MSc in Occupational Psychology

At Home at Work;
The Psychological Consequences for Home-based Working Men

David Dean

University of Leicester

2007
Contents

1. Executive Summary Page

Target audience and aims 1

Research Summary & Key Results 1

Background to the modern home-based working man 2

Recent psychological research findings into home-based working 3

Current research aims and objectives 4

Research Methods 4

Summary of results 5

Conclusions and recommendations 8

References 10

2. Empirical Study

Abstract 1

Introduction 1

Home-based working: An Overview 2

The expansion of male home-based workers 2

Psychology of home-based work for men 4

Research Aims and Objectives 6

Methods 7

Developing the Interview

Developing the Questionnaire

Participants

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2. Empirical Study (cont) Page

Results 11

Summary of the main themes from interview data

Summary of the Questionnaire Data

Discussion 15

Further research 27

Conclusions & Recommendations 28

References 31

Appendices i Semi-Structured Interview Schedule 34

Appendices ii Questionnaire 35

Appendices iii Interview Transcriptions & Notation 40

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Executive Summary

Target Audience – Intended for the informed manager, supervisor or H.R manager, with
staff working or destined to work at or from home, and the self-employed home-based
working networks and individuals.

The study endeavours to draw attention to the occupational psychological dimensions of being
a home-based employed or self-employed working man undertaking paid employment within
the domestic sphere. Moreover the conclusions provide a positive framework of supportive
recommendations and best practice for consideration.

Research Summary & Key Results

In recent years a growing number of men in various occupations have begun to work
from a home-base. This study contends that there are significant psychological
implications for both employed and self-employed working men that need to be
considered prior to any transition to becoming home-based. Despite the recent high
media profile on this subject and management focus upon the technical aspects of
home and work existence, there is little published occupational psychological research
on this ever-increasing group within the working population.

This qualitative semi-structured interview and questionnaire based research into the
psychological lived experience of a group of working men based in the South-East of
England and investigates the following issues. Social isolation owing to the separation
from colleagues, associates and social networks allied with organisational existence
along with technology induced stressors. The temporal and spatial boundaries
constructed to enable the man to work from home and the impact of the family, roles
and children upon work patterns and work based behaviours. This study endeavours
also to provide a valuable framework for further occupational psychological research
whilst highlighting key areas to support organisations, individuals, teams and the self-
employed during the transition to working at home.

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A brief summary of key results of this study;
• Those self-employed men solely home-based suffer from social isolation from
colleagues and organisational interactions. The workers that visit clients or customer
a few days a week suffer less.
• Aspects of occupational stress induced by computer mediated technology i.e.
organisational email, and the lack of appropriate technology training.
• Difficulties maintaining boundaries between the domestic and work spheres
• Lack of obvious transitions (i.e. no commute) to work and back home that
exacerbates the boundary conflict between home and work.
• Children can create a major distraction to the male worker creating a need to be
highly disciplined. The findings suggest that the male worker finds combining family
life and work difficult and is in need of careful management.

The psychological implications of this study suggest very careful re-assessment and
consideration for those already working from or about to embark upon home-base
work. This study also provides a home-based action framework for organisations and
self-employed network groups to adopt.

Background to home-based working

A new and as yet under researched group of working men are now emerging into the
contemporary Information, Communication and Technology (ICT’s) driven work
environment. Occupational definitions of Teleworking, Homeworking and Home-based
worker to name a few, occupy numerous column inches of business management and
employment trend articles in newspapers and human resource publications. However,
it is the lack of clear unambiguous occupational characterisation that has to a large
extent held back and fragmented occupational psychological study into this area of
working life. To that aim the working definition of this research will not ignore the
terminology of previous research, but suggests a definition that most home-based
work can be classified. The definition being that the characteristics of working from a
home-base are the close proximity to the private and personal worlds of domestic

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relationships and a geographical distance from colleagues, networks, co-workers and
managers (Felstead, Jewson & Walters; 2005).

Research from the Office of National Statistics by Ruiz and Walling (2005) highlight
that in 2005 there were 3.1 million home-based teleworkers in the UK and 2.2 million
of the total are in fact men. They are reported to be the most academically qualified,
occupy high status work groups and utilise computer and communication technology
that facilitates home-based working or work on the move. It is acknowledged that
women occupy the majority of homeworking groups and it is understood from National
Group of Homeworking that these jobs are generally seen as low paid with little or no
choice of employment status due to the need for traditional child-care flexibility.
Although not included in this study, the research from different areas of social
sciences into homeworking women provides an insight into the as yet un-researched
growing group of male home-based workers that are seemingly neglected through an
occupational psychological framework. This provides the suitable driver for this
research.

Recent psychological research findings into home-based working

The purpose of this and other recent studies is to highlight a number of both positive
and negative aspects of home-based working for both men and women. The main
areas of interest for this and many other studies from Mann and Holdsworth; 2003,
Jvittersø, Akselson, Evjemo, Julstrud, Yttri, and Bergvik; 2003, Hartig, Kylin and
Johansson; 2007 and Felstead & Jewson; 2000 gleaned from internet sources and
publications is to provide an insight into the issues that lay behind this study.
• Known issues of presenteeism and poor work life balance due to the close proximity
of the office or work area
• An increased positive sense of the flexibility of working hours, control and
independence
• Lack of organisational technical and personal support, poor job motivation, job
satisfaction and stress due to high degree of extra work load and availability of work
• Social isolation from colleagues and associates
• Stress
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 • Re-negotiation of the family space, boundaries and roles with the home to
accommodate work, as the two can seemingly be at odds with each other.
• Distracted and interrupted work patterns due to the permeability of boundaries and
proximity of the home sphere.

Current research aims and objectives

Naturally as research progresses the areas of interest may increase, however, the aim
of this research is to build upon a study from Moore and Crosbie (2002) into the lived
experience of a group of home-based workers. The intention is to investigate through
a transactionalist interpretive framework to draw the themes and meanings of the
home-based working life, i.e. issues of social isolation and other personal dimensions
to home based-work. Elements of schema theory are incorporated to investigate how
the house is divided to accommodate work time and space and how the family and
children inadvertently impact upon the work patterns of the home-based men.

Study research methods

This study fell into two parts; a semi-structured interview and a questionnaire study.
The interview schedule and the questionnaire were based upon the model developed
by Moore and Crosbie’s (2002) with their agreement. A focus group of home-based
men in the Cambridge area was utilised to pilot the interview and questionnaire to re-
focus upon the home-based working male perspective. The participant pool was
accessed though a Cambridge based organisation, Cambridge Skills-Tap and
organisations with home-based employees. In total twelve (four employed and eight
self-employed) men were drawn from the South-East of England. All interview and
questionnaire information was treated totally confidentially and was only used for this
study. The participant’s identification was removed prior to the publication of the
study in accordance to the British Psychological Society Code of Conduct and Ethics
(2006) with full de-briefing following the interview process.

The interview schedule questions and the questionnaire were sent out to the
participants ten to fourteen days prior to the interview date, to ensure that the
participants could reflect upon the questions and any difficult issues could be discussed
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 prior to the interview. The interviews were conducted during the period of February
to May 2007, either over the telephone or a face-to-face visit with prior approval to
the home-based workers house.

Occupation of Interview Approx Interview

P-ID Participant Method Location Employment Age Date
0.1 Freelance Graphic Designer Face-to-Face Cambridge, UK Self-Employed 30-40 08/03/2007
0.2 Scientific Consultant Face-to-Face Cambridge, UK Self-Employed 51-60 16/03/2007
0.3 Design Engineer Telephone Peterborough, UK Self-Employed 41-50 29/03/2007
0.4 Computer Programmer Telephone Bedford, UK Self-Employed 41-50 03/04/2007
0.5 Management Consultant Telephone Luton, UK Self-Employed 30-40 11/04/2007
0.6 HR Consultant Telephone Newmarket, UK Self-Employed 41-50 10/04/2007
0.7 Quality Management Face-to-Face Cambridge, UK Self-Employed 61-65 13/04/2007
0.8 Journalist & Writer Telephone Berkshire, UK Self-Employed 51-60 24/04/2007
0.9 Mechanical Engineer Telephone Canterbury, UK Employed 51-60 05/05/2007
10 Sales/Application Specialist Telephone Herne Bay, UK Employed 41-50 14/05/2007
11 Sales Manager Telephone Dover, UK Employed 30-40 17/05/2007
12 Liberal Party Administrator Telephone Tuddenham, UK Employed 30-40 21/05/2007

Table 1- Participant Pool

The interview consisted of twenty-two questions, each interview was tape recorded
and subsequently fully manually transcribed and analysed through discourse analysis to
draw out the emergent themes. A series of transcription notation marks1 was utilised
to ensure that the rich data from the discourses of the men’s lived experiences were
captured. The questionnaire data was used to enhance the multiple data collection
techniques that contribute to the comprehensiveness function of the interview data to
provide further and enhanced explanatory insights about these varying data sources.

