and awareness raising of groups of
farmers.Thusthetrainingaremorevillagebasedandmoreeffectiveandwidespread.
Also, tracking gender disaggregated data on attendance and appointing women trainers
couldfurtherimprovethereachandimpactofirrigationtrainingprogrammes.Additionally,
since Irrigation Department officials are vital PIM stakeholders, gender sensitizing of the
departmentalstaffisalsonecessary.
5.0
CapacityBuildingofWUAsandRoleofNGOs:
Irrigationagenciesconsistofmainly engineerswhogenerallydo nothavetheexpertisein

motivatingfarmersforcollectiveactioninsolvingtheirwaterrelatedproblems.Therefore,
itisessentialthatanagencyisengagedinassistingirrigationagenciesinmotivatingfarmers
toformtheWUAs.NGOsaregenerallyfoundbetterthangovernmentagenciesforactingas
catalystsandfacilitatorsintheidentificationofforwardlookingandprogressivefarmers,in
helping farmers getting their association registered, including assisting in conducting
electionsandprovidingtheWUAsonjobtraininginitiallyinsmoothtransactionoftheirday
todaybusiness,includingmaintenanceofrecordsandaccounts,etc.
BasedonthedetailedcasestudiesofMaharashtra,itcanbesaidthatwherevertheWUA
was established by local leaders with the guidance of NGOs like Samaj Parivartan Kendra
17
(SPK),NasikorSocietyforPromotionofParticipatoryEcosystemManagement(SOPPECOM),
Pune,theWUAshavebeenworkingquitesatisfactorily.16
ThevariousStatePIMActsdevolveallwatermanagementandsystemmaintenance
responsibilities on WUAs including sophisticated interventions in the wish list of ID/WRD,
for example, conjunctive use of ground water, protecting environment and ecology,
encouraging scientific and economical use of water, water auditing, water budgeting etc.
Theirrigation/waterresourcesdepartmentsneitherhaveresourcesnorattitudetotakeup
the capacity building of the farmers which involves sustained multidisciplinary training on
their fields. Without adequate training, the WUAs will never be able to discharge their
functionsproperlyandwillremainweakanddependentondepartment.
In spite of evidence of usefulness of NGOs in establishing and strengthening WUAs, their
importance is completely ignored by the State PIM Acts.As shown in Table 7, even the
provisionoftrainingandcapacitybuildingfortheWUAsismissinginmostofthePIMActs.
The State Water Policies invariably harp on decentralization of irrigation management
functionsandhandingitovertocommunitiesbutnotasinglewaterpolicyexceptMadhya
PradeshandKarnatakamentionsabouttheinvolvementofNGOs.
Table7:StatusofprovisionsforWUAtraining/capacitybuildingunderStatePIMActs17
State
A.P.
Bihar
Provisionsfortraining/capacitybuilding
fortheWUAs
AndhraPradeshFarmersManagementof
No mention of any training capacity
IrrigationSystemsAct1997
building measures for the government
officialsandfarmers
BiharIrrigation,FloodManagementand
DrainageRules2003(section3.6regarding building measures for the government
IMT)madeu/s115(1)&(2)ofBihar
officialsandfarmers.
IrrigationAct1997
Gujarat
GujaratWaterUsersPIMAct2007
Karnataka
IrrigationandCertainOtherLaw
(amendment)Act2000
M.P
MadhyaPradeshSinchaiPrabandhanMe
KrishkonKiBhagidariAdhiniyam1999
Maharashtra MaharashtraManagementofIrrigation
SystemsbytheFarmersAct2005
Orissa
OdishaPaniPanchayatAct2002

officialsandfarmers
officialsandfarmers
officialsandfarmers
Section29(2)(xvii) says that theagreement
between a WUA with lower level WUA/ or
Canal Officers shall contain provision for
technicalguidanceandtraining.
officialsandfarmers
16
Pant Niranjan, Some issues in Participatory Irrigation Management, published in January 5, 2008 issue of
Economic & Political Weekly
17
Based on study of State PIM Acts by the author.
18
State
Rajasthan
TamilNadu
UP
RajasthanFarmers'Participationin
ManagementofIrrigationSystemAct,
2000.
TheTamilNaduFarmersManagementof
IrrigationSystemsAct2000
UttarPradeshPIMAct2009
Provisionsfortraining/capacitybuilding
fortheWUAs
officialsandfarmers
officialsandfarmers
Under para 50on Training, it ismentioned
that the State Government shall initially
make arrangements for the capacity
building of water users associations for
discharging their functions under this Act
andmayalsofacilitatesubsequenttraining
onthebasisoffullorpartialpayment.
The PIM Acts of Maharashtra and UP casually mention that training will be provided to
farmersbutitisnotclearwhenandhowandbywhomthistrainingwillbeimparted.
Rajasthan Minor Irrigation Improvement project funded by JICA formed 363 water user
associations for operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure created under the
project with assistance from NGOs. A detailed guideline for involvement of NGOs in the
watersectorwasissuedin2007byWaterResourcesDepartmentofRajasthan18whichcan
beusedasagoodguidelinesfordeploymentofNGOsbyotherstatesaswell.
Anotherchallengeliesindevelopinggoodtrainersonparticipatoryirrigationmanagement
among NGOs and state WALMIs as there is dearth of trainers who have technical
background, are well versed with participatory management processes and understand
adult learning nuances. Most of the WALMIs are ill equipped for implementation of
systematic training to the WUAs. NGOs have not been encouraged so far in assisting
irrigationagenciesinimplementationofPIM,hencetheyalsorequirecapacitybuildingand
exposure.Itissuggested thatanationalpoolofPIMtrainersmaybedevelopedbyIndian
NetworkonParticipatoryIrrigationManagement(IndiaNPIM)andNationalWaterAcademy
whichshouldnetworkwithstateWALMIstoorganizeperiodicalTrainingofTrainers(ToT)
programmesregularlyforWALMIfacultyandNGOsengagedinwatersector.
Asmentionedabove,thedeploymentofNGOsformotivatingandhandholdingoffarmers
toorganizeandforcapacitybuildingoffarmersorganizationisoneofthefactorsofsuccess
forWUA.
6.0
RoleofITinPIM:
6.1
AdvantageofITES:
One of the major problem in irrigation water management is lack of communication

