Soil Remediation

Soil remediation, also known as soil washing, is a term that refers to various processes
designed to remove contaminants such as hydrocarbons (petroleum and fuel residues),
heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides, volatiles, creosote, and semi-volatiles from soil. Soil
remediation is needed to clean and maintain high quality standards of soil, water and air
that can consequently benefit commercial cultivation, and wild flora and fauna.

Treatment

Non-Treatment Options

What is Soil Remediation?

Soil remediation, from an environmental perspective, is the reduction of contaminant
concentrations within soil.

Why remediate soils?

The aim of soil remediation works in the majority of cases is to reduce contaminants to
levels which are suitable for use, essentially meaning you can use your site without
environmental risks. As an example a client contacts us following the identification of an
environmental risk. Concentrations of hydrocarbons in soils have been confirmed as
being above safe levels for human health and as such must be dealt with before
development of the site as a residential housing estate. In this situation remediation of
soils may be a condition for planning consent.

http://www.soilutions.co.uk/services/soil-remediation/

Soil Remediation- Types of Techniques

There are four main types of soil remediation techniques for the removal of various
pollutants and contamination from soils that have compiled enough documentation to
give them prominence in use. These techniques include:

Bioremediation: Bioremediation involves treatment of polluted soils by biological

means. The process uses bacterium (aerobic and anaerobic species), particularly
targeted to consume and break down hydrocarbons and other pollutants in soil. The
advantage of the process also lies in the fact that when contaminate is consumed all the
microbes die off. However, note that the process is more successful in soil that
maintains 70 degrees F of temperature with sporadic rain for optimal moisture. And for

bioremediation to be more effective in colder climates, soils should be properly covered

and insulated. This is because the colder the ambient climate will be, the longer the
clean-up time the process will take.

Thermal Soil Remediation: This technique includes heating contaminated material

into the PTU to evaporate hydrocarbon impurities and water. Here, polluted materials
are usually treated at temperatures of 650 F to 900 F, and then discharged from the
PTU into a cooling unit, which is either a mixer, or auger where water is added for
cooling and dust control. The treated material is then discharged from the cooling unit
via a conveying system, ready for testing, and subsequent recycling.

Air Sparging: In air sparging, large volumes of air are injected into a polluted soil
stratum to force the organic vapors outwards where they are typically treated by carbon
filtering. The actual time the process takes in treatment depends upon various factors
such as depth of the hydrocarbon pollution, the concentration level of contaminate, pH
factor of the soil, and permeability of the soil.

Encapsulation: The process of encapsulation does not filter contaminants from

soil so much as it separates them. This can be done in many ways, but one of the most
common ways includes mixing the polluted soil with lime, cement, and concrete, leading
to preventing the contaminants from spreading to clean soil. However, this method
impedes using the soil for cultivation.
Popular Bioremediation Services Providing Companies - Soilutions, Soil Bioremediation Inc.
http://www.technologywater.com/post/104761516702/types-of-soil-remediation-techniques-andmethods

Process of soil pollution and remediation

Environmental pollution is a major threat to our planet. Pollution of precious water supplies is
particularly important. Electric utilities, oil refineries, and chemical plants produce huge amounts of
contaminated wastewater each year. In agriculture, toxic levels of various elements pollute the
groundwater as a result of excessive fertilizer application (e.g., nitrates and phosphates), and
through leaching of naturally occurring trace elements in the soil after irrigation (e.g., selenium).
Pollution of both water and soil poses a significant hazard to human health.

Finding suitable treatment technologies to clean up contaminated water and soil is

not easy. Many technologies that are available are usually very expensive. Because
the need for practical and cost-effective procedures for cleaning up contaminated
water and soil is so great, researchers in this group have dedicated themselves to
achieving this goal through the study of process involved in soil pollution and
analyze the best solution to apply. Among many technologies considered,