Summary of the study results

The interviews produced a rich array of qualitative data; whist the questionnaire gave
a systematic and wide-view of the home-based experience of these working men. A
summary of the main points of the interview and the questionnaire study results are as
follows.

1
G Jefferson “Transcription Notation” In J Atkinson and J Heritage (eds), Structures of Social Interaction, New
York: Cambridge University Press 1984.
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Summary of interview results
• Social Isolation
o Most of the self-employed men based predominantly from home
suffered from a sense of detachment and isolation from colleagues and
associates on a day to day basis. However, the interviewees that had
the opportunity to visit clients or customers were less affected.
• Stress
o Although perhaps the social isolation could manifest it’s self as stress,
these conclusions could not be drawn from this study. However, some
participants felt that the technology used to enable them to work at
home created its own stress and presenteeism due to the close
proximity of computers, i.e. excessive use of email and mobile phones.
There is also an issue of the lack of training to use the technology that
then induces environmental stress.
• Defining the home and work space boundaries
o The separation between house, home and work space produced
different cognitive constructs that produced a different set of
behaviours. For example the overarching construct of the house
contained both the home and the work environments. The home is
where the family resides and the work sphere within the house is
where paid employment is conducted. The difficulty resides with the
boundaries between the areas of the house and the conflicting
behaviours that they induce.
o Families with children created the need for discipline, both in terms of
the home-based man occupational success and for the children
boundary crossing during working hours. Families enter into complex
re-negotiations of the space within the home to accommodate the paid
work, not without some conflict.
o The men also experienced a lack of transition from the home
environment to the working environment i.e. the daily commute. The
transition from the domestic to employment sphere is important to
make the cognitive shift from one domain to the other.
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Summary of the questionnaire results
The men in the questionnaire study represent an occupational groups of professional,
managerial, technical and skilled and have houses large enough to have converted
work space should the need it. The men worked between fourteen to fifty hours at
home (self-employed) and fell with age groups of 30-40 and 50-60 years old and spent
an average of 25 hours a week utilising computer technology for the main basis of
communication. All the participants were white and from a British origin.

The main reasons given for home-based working were as follows;

• Work-life balance
• Redundancy (self-employed)
• UK office closure (employed)
• Industry standard (employees)
• Most Cost effective (self-employed)

The main positives for home-based working were;

• Flexibility in working
• No commute
• Reduced stress & no office politics
• Less interruptions
• More productive
• Environmentally friendly (less travel)

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Research Conclusions and Recommendations
Clearly the positive aspects of home-based work for these men are important and
cannot be overlooked, though the key findings and results of this study suggest that
there are clear psychological aspects that need to be addressed whilst planning for or
as an established home-based worker. Working at home is not to be undertaken
lightly due to cultural and social needs that having a different and separate place of
work provides for the individual. To this end it is understandable that the key findings
suggest that social isolation is a serious matter for these men who work
predominantly from home. This is likely to be the same for all home-based workers
unless they are able to assume particular strategies that either creates social networks
within their immediate community, networking group opportunities or regular
meetings with organisational colleagues. The meetings and the opportunity for regular
breaks outside of the home to local services for example help to remove the worker
from the work environment and to socially interact.

Although stress could well be associated with social isolation it cannot be confirmed
by this study. However, the environmental stressors of poor technology training and
organisational support plus the deluge of email for example, suggests that technology
may induce a form of stress. Work seems to be ever present for these home-based
men and there always seems to be a tendency to overwork due to the close proximity
of work as highlighted in the study. Appropriate time-management training and an
acknowledgement of overwork from organisations of this fact may prove helpful.

The difficulty separating the temporal and spatial boundaries is less obvious and can
have a disruptive influence upon the worker and the family. Separate rooms for
working are shown to be the ideal from this study, though there is an
acknowledgement that this is not always possible. Additional ergonomics and health
and safety support for home-workers is therefore necessary to align with
organisational policy and create a range of self-employed best practice guidelines. It is
imperative that families and in particular children, need to be fully consulted prior to
the commencement of home-based work. The support of the family or immediate
community is vital for the well being and success of home-based working. Lastly, it is

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not just the technicalities of equipment and communication that enable this method of
work to be successful. Planning and the observance of psychological best practice will
provide a framework for a transition toward home-based working for the men and
the organisation.

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References

British Psychological Society (2006) “Code of Ethics and Conduct” The British
Psychological Society, Leicester, UK
Felstead, A., & Jewson, N. (2000) “In work, at home; towards and understanding of
homeworking”, London: Routledge.
Felstead, A., Jewson, N., & Walters, S. (2005) “Changing Places of Work” Palgrave
Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire UK.
Hartig, T., Kylin, C., and Johansson, G. (2007) “The Telework Trade-off: Stress
Mitigation vs. Constrained Restoration” Applied Psychology: An International Review,
2007, 56 (2), 231–253
Jvittersø, J., Akselson, S., Evjemo, B., Julstrud, T.E., Yttri, B. and Bergvik, S.
(2003) “Impacts on home-based telework on the quality of life for employees and their
partners, qualitative and quantitative results from a European study” Journal of Happiness
Studies 4: 201–233, 2003.© 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Mann, S., & Holdsworth, L. (2003) “The psychological impact of Teleworking: stress,
emotions and health” New Technology, Work & Employment 18:3, Blackwell Publishing
Moore, J., & Crosbie, T. (2002) “Quality of Home Experience for Homeworkers” ESRC
End of Award Report (R000223592)
Ruiz, Y., & Walling, A. (2005) “Home-based working using communication
technologies” October, Office of National Statistics, Labour Market Trends

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Empirical Study

Abstract
The notion of men working at home is not new, however, in recent years a growing number of
employed and self-employed working men are opting to work from a home-base. Social
science and employment trend studies have identified a number of negative affective
psychological issues of stress, family conflict, isolation, a lack of career progression and work
life-balance to name a few. However, occupational psychological research is conspicuous by
its absence. This qualitative study with a group of twelve employed and self-employed men
corroborate previous research findings and discovers that purely home-based self-employed
men suffer from high-levels of social isolation from colleagues, alongside issues of technology
induced stress, extra work and grievances of un-paid overtime. Both sets of men experience
the temporal/spatial boundary complications and transitional difficulties to accommodate the
domestic home & work sphere; whilst those with children indicate major distractions during
their day-to-day working lives. This study has produced a set of occupational psychological
recommendations for future studies and a framework for organisations and self-employed
networking groups to consider the psychological implications for home-based working.

Introduction
The aim of this research is to study the psychological impact upon a group of home-
based self-employed and employed working men in terms of, (1) social isolation due to
the geographical separation from colleagues, associates and social networks associated
with organisational social existence, (2) the cognitive structures or temporal and
spatial boundaries constructed to enable the men to work from home, and (3) the
impact of the family, roles and children upon work patterns and work based patterns
and behaviours. The study uses qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews and a
questionnaire to identify these areas of occupational concern and provide a
framework of recommendations and for further study. Prior to the presentation of
the study, an overview of home-based working and current research is discussed.

