1. Explain Briefly The Stages In Data Processing?

Introduction
Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful
information through a process. Data is manipulated to produce results
that lead to a resolution of a problem or improvement of an existing
situation. Similar to a production process, it follows a cycle where
inputs (raw data) are fed to a process (computer systems, software,
etc.) to produce output (information and insights).
Generally, organizations employ computer systems to carry out a
series of operations on the data in order to present, interpret, or obtain
information. The process includes activities like data entry, summary,
calculation, storage, etc. Useful and informative output is presented in
various appropriate forms such as diagrams, reports, graphics, etc
Stages of Data processing
There are five main stages in data processing, they are followed
below:

Collection of data
Preparation of data
Input of data
Processing of data
Output of data

Collection of data

Here data are obtain or gather from various sources available. The two
main sources are followed:
Primary Data
Primary data are the data collected for first time. It is a firsthand copy.
Secondary Data
Secondary data are the data extracted from primary data, it is second
hand data.

Preparation of Data
In this stage data are made available for future use by performing
various processes that is:
Classifying the data,
Rearranging the data,
Editing the raw data, etc
Here data are made filter for further use. Preparation of data is the
stage where researchers make sure that they have sufficient raw
material of data from which he can satisfied his research subject. The
researcher made raw data into usable output so that he can use it in
future interrogations.
Input of Data
Input data is the stage where the prepared data is put in the data
processing system to obtain information. Here the data are passed to

the person or department responsible for processing data. For

instance, if computer is used then the data are made recorded into the
computer.
Processing of Data
In this stage the data are manipulated by sorting, studying, analysing,
calculating, updating, etc the obtained contain by the research to get
answer of their questions. It is usually a set of working procedures or
instructions are followed.
Output of Information
This is the final stage where the information is made available for the
future use. The end result is produce in better format.
2. Explain In Brief The Measures Of Central Tendency?
Introduction
A measure of central tendency is a single value that describes the way
in which a group of data cluster around a central value. To put in other
words, it is a way to describe the centre of a data set. There are three
measures of central tendency: the mean, the median, and the mode.
Important of Central Tendency
Central tendency is very useful in psychology. It lets us know what
is normal or 'average' for a set of data. It also condenses the data set
down to one representative value, which is useful when you are
working with large amounts of data. Could you imagine how difficult

it would be to describe the central location of a 1,000 item data set if

you had to consider every number individually?
Central tendency also allows you to compare one data set to another.
For example, let's say you have a sample of girls and a sample of
boys, and you are interested in comparing their heights. By
calculating the average height for each sample, you could easily draw
comparisons between the girls and boys.
Central tendency is also useful when you want to compare one piece
of data to the entire data set. Let's say you received a 60% on your last
psychology quiz, which is usually in the D range. You go around and
talk to your classmates and find out that the average score on the quiz
was 43%. In this instance, your score was significantly higher than
those of your classmates. Since your teacher grades on a curve, your
60% becomes an A. Had you not known about the measures of central
tendency, you probably would have been really upset by your grade
and assume that you bombed the test.

Three Measures of Central Tendency

There are three types of measures of central tendency. Each of these
measures describes a different indication of the typical or central
value in the distribution, they are followed:
Mean
Median
Mode

Mean
The mean or average. The mean is calculated in two steps:
1. Add the data together to find the sum
2. Take the sum of the data and divide it by the total number of
data
Now let's see how this is done using the height example from earlier.
Let's say we have a sample of 10 girls and 9 boys.
The girls' heights in inches are 60, 72, 61, 66, 63, 66, 59, 64, 71, 68.
Here are the steps to calculate the mean height for the girls:
First, you add the data together: 60 + 72 + 61 + 66 + 63 + 66 + 59 +
64 + 71 + 68 = 650. Then, we take the sum of the data (650) and
divide it by the total number of data (10 girls): 650 / 10 = 65. The
average height for the girls in the sample is 65 inches. If you look at
the data, you can see that 65 is a good representation of the data set
because 65 lands right around the middle of the data set.
The mean is the preferred measure of central tendency because it
considers all of the values in the data set. However, the mean is not
without limitations. In order to calculate the mean, data must be
numerical. You cannot use the mean when you are working with
nominal data, which is data on characteristics like gender, appearance,
and race. For example, there is no way that you can calculate the
mean of the girls' eye colours. The mean is also very sensitive to
outliers, which are numbers that are much higher or much lower than

the rest of the data set and thus, it should not be used when outliers
are present.
To illustrate this point, let's look at what happens to the mean when
we change 68 to 680. Again, we add the data together: 60 + 72 + 61 +
66 + 63 + 66 + 59 + 64 + 71 + 680 = 1262. Then we take the sum of
the data (1262) and divide it by the total number of data (10 girls):
1262 / 10 = 126.2. The mean height (in inches) for the sample of girls
is now 126.2. This number is not a good estimate of the central height
for the girls. This number is almost twice as high as the height of most
of the girls.
Median
The median is determined by sorting the data set from lowest to
highest values and taking the data point in the middle of the sequence.
There are an equal number of points above and below the median. For
example, in the data set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} the median is 3; there are two
data points greater than this value and two data points less than this
value. In this case, the median is equal to the mean. But consider the
data set {1, 2, 3, 4, 10}. In this dataset, the median still is three, but
the mean is equal to 4. If there is an even number of data points in the
set, then there is no single point at the middle and the median is
calculated by taking the mean of the two middle points.
The median can be determined for ordinal data as well as interval and
ratio data. Unlike the mean, the median is not influenced by outliers at
the extremes of the data set. For this reason, the median often is used

when there are a few extreme values that could greatly influence the
mean and distort what might be considered typical. This often is the
case with home prices and with income data for a group of people,
which often is much skewed. For such data, the median often is
reported instead of the mean. For example, in a group of people, if the
salary of one person is 10 times the mean, the mean salary of the
group will be higher because of the unusually large salary. In this
case, the median may better represent the typical salary level of the
group.
Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in the data set. For
example, in the data set {1, 2, 3, 4, 4}, the mode is equal to 4. A data
set can have more than a single mode, in which case it is multimodal.
In the data set {1, 1, 2, 3, 3} there are two modes: 1 and 3.
The mode can be very useful for dealing with categorical data. For
example, if a sandwich shop sells 10 different types of sandwiches,
the mode would represent the most popular sandwich. The mode also
can be used with ordinal, interval, and ratio data. However, in interval
and ratio scales, the data may be spread thinly with no data points
having the same value. In such cases, the mode may not exist or may
not be very meaningful.