between the irrigation department and farmers/ WUAs. Many states have succumbed to
the populist agenda of free / very cheap canal water resulting in to meagre revenue
collection.Consequentlyfundsavailabilityfor operationandmaintenanceoftheirrigation
systems as well as for establishment of irrigation staff has severely eroded. The service
18
Available at http://www.rajirrigation.gov.in/NGOguidelines/NGOglineEng.htm
19
accountabilityloopbetweenthedepartmentandthefarmers/WUAsisnearlybroken.When
farmersdonttrustonwaterdeliveryservicesandareunabletoconnectwiththeirrigation
department, they protect their own interest by jumping out of community interests
resultingintounauthorizedirrigationandwastageofwater.
6.2
AsuccessfulexamplefromAndhraPradesh:
InformationTechnologyEnabledServices(ITES)whichuseinformationandcommunication
technology(ICT)andinternetincombinationwithmobilephoneorotherhandheldgadgets
provide great promise in improving service delivery and reliable feedback from field on
various parameters necessary for planning and implementing midcourse corrections. The
greateststrengthofITESliesinsavingincostandtimeforsurveysonservicebenchmarking,
customersatisfaction,grievanceredressalandonlineupdationandanalysisofdata.
Andhra Pradesh have experimented with success the use of GIS and ITES for facilitating
WUAsinpreparationofparticipatoryactionplansanddaytodayavailabilityofcanalwater
andplanningitsuse.CanalNetworkFlowMonitoringSystem(CNFMS),awebbasedsystem
developed to capture canal flows in all major Irrigation Projects located in the Krishna,
GodavariandPennarriverbasinsintheState.CNFMSformsbasisformonitoringofrelease
ofwatertocanalsagainstthewaterreleasescheduleandnecessarydecisionsforoptimum
utilizationofwater.
Digitization of canal network and base maps of the same are created through remote
sensing and GIS. The canal gauge points are marked. Information received through SMS,
updatestheattributesateachlocation.Staticinformationregardingtheprojectsandcanals
like design discharge at off take points of distributaries and cross regulators in the main
canal are stored in the database. The CNFMS captures the water release data from the
designatedmobileatregularintervalsthataresentbySMSbythedesignatedfieldengineer
andstoredinthecentraldatabaseserver.Anautomatedtriggeringmechanisminbuiltinthe
central database server updates the database on receiving the water release data. The
applicationwhichprocessesthewaterreleasedataandprovidesoutputsandreportsforthe
variouspointsonthecanalnetworkandcrossregulatorsispreprogrammed.Consolidated
outputandreportsaremadeavailabletotheconcernedusersthroughSMSorautomated
faxes,usingadedicatedtelephonelineconnectedtocentralunit.
The CNFMS also presents theanalyzed data inthe form of charts/ graphs which leads to
quicker and better understanding of the information. The information is also sent to the
farmersorganizationforreviewingthedayswaterreleasestatusandappropriateplanning
at their level. The real time discharge is analyzed with reference to the predesigned
discharge schedules and localization. In addition, the CNFMS also crossverifies the water
release rationale in a transparent manner, which helps avoid water conflicts among
stakeholdersinthedifferentreaches(TuckerandGupta,2010)19.
19
Tucker, Satya Prakash and Gupta, Sanjay, (2010). Improving Irrigation Performance Management: Navigating
through Andhra Pradesh experience, Irrigation & Command Area Development, Andhra Pradesh
20
6.3
AninnovationworthemulatinginIrrigationSector:PilotProjectinServiceLevel
Benchmarking:
An innovative service level benchmarking initiative in the urban water supply sector has
been piloted by the Ministry of Urban Development in association with the World Banks
Water and Sanitation Program in Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation (PCMC), an
urban local body (ULB) located about 10 km from Pune.20 Such pilots will be extremely
useful in irrigation management sector to restore the communication and mutual trust
betweenID/WRDandWUAultimatelyleadingtobetterwaterservicedelivery.Webbased
applications for grievance redressal and information sharing, voice messaging systems
disseminatinginformationaboutthetimeofavailabilityofwatertothebeneficiariesintheir
system and farmers feedback on running of canals and other parameters of interest can
strengthenWUAs.
6.4
WUA.aquiferindia.org:AResourceCentreforPIMandBenchmarkingPerformanceof
WUAs
Even daytoday support to WUAs can be provided through ITES. A website named
wua.aquiferindia.org21isbeingdevelopedwiththeassistancefromtheWorldBankandtobe
maintained by Indian Network on Participatory Irrigation Management (IndiaNPIM). This
websiteshallactasacompleteResourceCentreofPIMwiththefollowingfunctions:
1. Performance Monitoring of WUAs : on the basis of simple userfriendly
benchmarkingtoolavailableonwua.aquiferindia.orgwebsite
2. Resourcesharing:thewebsitelinkstolegislation,guidelines,researchreports,case
studiesandtraining/extensionmaterial
3. InterfacingWUAstothepoolofconsultants,serviceprovidersandinputsuppliers:
consultants, NGOs engaged in capacity building and handholding of WUAs, service
providersandsupplierscanregisterthemselvesonthiswebsite
The target users of the website are PIM stakeholders in India, particularly WUAs,
IrrigationandCADofficials,andcapacitybuildingagencieslikeStateWALMIsandNGOs.
Theresourcecentreandbenchmarkingtoolofthewebsitewillbemoreeffectiveifas
manyWUAsaspossiblesignupandentertheirdataonthewebsiteandtakeadvantage
ofexperiencesharingandpoolingofresources.
7.0
MajorissueswhichneedtobediscussedintheNationalConvention:
(i) The basic policy of extending irrigated area (focusing on productivity of water)
needs a review in view of shrinking land (focusing on productivity of land)
resources. The ageold protective irrigation policies need to be reviewed vis
visneedsofproductiveirrigation.
(ii)
ThegovernmentpoliciesandPIMactsarenotclearaboutobjectiveandvision
forWUAs.Withoutclearobjectivestheindicatorsformonitoringandevaluation
20
The details can be seen on the link http://www.wsp.org/FeaturesEvents/Features/using-technology-track-howcitizens-experience-water-service-delivery-india