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Home-based working: An Overview
Working at home, flexible teleworking, homeworking and any number of terms for
people working in their home has generated enormous media interest recently. A
plethora of human resources, management journals and newspapers carry articles on
the legal, technical and people management aspects of home-based work, that tends to
reflect the employers viewpoint and not necessarily that of the employees (Stanworth;
1996). Interestingly, these articles contain little or no occupational psychological
research into the impact of home-based working. Indeed the vast majority of research
in this area is from sociology, economics, women’s/feminist studies and employment
trend studies (Huws; 1994, Beruch; 2000, Felsted, Jewson & Walters; 2005, Allen &
Wolkowitz; 1987, Phizacklea & Wolkowitz; 1995 and Felsted & Jewson; 2000).
However, research from Mann and Holdsworth (2003), Moore and Crosbie (2002),
Hartig, Kylin and Johansson, (2007) and Mann, Varey and Button (2000) have begun to
focus attention upon the psychological dimensions of home-based working.

Sullivan (2003) and Haddon & Brynin (2005) draw upon the uncertainty of what
actually defines home-based working, telework & homeworking, cumulating in a lack
of clear unambiguous terminology to bind a body of psychological research. Project-
specific heterogeneous definitions, as in this case are inevitable with the lack of
concrete descriptions of the multiple areas of research. As a result, this ambiguity has
impeded occupational psychological research into the new emergent groups of home-
based workers. However, to clarify the position for this research the working
classification will be that the distinguishing characteristics of working from a home-
base are the close proximity to the private and personal worlds of domestic
relationships and a geographical distance from colleagues, networks, co-workers and
managers (Felsted, Jewson & Walters; 2005).

The expansion of male home-based workers

As a proportion of traditional small scale homeworking or piecework, women occupy
over eighty percent of the work-force according to Linda Devereux, a director at the
National Group for Homeworking (http://www.ngh.org.uk). These jobs are
predominantly low paid and undertaken for traditional child-care purposes, and as a

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consequence are isolated from the wider economy with little or no real choice of
alternative employment. Fortunately, a great deal of sociological research and
women’s/feminist psychology has furthered the understanding of the plight of
homeworking women and has provided some insight for this and other research
(Allen and Wolkowitz; 1987). However, the traditional organisational framework that
occupational psychology focuses upon tends to marginalise homeworking and home-
based work for both genders, perpetuating its apparent economic invisibility. Most
occupational/organisational psychological texts often make token reference to
homeworking, telework and home-based work within the context of fragmented
global organisational changes in the 21st century, or low paid workers, ignoring the fact
that more people including a growing number of managerial, professional and highly
skilled working men involved within knowledge economy industries are now working
from a home-base.

The Office of National Statistics (Ruiz & Walling; 2005) state that in spring 2005 there
were 3.1 million people in the UK that worked from a home-base, constituting 8% of
the UK workforce; a rise from 2.3 million in 1997. The forecast is that home-based
working and teleworking is likely to rise to 4 million by 2007 (Key Note Ltd; 2003).
Home-based workers now use advanced Information Communication Technologies
(ICT’s) and that 2.1 million could not work in this way without a computer or device.
Key to this study is that 65%-72% of all teleworkers (that are home-based) are in fact
men, representing 2.2 million of the home-based work force. These men are more
likely to have a university degree and twice as likely to have higher qualifications as
women working at home (Laurie and Taylor; 1995). Indeed Joeman’s analysis (1994; in
Felsted & Jewson; 2000) states that the high discretion home-based workforce were
more qualified than the workforce as a whole and this was entirely due to male home-
based workers. Interestingly, employed people working remotely for an organisation
account for a relatively small share of the home located workforce, some 62 per cent
were self-employed in spring 2005 (Ruiz et al; 2005). Needless to say, global economic
conditions tend to dictate that organisations adopt modern methods of controlling
costs, outsourcing, redundancy and subcontracting offering new opportunities to
relocate paid work into the home, shifting the direct costs of energy & space onto the

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worker. Moreover, Felsted et al (2005) state that this is a major influence for the
steady increase in male home-located/based workers and not necessarily a choice
exercised by the worker.

The psychology of home-based working

Working at home may seem idyllic and no doubt is for a lot of people that perhaps
need the flexibility for child-care, a reduction in commuting and a perceived sense of
independence or starting a business as a sole trader. However it would seem the
reality for others can be far less attractive. Apparent issues of stress, presenteeism,
work life-balance, poor motivation, job-satisfaction and the lack of organisational
support are all constant research conclusions (Mann and Holdsworth; 2003, Bolger,
DeLongis, Kessler, Wethington; 1989). Moreover, from the organisational perspective
home-based men may appear to be superficially more productive, however, this does
not take into account or recognise un-paid overtime, household resources and out of
hours work that this method of working relies upon.

Men that are in need of a high degree of autonomy in managerial and professional
positions may of course benefit as an ability to work alone is essential. Other men
who may need the affiliation of co-workers or regular network interface may be
deprived of social interaction and suffer unwanted psychological affects.
Notwithstanding the obvious organisational and personal issues arising from working
remotely, Mann et al (2003), Desrochers and Sargent (2004) and Hardhill, Green and
Duddleston (1996) all draw attention to the blurring of both home and work
boundaries and complex re-negotiations of family life. The home and work-life create
different cognitive structures, social and cultural symbols, inequalities and rituals, it is
therefore, important to understand the modes of organising and management of
boundaries between clients, colleagues and the men’s private life. Furthermore, the
illusion of more temporal and spatial flexibility through a seamless transition from the
domestic/work domains may be seen as advantageous to workers, and regarded as a
privilege or non-salaried benefit. Partners and children on the other hand may well
regard this privilege as nothing more than distinct intrusion and interference in their
domestic life.

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Furthermore, there is a naïve assumption of seamless assimilation integrating home-
based work into domestic time and boundaries tends to predict a construct of
constant temporal divisions between work and home (Steward; 2000). The
experiences of home–based workers can be contrary to the organisational and human
resource viewpoint discussed by Beruch (2000), with little of the predicted benefits or
opportunities for flexibility for autonomous self-employed and employed workers.
Home-based workers can and do experience severe psychological problems of social
isolation, stress and difficulty defining cognitive boundaries between domestic and
work spheres, whilst family life undergoes a series of complex re-negotiations. In the
light of these complex issues and the dearth of integrated research, this study will
investigate and integrate the current thinking within a framework for occupational
psychological understanding.

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Research Aims and Objectives
The purpose of this study is to understand the psychological impact upon a group of
home-based employed and self-employed working men. The aim is to understand the
cognitive and affective processes involved in established paid employment spatially
located within the domestic spheres, by utilising qualitative analysis of discourses and
meta-narrative history gained from semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire.
This analysis will be underpinned by transactionalist theoretical framework where
meaning and context are of key importance to explore the experience of the male
home-based worker; whilst incorporating elements of schema theory (Bartlett; 1932,
Brewer & Treyens; 1981) to investigate the temporal and spatial boundaries of the
home and working environment. It is intended to provide recommendations for
organisational and self employed home-based working men, whilst incorporating
suggestions for continuing future studies suggestions drawing from this study and
existing research.

The study will focus upon three broad categories;

• The Personal

o Social isolation, stress and social networks

• Conceptualisation of the home & work (physical/spatial) spheres

o Cognitive separation from domestic and paid work environment

• Impact of the family and roles upon work patterns

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Methods
This study utilised semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire. The questions for
both interviews and questionnaire were developed from, and with the agreement of,
the researchers from the study conducted by Moore and Crosbie (2002) Quality of
Home Experience for Homeworkers” ESRC End of Award Report (R000223592).

Interviews
The interviews were geographically focused within the South-East of England. This was
due to the catchment area of the participant pool gleaned from the Cambridge Skills-
Tap networking group. The remaining participant’s interviews were based in Kent and
Suffolk. All participants worked in their home for part or full time work either self-
employed or employed by an organisation. To ensure the participants experience of
home-based work was not new, the criteria for inclusion was at least one-year’s
home-based work.

Developing the interview schedule

The semi-structured interview questions were piloted with a focus group of local
home-based working men that were known by the researcher and adapted
accordingly (appendix i). The interview schedule was modified to re-focus upon the
male perspective to explore their experiences of home-based work, the family
influences and established boundaries. The notable limitation is that the views of the
families and in particular partners of the home-based men were excluded.

Conducting the interviews

Both the interview questions and the questionnaire (appendix ii) were sent to the
participants via email 10-14 days prior to the interview date. The intention was to
ensure that the participants had ample time to reflect upon the interview questions
and any implications for them as individuals, their relationships and negotiated
boundaries with the family members during working hours. It is a fine balance of
probing questions and specific questions, where too much of the former can be
experienced as overly interrogative, and the latter could mean that the interview is
difficult to focus and contain.

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Prior to and following the interview the participants were offered the opportunity to
discuss any matter arising from the interview, mainly to ensure that there were no
taboo topics. All participants were assured that data collected within the interviews
and questionnaire was completely anonymous and only to be used for research
purposes. Lastly, participants had full de-briefing2 to guarantee the opportunity to
explore any issues that may have arisen. However, no outstanding issues were
discussed as all participants were content with the questions and the context of the
interview.

Twelve men took part in this study. All participants were interviewed either by
telephone or face-to-face and recorded using a portable cassette tape recorder for full
transcription. The research including pilot studies took place between 8th February &
21st May 2007. The time for interviewing (30 – 45 minutes) varied depending upon the
individual participant. All participants were asked the interview questions (appendix i),
however due to the semi-structured questions; some questions were answered during
the dialogue and therefore not pursued during the interview question sequence,
therefore not all questions were necessarily asked in the same order. Finally, the 12
interviews were fully manually transcribed and notated in accordance with Jefferson
Transcription Notation3 to ensure an accurate representation of the interview data.
Discourse analysis of the transcriptions was performed to ascertain the emergent
themes of the phenomena of working at home through a transactionalist interpretive
framework.

Developing and administering the questionnaire

The questionnaire was piloted with the focus group as discussed and adapted
accordingly for this study. The questionnaire was sent out to 16 participants that had
given their consent. However, only the interviewed participants returned their
questionnaires. As a result, the demographic is the same as the interviewed

2
In compliance with the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct; 2006
3
G Jefferson “Transcription Notation” In J Atkinson and J Heritage (eds), Structures of Social Interaction, New
York: Cambridge University Press 1984; Appendix iii

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 participants. Some participants were unwilling to engage with the questionnaire for
fear of repercussions from their employers, this information was anecdotal and stated
over the telephone as justification for non-participation. However, it is difficult to
present as concrete evidence of withdrawal. Nonetheless, the questionnaire data
incorporated to corroborate the multiple data collection techniques that contributes
to the completeness function of the interview data and provides explanatory insights
about these rich and varied data sources (Knafl and Brietmayer; 1989 in Moore et al;
2002).

Participants
The participant group, interview method and employment status is contained within
table 1. The participants have been allocated figures to protect their anonymity.
Though every effort was made, it is disappointing that the pool of participants for the
study was not wider to encompass the semi-skilled and unskilled male home-based
work force.

Interview Approx Interview

P-ID Occupation of Participant Method Location Employment Age Date
0.1 Freelance Graphic Designer Face-to-Face Cambridge, UK Self-Employed 30-40 08/03/2007
0.2 Scientific Consultant Face-to-Face Cambridge, UK Self-Employed 51-60 16/03/2007
Peterborough,
0.3 Design Engineer Telephone UK Self-Employed 41-50 29/03/2007
0.4 Computer Programmer Telephone Bedford, UK Self-Employed 41-50 03/04/2007
0.5 Management Consultant Telephone Luton, UK Self-Employed 30-40 11/04/2007
0.6 Self-employed HR Consultant Telephone Newmarket, UK Self-Employed 41-50 10/04/2007
0.7 Quality Management Face-to-Face Cambridge, UK Self-Employed 61-65 13/04/2007
0.8 Journalist & Writer Telephone Berkshire, UK Self-Employed 51-60 24/04/2007
0.9 Mechanical Engineer Telephone Canterbury, UK Employed 51-60 05/05/2007
10 Sales/Application Specialist Telephone Herne Bay, UK Employed 41-50 14/05/2007
11 Sales Manager Telephone Dover, UK Employed 30-40 17/05/2007
12 Liberal Party Administrator Telephone Tuddenham, UK Employed 30-40 21/05/2007

Table 1

-9-
Gaining access to participants
Various methods of were used to attract potential participants for this research. Local
libraries and Post Offices (local to the Cambridge area) were leafleted and by word of
mouth. Internet sites predominantly for Homeworkers i.e. National Group for
Homeworkers, Teleworkers Association (http://www.tca.org.uk/index.html), A New Life
Network (http://www.newlifenetwork.co.uk/) and Homeworking
(http://www.homeworking.com/) were also notified. However, the biggest response
came from Cambridge Skills Tap (http://www.cambridgeskillstap.org.uk/) and
Cambridge Network (http://www.cambridgenetwork.co.uk/) both networking
organisations promoting portfolio working for experienced professionals. Due to
limited resources, no financial inducements or expenses for the participants were
offered, as noted with Moore et al (2002) and perhaps had finances been available then
more participants may have come forward.

- 10 -
Results
The interviews produced a rich array of qualitative data; whist the questionnaire gave
a systematic analysis of the practicalities, motives and preferences for home-based
working of these men; supporting the work from Moore & Crosbie (2002). The
intention here is to present summaries of the interview and questionnaire results and
explore the main themes within the discussion. The results of the interview data
revealed four theoretical dimensions of the lived experience of home-based working
men.

Social Isolation
Social isolation and withdrawal from the corporate or work environment was
prevalent. The predominantly home-based self-employed men suffered from severe
social isolation and appreciably more than the self-employed and employed men that
visited customers or clients during the working week. These issues will be explored in
depth within the discussion.

Stress
Participants noted that environmental stress was a consequence of the close proximity
of the technology i.e. computers associated with work, the lack of computer/ICT
training. Additional un-paid overtime to deal with the sheer quantities of organisational
and client email and other duties were prevalent. The issue of un-paid overtime and
presenteeism was common for the employed participants who worked for the same
organisation. Stress may of course be associated with the social isolation, but cannot
be connected within this study and was an oversight, though the issue of technology
proved to incite degrees of narrative stress.

Defining boundaries of the work and home space

The cognitive segregation and constructs of a work area and what constitutes the
fabric of the house and family home is clear from the interviews; with a preference for
a separate work space with distinct barrier (door or spatial separation) to the rest of
the house. Participants described the office within the confines of the house as
opposed to the home. The home was discussed more in terms of a place, an

- 11 -
investment or security and bricks and mortar and therefore creating three domains
within the context of the building that they work in and conduct family relationships.
The home is a place of wives/partners, children and a safe retreat from the world, thus
providing a conflict with work and domestic spheres for the some of the men and
family members. However, the house and dedicated office space is a priority for these
men when considering moving house. The men felt that their prime consideration
would be for an office space away from the main house if at possible, creating a
definite sense of separation and subsequent transition between domestic and
employment spheres.

Difficulties arose when work was conducted outside of the pre-described area from
partners and children. Children became aware of the need to work during office hours
and sometimes beyond. As a result, children became alert to the office space as out of
bounds within working hours and not normally available to them. The need for
discipline both in terms of the success of the individual worker and the control of the
children in the home was prevalent and often repeated to re-define boundaries and
attitudes to work.

Commuting is normally associated with travelling spatially from one sphere (home) to
another (an office/factory), the men clearly missed the transition or commute from
home to work. The transition to work allowed the men to cross the permeable
boundaries between home and work in preparation for the working day. The return
journey allowed them re-orientation opportunities for the move back to the home
sphere towards home-life and perhaps children. However, not all men felt the
transition was entirely necessary, participants that visited clients felt differently on
coming home than they would if they were based in the home all-day.

The impact of family roles and work

From the participant’s perspective, family members embark upon a distinct process of
acceptance that the male worker is at home at work and therefore not available to
the family members during working times. The children and partners experience a
degree of conflict when work boundaries are crossed by the family and conversely

- 12 -
Participants conducting work tasks within the home environment i.e. working on the
kitchen table.