21
The website can be accessed at http://wua.aquiferindia.org
21
of WUAs are difficult to set. Without benchmarking the WUAs improvement

plancannotbemade.ItisatimetoreviewstatePIMactsandmainstreamthem
with the aspirations of decentralized management and strengthening of local
institutions.
(iii)
Many old definition like CCA are confusing and outdated which need to be
revisitedinthelightofdecentralizedirrigationmanagement.
(iv)
WUAsaremandatedoncanalsandareexpectedtolimitthemselvestocanalO
&M,waterdistributionandrevenuecollection.Unlesstheyareempoweredto
take to integrated water resources management, invest in ground water and
conjunctiveuse,theywillnotbesustainable.
(v) Agricultureproductivityisthecoreissueinirrigationwatermanagementbutitis
notwellintegratedwithmandateofWUAs.
(vi) The private sector participation in delivery of input /output services and
strengtheningbackwardandforwardlinkagesinagricultureproductionneedto
be encouraged and enabled for creation of better livelihood opportunities for
farmers.
(vii) The water energy nexus is completely neglected in WUA management model.
EfficientpumpingandinnovativeuseofsolarpowerisnecessarytomakeWUAs
selfsustainable.
(viii)ThetrainingandcapacitybuildingofWUAismuchneglectedarea.Aframework
forWUAtrainingandcapacitybuildingintegratingstateWALMIs,KVKS,Farmer
FieldSchools,AgricultureUniversitiesandNGOsneedtobeestablished.
*****
22

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National Convention of Presidents of Water User Associations organized by MoWR RD & GR. - IndiaNPIM at Delhi (7-8 Nov.

Thereisanurgentneedtoevolvea strategy forequitableandoptimal utilizationofcanal

In additionto the increase in the totalareairrigatedfollowing involvement of the WUA in

Average irrigated area in Rabi (ha)

Capacity buildingWomen's participation remains very low in training programs,

Amitabh Mishra, Suggestive Measures for successful implementation of PIM in Madhya

Irrigationagenciesconsistofmainly engineerswhogenerallydo nothavetheexpertisein

No mention of any training capacity

Based on study of State PIM Acts by the author.

One of the major problem in irrigation water management is lack of communication

The details can be seen on the link http://www.wsp.org/FeaturesEvents/Features/using-technology-track-howcitizens-experience-water-service-delivery-india

of WUAs are difficult to set. Without benchmarking the WUAs improvement

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