Summary of the Questionnaire Data

The age of the participants were as follows; 4, 30-40 yrs, 4, 41-50 years, 3, 51-60 yrs
and 1 participant 61-65 years old and have spent an average of 7 years working in
their homes. All were located in South-East of England (Berkshire, Cambridgeshire,
Kent, Essex and Suffolk). The participants spent typically 33 hours a week working
from their home base and 25 hours per week in front of a computer, working or
communicating via email and the internet. There proved to be similarities between the
men as regards to housing and stereotypical reasons for working at home, with some
notable differences between the self employed and employed men. Although all types
of home-based male workers were targeted for this study the pool of participants fell
into four main occupational groups; professional, professional-technical, professional-
managerial and skilled.

The hours worked at home ranged from 14 hours for participant 0.3 up to 50 hours
for participant 0.8, a self-confessed consequence of being a sole-trader. From the self-
employed data, all but one of the self-employed participants were made redundant
from their previous paid employment, this proved to be the reason for their own
business. Moreover, as a consequence of high external office costs self-employed
participants chose the home location to work from.

All have houses large enough to have rooms available for an independent work space
(if needed) and live in family owned and rented accommodation. All but-one
participant (11) had their own office space in their houses either converted from a
spare bedroom or garage (see table 2). From all of the participants, seven had
partners/wives and one or two children (below 16 years) in the house whilst two lived
alone. The remaining participants had grown-up children that were living with them
part-time or had left home. All participants were white British citizens.

- 13 -
 Hours worked Hours Children that
Working at at home (per computer use can be at home Separate room for
P-ID home (yrs) week) per week whilst working work?
0.1 5.5 40 20 - Studio/office
0.2 4 ? ? - No specific room
0.3 5 14 12 1 Office
0.4 4 40 40 - Spare bedroom
0.5 9 22 27 3 Detached garage
0.6 5 50 4 2 Spare bedroom
0.7 12 38 30 1 Spare bedroom
0.8 3 50 40 - Study
0.9 17 20 20 - Study
10 4-5 20 40 2 Office/study
11 8 14 15 3 No-house & car
12 5 40 15 1 No-Living room

Table 2

The main reasons given for home-based working were as follows;

• Work-life balance
• Redundancy and then unable to get a full time job (self-employed)
• UK office closure (employed)
• Industry standard (employees)
• Cost effective (self-employed)

The main positives for home-based working were;

• Flexibility in working
• No commute
• Reduced stress & no office politics
• Less interruptions
• More productive
• Environmentally friendly (less travel)

- 14 -
Discussion
The results of this study provide a rich insight into how these men experience home-
based working. The data from both the interviews and the questionnaire reveal that
the men in this study emphasised the advantages, in particular the flexibility,
independence, convenience, the reduction in travel and opportunity to see their family
more, rather than simply suggesting that they didn’t have any real choice in the matter.
These men feel they would not actively change their circumstances whatever the
psychological impact and return to organisational life full-time, though recognize the
difficulties of being at home at work.

The employed men (participants 0.9, 10, 11) experienced closure of organisational
offices and most of the self-employed men (7 out of 8 men) had been made redundant.
The fact that all but one research participants were made redundant, suggests that
they were not all instinctive self-employed people or natural home-based workers.
Those that took the home-working option without it being pressed by redundancy
might be more disposed to working from home without the stresses reported. As a
result, this study may be biased towards redundancy. A caveat to this is that some of
the men accepted redundancy to begin their own business, so the bias may be a
debatable point.

Social Isolation-Social Interaction

The overriding personal question raised both within this and other research studies is
the social isolation from social networks or colleagues coupled with the use of ICT’s
producing virtual communities and stress whilst working at the home-base. The
negative emotion of social isolation is the most frequently cited disadvantage of being a
home-based worker (Mann at al; 2003). For office based workers, colleagues provide
both social and professional support, re-enforce roles and identities. Moreover, the
interaction with other workers provides opportunities to build networks and meet
friends to build a sense of a common solidarity. Home-based professionals and other
skilled workers tend lose the chance to socially interact, gain contacts and learn from
co-workers (Zerubavel; 1981). It is this apparent lack of resonance from colleagues
that mediates the sense of isolation.

- 15 -
Participant 0.5
The lack of social contact is significant yeah. I mean obviously the family are here
but you know that’s not the same. So the practical effects are sometimes you
internalise things a lot more when you could have worked though if a colleague
was available.

I would have to score myself low on social networking. It tends to make you quite
hungry for casual interaction with people, so I am quite keen for the relationship
with clients to be quite casual. So perhaps some of the casual chat about the
football and stuff comes from the client interaction. Though with some clients who
prefer a more rigid client relationship it can mean that perhaps I appear over
familiar.

This participant is keenly aware of the degree to which he suffers from social isolation
from colleagues. In these circumstances the socially hungry worker actively seeks out
social interaction regardless of the relationship and the levels of expectation of the
client. In this instance he may seem, by his own admission, overly familiar and perhaps
inappropriately so for the client-consultant relationship.

Myers (1996) suggests that the emphasis is upon the individual to become more
socially active with colleagues on a regular basis by utilising communications
technology such as tele or video conferencing. This seems to be a paradox for home-
based workers, as modern ICT’s enables world-wide range of communication. Yet
social isolation is a psychological problem for these and other individual home-based
workers regardless of technology. An interesting aside from this study concerns the
Blackberry© technology4. Blackberry© represents a high-water mark for participants in
this study; it is seen as a technology that permeates all areas of the men’s lives.
Whereas the computer can be turned off and left behind in the office space. The
Blackberry© projects an image of an imbalance of organisational or client power over
the user in making these men persistently contactable and present to clients and

4
The Blackberry is a wireless handheld device introduced in 1999 which supports e-mail, mobile telephone, text
messaging, internet faxing, web browsing and other wireless information services.
- 16 -
employers. No participant on this study was prepared to use this technology for those
reasons.

Mann et al (2000) advocate that an increase in computer mediated communications

can in fact reduce the feelings of belonging, affective bond with an organisation or the
necessary motivation for self-employed working. Mann et al go on to add that
loneliness is categorically not experienced by office or factory based workers. It would
seem as though the digital technologies are perhaps erroneous virtual modes of
communication for any meaningful or lasting sense of real social interaction. The
proximity of people who share common goals and aspirations, socially locating,
categorising and defining these men (Jahoda; 1982) appears to be the absent ingredient
to salve the missing work schema or script to satisfy role conflict in this instance
provides evidence for an hypothesis of contradictory cognitive schemas and role
conflict for home-based men.

Participant 0.8 suggests that;

“You are lonely and you are on your own, you miss that bumping into people in
the corridor for a quick chat about nothing at all. You do need to know what it is
you want to do, as if you are flailing around and you need guidance you really are
lost.”

Participant 0.1
“Its pretty much Mr Hermit sat at home most of the day most days”.

The self-employed men in this study suffer from a greater sense of isolation. In most
cases it’s due to the economic circumstances of beginning their own business. They
are forced to work within the confines of their own home and away from the
traditional office environment, frequently as a consequence of redundancy from paid
employment.

- 17 -
Participant 0.4
“Having decided that I was going to be working for myself the only viable way of
doing it is to work from home. Otherwise you’ve got costs of premises etc and I
didn’t consider any other option.”

Apart from the economic considerations the predominant reason for being self-
employed and home-based is a perhaps naïve sense of independence and increased
flexibility. However, the passage from participant 0.8 highlights that home-based
working offers independence then describes how lonely and socially needy he may
become with little or no motivation with jobs for the day. This independence has a
high price to pay, as the worker embarks upon the self-employed working existence
without employing suitable strategies or with a thorough understanding of the
psychological impact of home-based working to combat the problem of being isolated
and the potential for stress and perhaps depression.

Participant 0.8
“It’s the independence of it and that is the main positive by a long way, working
for my self and working from home is by far the cheapest and most cost effective
way of doing it. It’s very lonely actually you end up having long conversations like
with you in the middle afternoon. So it can be quite lonely….I end up having too
much work at a time, like now I’ve got about five different things I am trying to
think of I sometimes worry that none of them get my full attention”.

On the other hand, what Participant 0.6 alludes to offers some insight into the points
raised regarding the potential for social interaction though visiting client’s premises
therefore re-connecting with the working environment and triggering appropriate
behaviours and interactions.

Participant 0.6 also suggests that;

“I suppose another negative thing is that lack of social of interaction and can be
quite isolating. Though with my balance of work at client’s sites and working at
home tends to now give me the social interaction that was missing in the start.

- 18 -
 When you are constantly at home, the drive and motivation to get on with things
is sometime lacking”.

This Participant again returns to “motivation” and “drive” to get things done. This
emphasises that the lack of motivation, clear goals and targets and job satisfaction is
dependant upon the home-based location of the person and the potential for spill-
over into the home domain creating the distraction and a potential for
procrastination. The narrative of bumping into people in corridors, flailing around, being
lost and isolation present an illustration of the cognitive and environmental influences
upon motivation as advocated by Bandura (1977). By stripping away the culturally
mediated forms of organisational communication or complex socially driven networks,
it erodes the ability to construct new networks of social interactions with these men.

The opportunity for consultants to visit clients is an important need with the
participants. However, the home-based participants struggle to maintain contact with
networks and organisations that may be able to help them. Though most do attend
regular networking meetings on a monthly or bi-annual basis the common problem
here was that they perceived the other men as competitors and were unable or
unwilling to discuss certain personal matters. Another problem is that the meetings
cost too much to arrange, though most found them to be a valuable outlet socially and
for new business contacts.

Participant 0.4
“I would ideally see the team on a weekly basis, come together once a week. It’s
the cost that is a factor there. Consultancy is about time and time costs you
money, plus it is difficult to arrange diary time. There are some members of the
team I will phone up and have a chat for an hour in the evening or what ever just
to chew things over. Though it’s only some of the team I can do that with.”

Participant 0.2
“We all find it difficult being self-employed to give too much away as in one sense
they are competitors. There is nothing shared no shared goals”

- 19 -
Indeed from the literature reviews for this research only one systematic study was
found to deal with the issues of isolation (Felsted et al; 2000). The strategy of taking
breaks and seeking out interaction with clients, friends and family is primarily a view
gleaned from employment trend studies and not driven by psychology and research.
Clearly, this is an area neglected by occupational psychology given that the matter of
social isolation may grow as home-based working increases. However, not all of the
self-employed or for that matter the employed men suffered from social isolation.
Indeed the employed men in this study spent part of the day travelling to customer’s
premises and therefore gained regular interaction with like minded people as well as
regular contact with colleagues. On the other hand, this self-employed man is plainly
situated within his community and has no need for additional work based contact or
for that matter did not enjoy the culture of organisational life.

Participant 0.4
“My social interactions are outside work, and not inside. I live in a small village
with a good community so you know the work social interaction is not such a big
deal”.

“I have very rarely had any social interaction with people at work”

The coping strategies employed by this participant do seem to protect him from the
problems expressed by working men as previously discussed. It is an interesting issue
from the research of Moore et al (2002) that it appears that home-based workers that
had control over their work (internal locus of control) were more likely to possess an
internal motivation to set goals and work longer hours. Although more research in
this area may be necessary, it is an interesting area to extrapolate an hypothesis that
home-based workers that possess a high internal locus of control may not suffer from
a lack of motivation and therefore not so much loneliness and social isolation. The
data from the questionnaire shows that all of the men prefer working at home
compared to organisational/corporate life, so it is reasonable to suggest that there are
additional reasons for some of the men to feel this sense of social isolation. Future
research may reveal correlations between personality traits and an ability to work

- 20 -
successfully from home. Notably some participants felt that an “introverted character”
would be better suited to working alone. The same participant adds that;

Participant 0.4
I think it depends very much on their own sense of independence, there are some
people who are quite happy with their own company and don’t regard the social
side of work as being the most important thing and they are going to be quite
happy working for themselves. There are others that are terribly social and would
suffer badly if they didn’t have the social side.

For the most part the self-employed men see the issue of isolation as a trade-off for
the perceived benefits of a greater sense of independence and increased flexibility. As
a result they are prepared to forgo day-to-day contact unless via a virtual network
utilised by many of the participants of this study. The use of ICT’s is obviously helpful
but one employed participant is stressed due to the lack of training to use software or
the company databases. The irony here is that the participant’s organisation offers on-
line computer training only and therefore fails to meet the training needs of this
employee.

Participant 0.9
“I mean I hate the computer. I don’t know how to use it, it’s a tool that is so
versatile and I don’t really know how to use it properly. All I do is word processing
and data crunching, but the guys are always doing you know reports and all the
stuff that’s in Excel, graphs and move it from this and move it from that. I’ve got
no idea what’s so ever, I have trouble cut and pasting and things like that. I know
formal training would make my job a lot easier but you know I just haven’t got
the time to do it. Don’t get me wrong, the company do a lot of e-learning courses
over the computers but you have to take the time to participate in it”.

I suffer from a lot of stress, in as much as, when I wake up I’m, I’m awake and
as sharp as a pin, cos the first thing I am thinking about is, is work.

- 21 -
Interviewer
“What about the negatives of home-based work”?

Participant 11
“Well answering emails and trying to get out of the door and working on my
laptop doing emails in the evenings and not getting away from it”.

The point here then resides with the ICT’s, the use of email and the domain of being a
home-based employee. The tyranny of email is not new, however, this employee
professes “hate” for the computer because he cannot use it and as a consequence is
stressed due to the lack of abilities compared to his colleagues (Furnham; 2002). It is
reasonable to assume that should the problem have arisen from a personal and
domestic perspective then perhaps training would be gained locally. However, the
fixed work-home boundaries or schema do not allow the easy transition between the
two, and an inability to manage the technologies devoted to the interface within the
household and the switching of work toward a domestic environment (Felsted et al;
2000). Indeed one could conclude that the social isolation alone may be an
environmental stressor. However, a caveat to this study is that these links cannot be
made or substantiated.

Physical and psychological boundaries

The issue of spatial and temporal separation within the home may not necessarily
seem to be an issue for occupational psychology. However, to ignore this is to ignore
a key factor of a growing number of people adopting different methods of work. The
discipline is a study of the psychology of people at work and the effects that
organisations and occupations have upon the individual; the only difference therefore
is that these people work within the confines of their own home as opposed to an
office or factory environment. The factors of ergonomics, health & safety as discussed
by HSE (2006) “Homeworking; Guidance for employers and employees on health and
safety” coaching, new methods of managing people remotely, how leadership effects
people via computer mediated communications etc are all pertinent and vital areas
for further occupational psychological research.

- 22 -
However, returning to the issue of temporal and spatial separation of home and work,
it could be argued that the larger houses of this group of professional, managerial and
skilled men are not representative of traditional homeworkers lower down the socio-
economic structure. The comparison between men up and down the social spectrum
with smaller houses is a severe limitation of this study. All but two men have a
separate office space to work and establish daily routines and behaviors. The
interviews revealed that the men would be reluctant to work from a home-base
without a dedicated room and envisage that work materials strewn across the home
would cause household stress for family members.

However, one employed worker (participant 11) did not have a dedicated space and
acknowledged that at times children did distract him and the paperwork was a
problem “if the phone rings I walk outside or go and sit in the car” and “I just chuck
everything in my car. I did have stuff in the shed but I got rid of all that. The paperwork sits in
my car and is out of the way”. Participant 0.3 is made aware that spilling over into his
partners domain is not acceptable and that the work is to be confined within the office
space. Another who had a bedroom converted prior to situating outside in an
office/garage acknowledged the presenteeism was a problem and described it as;

Participant 0.5
“There is a sense of separation when I am in the office, whereas when I used to
work in the back bedroom I felt that this was our home and it was difficult to sit
down in the sofa and get back up again. Psychologically there are lots of
distractions and the kids want to play”.

This participant (10) created a sense of separation by dressing for work.

I certainly attire for the occasion, I need to get myself ready for work and it’s a
way that I do it.

The construct of the fabric of the house is discussed by the men as a way of
connecting both the home that they live with their families and the work space. The

- 23 -
creation of the internal boundaries requires cognitive schemas to separate and
maintain the boundaries for the worker and the family (Zerubavel; 1981, Campbell-
Clark; 2000). The time for work is strongly mediated by organisational time, men
start at 7-8am and work through to 6-7pm. Though as mentioned before there is a
strong emphasis upon the close proximity to work and availability to “just pop in
(office) and check emails” (Participant 10). The additional unpaid overtime discussed by
three employed participants is resented, underpins presenteeism and the naïve sense
of being more productive. The lack of commuting to and from work is seen as being a
positive, though this time is being used for work thus giving the illusion of higher
productivity. The transition to work for these men is too short, there is a palpable
sense that a traditional commute allows the men to re-align themselves toward the
sphere of work and then back again to the domestic environment, and Participant 0.5
notes that;

“When I have got the travelling, there is sense of an easier transition when
travelling home, especially travelling home on the train when you can switch off.
There is that hour, hour and a half that allows you to think about work for a
while and by the time you get home it’s sort of done. Whereas the 10 paces
make it quite difficult to achieve any sense of resolution between the office and
house where my head is still in work mode”.

Home-based work does not allow easy transitions from one sphere to another
allowing no time to un-wind or releasing the transfer of any negative emotions evoking
poor work-life balance or perhaps the opportunity to think about the day ahead. The
home-based worker’s time is spent trying to manage divisions within and between the
household boundaries that define and control time and space within the household
and work sphere. Work provides structure, income, social comparisons, status and
achievement, whereas home-life satisfies the need for close family relationships and
friendships and a sense of personal happiness. Work and home cultures although not
always immediately obvious from the individual, forms collective expectations and
shapes behaviour (Campbell- Clarke; 2000).

- 24 -
Impact upon the family and work patterns
The construct of home-base work suggest two distinct views of the affect upon the
family; either it increases or it decreases the conflict. In this study there seems to be
an apparent neutral effect for the men. Again a weakness of this study does not
include the wives and partners who may have a contrary view. The effect upon work
patterns for the men is not obvious; the working time at home is not challenged or
disputed by the family members. However, the men with children or children that may
visit the house describe the children as a major distraction to work and need to be
controlled during work hours; this is juxtaposed with a sense of guilt at the levels of
control.

Participant 0.5
You do have to be quite protective of the work time, I mean I would have to say
that I might be here but it doesn’t mean that you (partner) can leave the kids
with me. Because I am working…you know.

There is an expectation that the partner cares for the children whilst the man is
working, this is opposed to the child-care flexibility women stated for the major
reason of home-based work (Phizacklea & Wolkowitz; 1995, Huws; 1994, Allen &
Wolkowitz; 1987). Therefore, the reasons for men working from a home-base are
loosely couched in the language of flexibility and more time with the family. This study
suggests it is not born out by actual behaviours or contact time with the family. The
data on partners and children in this study concur with Jvittersø, Akselson, Evjemo,
Julstrud, Yttri, and Bergvik (2003) who suggest they do suffer from a sense of
detachment, increased workload and stress as male home-based workers disengage
themselves from family life, evoking a depersonalisation of the work and domestic
sphere schemas.

By not creating sufficient boundaries between home and work within the house there
is a potential for overwork and spill-over toward the domestic sphere. However, it is
not intended to present a negative perspective of the family-work interface, though
there is potential for miss-communication and resentment from partners and children

- 25 -
of the man’s perceived sense of increased flexibility. This research is not in a position
to comment upon the partners and children’s viewpoint and this is an area for further
study. However, feminist psychologists and sociologists Phizacklea & Wolkowitz
(1995) and Allen & Wolkowitz (1987) do draw similar conclusions, that women in a
similar position to the men in this study and in comparable occupations still have
responsibility for the child-care.

- 26 -
Further Research
The psychological impact of home-based work is varied and this and other studies
touch on known issues of home-based working. However, it is important to conduct
further research into the following issues;

• Future studies should investigate the dimension of male personality for home-
based working compared to traditional office/organisational based workers. A
longitudinal study into personality and other psychometric variables will shed
some light upon what constitutes successful personality profile home-based
working to help the choice of working environments.

• Further studies should also involve a study of coaching or perhaps home-

supervision for home-workers. A group of workers will have coaching
provided outside of the organisational setting i.e. not managers. A control
group of workers without coaching should be compared in similar occupations
with the group being coached to measure levels of motivation, job-satisfaction
and well-being. Qualitative and quantitative data including diary studies will
provide a range of evidence for organisations and self-employed networks to
provide the support for this growing group of the working population.

• Also for further investigation are the methods of teaching ICT skills remotely
via web-based learning. How easy is it for a home-based worker to assimilate
information willingly when working from a home-base without the social
comparisons when learning in organisational groups? Research would compose
of quantitative measures to compare and contrast the learning potential of
differing teaching methods to highlight the most efficient and cost effective
ways of ICT training for a home-based workforce to negate stress.

- 27 -
Conclusions & Recommendations
Engaging in home-based working should not be undertaken lightly due in-part to the
cultural and social needs that a place of work provides for the individual. Indeed
research so far is fragmented due to the division between occupations and of the
various definitions and constituents of home-based working. Clearly, this is an area
where occupational psychology should begin to become more much visible and take
an active lead to provide frameworks for individuals and organisations. This research
focuses upon the male population of the home-based workforce and only covers
certain psychological aspects for professional, technical and managerial, as a
consequence will need to be enlarged to encompass various occupations and research
methods.

This research suggests the issue of social isolation is a serious matter for the men
(mainly self-employed) who work predominantly from home. This is likely to be
similar for all home-based male & female workers unless they are able to assume
particular strategies that either creates social networks within their immediate
community or networking group opportunities or regular meetings with organisational
colleagues. Any meetings and or the opportunity for regular breaks outside of the
home to local services for example help to remove the worker from the work/home
environment and to socially interact, thus providing a framework for the working day
and breaking the cycle of social isolation.

Although stress could well be associated with social isolation it cannot be confirmed
by this study. The environmental stressors of poor technology training and a lack of
organisational support plus the deluge of email, suggests that technology may induce a
form of stress. Work seems to be ever present for these home-based men and there
seems to be a tendency to overwork due to the close proximity of work as
highlighted in the study. Appropriate time-management and an acknowledgement by
organisations of the potential for overwork and additional working hours may prove
helpful. However, the self-employed may find this more challenging for economic
reasons.

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The difficulty separating the temporal and spatial boundaries is intangible and can have
a disruptive influence upon the worker; whilst the family and work compromise can be
fraught with a re-negotiation of space and full of contradictions with established family
roles. However, the positives thread of this study suggests a sense of increased
flexibility and independence and a belief that they would not necessarily want to
return to an organisational based work-life again. Moreover, this study highlights that
successful workers utilise either separate rooms or out-buildings in or around the
house for working demonstrating this to be the best solution for the cognitive
separation of the home and work spheres. There is an acknowledgement that this is
not always possible due to financial status and the available space within the house.
Removing the work from the home context enables the worker the capacity to
commute to work; moving from one script or cognitive schema toward another. This
again seems to provide a more satisfying conversion from home and work for both
the men and family members. The interview data suggests that children, partners and
other members of the family find it a difficult transition to navigate, though this
perspective is viewed through the experience of the men and perhaps may be more
acute than was divulged by the interviewees. It would be fascinating to interview
partners and gain a different view of the male workers transition toward home-based
working and the incursion into the family space and roles.

However, the question for occupational psychology is to ensure that solutions to the
areas in question are available and easily accessible to the growing workforce of
home-based employers and employees, self-employed individuals and networking
groups. The results of this research offer a number of implications and a framework
for home-based male (& female) workers and organisations to consider, and these
include the following;

• Every effort should be made to ensure that any home-based working is

methodically planned and implemented from an applied occupational
psychological dimension as an extension of either self-employment or
organisational policy.

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 • Health & safety and ergonomics must be included during office/workspace
planning.
• Full consultation and involvement of family members with likely implications
and motivations for home-based working.
• Establishment of adequate boundaries between both the home and work space
i.e. if possible a separate room for a work area/office with separate telephone
connection etc.
• Appropriate training and coaching to manage time and maintain social
networks to eradicate the negative emotions associated with social isolation.
• Training with appropriate ICT’s prior to commencing home-based work.
• An awareness of the potential for presenteeism, over-working and the
psychological consequences.

For the benefits of home-based working to be fully utilised both for individuals and
organisations, it is essential for the psychological dimensions and implications are
considered very carefully. It is not just the technicalities of any move toward home-
based work that ensures success, but the necessary application of appropriate
psychological frameworks and continued research to aid the transition toward home-
based working.

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References;
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Education Ltd, London
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pp 175-183
Brewer, W. F., & Treyens, J. C. (1981) “Role of schemata in memory for places”.
Cognitive Psychology, 13, pp207-230
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Devereux, L. (2007, 14 February) National Group for Homeworking
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Felstead, A., & Jewson, N. (2000) “In work, at home; towards and understanding of
homeworking”, London: Routledge.
Felsted, A. Jewson, N & Walters, S. (2005) “Changing Places of Work” Palgrave
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Furnham, A. (2002) “The Psychology of Behaviour at Work” Psychological Press,
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Working”, Gender, Work and Organization Vol. 13 No. 4 July 2006

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Hardhill, I., Green, A.E., and Duddleston, A.C. (1997) “The ‘blurring of
boundaries’ between ‘work’ and ‘home ’: perspectives from case studies in the East Midlands”
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Report 2, National Group of Homeworking, Leeds
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Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Mann, S. & Holdsworth, L. (2003) “The psychological impact of Teleworking: stress,
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Appendix i

Semi-Structured Interview Schedule

Experience of Male Home Located Self-Employed and

Employees
Please spend a little while reading and reflecting on the interview questions below prior to our
meeting or telephone conversation.

1. Firstly, would you describe to me the paid work you do at home?

2. How would you best describe your typical home-based working day?
3. How many hours do you tend to work daily and weekly at home?
4. How do you structure your work breaks during the day and what do you do?
5. What type of technology do you use to enable you be located from home?
6. How did you become home based and how do you feel about it?
7. What attracted you to home located working?
8. What are the positives and negatives of being home-based?
9. Would you say that being home based would suit most men?
10. What do your family think about you being home based?
11. If you have children, do they have any impact on your work duties, if so how?
12. What do you do to separate your working environment from the home environment?
13. If you separate work from home………….how do you do it?
14. What comes to mind when you think about the word home?
15. What would you say are the boundaries between home and work environments?
16. Is there anything about your neighbourhood that makes it a good place for people
who work from home to live?
17. Does the current building you live in feel like a home?
18. Has working in your home, changed the way you feel about your home?
19. How has homeworking changed your home environment and the way you use the
environment?
20. What do you and or your organisation do to encourage regular group or individual
meetings with colleagues?
21. Would you describe the support you receive from your organisation?
22. If you are self employed, do you have a network of friends and colleagues?

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Appendix ii

Questionnaire

Lived Experience of Male Home Located Self-Employed and

Employees

This questionnaire forms part of a study into men who are working at or from home base as a
self-employed or as a home-located employee. One of the interests here is to discover your
perspective and of how differently you experience the home that you and your family live and
work. All the information you give in this questionnaire is strictly confidential and no personal
or business details will be divulged to anyone else apart from this study. None of the
information will be identifiable and will not be attributable to anyone who took part in this
study. However, if you have any questions of queries please contact David Dean on
01223473478 or dd54@leicester.ac.uk

Lastly, by completing and submitting this questionnaire it is understood that you are giving
your consent for the details to be used for the purposes of this study.

Please answer all the following questions.

For the multiple choice questions please circle one answer only, if none apply please write
your answer in the space provided.

Personal Details
Age: 21 or under; 22-29; 30-40; 41-50; 51-60; 61-65; 65-70; 70+

What town or area do you live in:…………………………………………..

(Please be a specific as possible)

Which of the following most closely describes where you live:-

Countryside; City Suburbs; Town Suburbs; Town Centre; or other……………

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Type of work: Please circle the correct response or write your answer in the space provided

Working status: Self-Employed; Full-Time Employee; Part-Time Employee;

Contract Worker; Casual Worker; Other ……………………………

What kind of paid work do you carry out at home? ………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Area of work; Managerial; Professional; Technical; Clerical; Administration;

Skilled; Semi-Skilled; Un-Skilled

Type of Company; Self-Employed; Private; Public; Government; Charity/Voluntary;

Education/Research; Casual work/none; Other; …………………………………………………

Does your work involve; Staying at home mostly; Mostly at home/work location; Part travelling
and part at home; Other;……………………………..

How many hours do you spend on average working from home each
week………………..?

Is this mostly; daytime; evening; weekend; all three; varies/shift-work; other……………?

Do you have a separate business telephone line? Yes No

Do you have regular meetings with your organisational colleagues?

Yes No

If yes, how often........................................................................?

If self employed do you meet with other self employed people?

Yes No

If yes, how often........................................................................?

How long approximately have you been working from home……………………?

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Does anyone else who lives with you work from home? Yes No

If yes, please can you explain below the relationship to you? i.e. partner, son, daughter
etc;

Can you explain the main reasons you work from home? Please list three main reasons
below;
(a)

(b)

(c)

Living Arrangements:
Please circle the correct response or write your answer in the space provided
How many people usually live with you (in addition to yourself)………………………

What is the relation to you? (Circle all that apply) Partner/Spouse; Children; Friend(s);
Relative(s); Other(s)…………………………

If there are children how many live there and age; …………………..?
Who looks after the children during work hours? (Please select the three main ways)
Yourself; Nursery/Crèche; School; Au pair/nanny; Partner/Spouse; Family; Friends;
Other arrangements…………………………………………………………….

Is the place you are living in a; Semi-Detached house; Detached house;

Terraced house; Flat; Other………………………………………………….

Is it; Owned by you/your partner; Privately rented by you/your partner;

Social Housing; Tied to you job; Belonging to family; Other…………………..

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When you are working, are there other people in your home?
Always; Sometimes; Never

Computer use
Do you use a computer for your work at home? Yes No

If yes; how many hours on average do you use the computer for
work………………?

If yes; how many hours on average do you use the computer for other
reasons………………?

Did you have training for computer skills Yes; No;

Ways of Working from Home

What room do you work in mostly? ...........................................................................

How frequently (on average) is this room used for other activities?
Daily; Twice-weekly; Weekly; Monthly; Less often Never

Do you think of the place you are living in as home? Yes; Sort of; No

How long have you lived there; …………………years………………..months

Does working at home make your work easier to do?

Yes; No; Makes no difference
If yes how does working at home make your work easier?

Does working from home make your work more difficult?

Yes; No; Makes no difference
If yes how does working at home make your work more difficult?
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Since working from home, do you think you can relax in your home?
Almost all the time; Sometimes; Never;
Other ………………………………………………….

Are there jobs you could choose to do outside of the home rather than work from
home?
Yes; No;

Comparison with other ways of working

Have you worked outside the home in other places? Yes; No;

If yes what type of environment did you work in most recently e.g.
office…………………………………..?

In general terms, do you prefer to work from home than work outside?
Yes; No;

The main reason(s) are? Please list up to three reasons

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you for your help and patience completing this questionnaire

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 Appendix iii

Interview Transcriptions & Notation

Jefferson Transcription Notation

(G Jefferson “Transcription Notation” In J Atkinson and J Heritage (eds), Structures of
Social Interaction, New York: Cambridge University Press 1984)

Symbol Name Use

[text] Brackets Indicates the start and the end points
of overlapping speech
= Equal sign Indicates the break and subsequent continuation
of a single interruption
(*of seconds) Timed pause A number in parentheses indicates the time,
in seconds, of a pause in speech

(.) Micro-pause A brief pause, usually less that 0.2 second

. or
Period or down arrow Indicates falling pitch
? or Question mark or up
arrow Indicates rising pitch
, Comma Indicates temporary rise or fall in intonation
- Hyphen Indicates an abrupt halt or interruption in utterance
>text< Greater than/less Indicates that enclosed speech was delivered more
than symbol rapidly that usual for the speaker
<text> less than/greater Indicates that enclosed speech was delivered more
than symbols slowly that usual for the speaker
° Degree symbol Indicates whisper or reduced speech
ALL CAPS Capitalisation text Indicates shouted or increased volume speech
Underline Underlined text Indicates speaker is emphasising or stressing
the speech
:::::: Colon(s) Indicates prolongation of utterance

Transcription Legend— I = Interviewer, P = Participant

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