Phytoremediation appears as a cost-effective and environment-friendly approach

for cleanup.
Many agricultural and industrial sites have soils that are contaminated with toxic
heavy metals, metalloids (e.g., boron, arsenic), or organic pollutants (e.g., PAHs)
These sites may be remediated or restored using
different Phytoremediationapproaches. Phytoextraction utilizes the ability of
certain plants to remove contaminants from soil and water and accumulate them in
plant tissues that may then be harvested and removed from the site.
Phytostabilization on the other hand, uses plants to immobilize contaminants
chemically and physically at the site, thereby preventing their movement to ground
waters or to the atmosphere (i.e., through soil erosion and wind). Phytovolatilization
makes use of plants and their associated microbes to convert contaminants to a
volatile form and remove them from the local ecosystem. Phytodetoxification
involves the ability of plants to change the chemical species of the contaminant to a
less toxic form, e.g., plants can take up toxic hexavalent chromium and convert it to
non-toxic trivalent chromium.
Research:
Essential contribution is devoted to the right selection of strategies to recover contaminated soil. The
choice is based of knowledge of basic principles of soil characteristics and analysis of pollutants
speciation and bioavailability.
Among the different remediation technologies the main activities are focused on Phytoremediation
under public and private funded contracts. Consolidate knowledge and experience have been gained
in the last 15 years and are related to:

Basic research: to study and implement the technology. Investigations under

multidisciplinary approach are conducted in the evaluation of different plant species on
contaminant accumulation and distribution evaluating the strategic factors of
phytoremediation processes. Phytotoxicity is studied evaluating Biomarkers of oxidative
stress and metal induced protein in cooperation with CNR-IBF (Dr. E. Morelli) and
genotoxicity in cooperation with CNR-IBBA (Dr. L. Giorgetti).

Site specific applicability test: feasibility tests are necessary to develop before any
technology application. Phytoremediation also is subjected to this demand. The studies are
carried out at different experimental scale (see the scheme in figure below). Field test are
particularly important in the technology evaluation and experimentation.

Other related studies/activities are focused on:

metal bioavailability and phytoextraction technology
study of behavior and transport/translocation of nanoparticles in the soil/plant system
(cooperation with Prof. George Gardea Torresday, Texas University, Chemistry Department:
Cerium nanoparticles tolerance and toxicity in Helianthus annus)
in-situ characterization of metal polluted soil by means LIBS

Water & Soil Remediation

Bacteria are the most nutritionally diverse of all organisms, meaning they can
eat almost anything. The Greater Victoria Composting Education Center.

Versions of this sentence pop up on a number of different composting sites,

but unlike some claims that circulate the web, this one is true. Some microorganisms, we have discovered, can digest oil and can help clean up oil spills
on water or on land.
Modern industrial processes have left wide-spread and dangerous pollution in
soil and water across the globe. Efforts to decontaminate or remediate these
sites are both costly and time-consuming. Compost has turned out to play a
key role in a number of quicker and cheaper alternatives. Frequently it is the
microbes in compost that do the dirty work.

Bioconcentration, Bioaccumulation, and Biomagnification

The most troublesome pollutants are heavy metals and persistent organic
pollutants (POPs). One reason theyre so toxic is that
they bioconcentrate, bioaccumulate, or biomignify in the body.

Its widely known that mercury is dangerous largely because it accumulates

in the body. We cant get it out of our systems. As a result, long-term, lowlevel exposure can be as dangerous (though in different ways) as a single,
high-level exposure. The same is true for a variety of other substances.

Definitions
All of these terms apply to toxins that most animals cannot efficiently
eliminate from their bodies. The difference is the route through which the
organism is exposed to the toxin.
Bioconcentration occurs after exposure by respiration only, whether
through gills for a trout or lungs for a rabbit. A chemical bioconcentrates if
levels in an organism rise consistently due to breathing contaminated air or
water.

Bioaccumulation refers to exposure by any means, including diet, but it still

refers to levels in a particular organism a single fish or rabbit.

Biomagnification involves the passing on of chemicals from prey to

predator, or across trophic levels. Bobcats and coyotes, both carnivores,
are at the same trophic level: both eat rabbits, (when they can) which are
herbivores, a different trophic level.

(See David Alexanders Encyclopedia of Environmental Science, 1999.)

As a result of bioconcentration alone, toxic levels in a mussel or fish can be

thousands of times higher than the levels in the surrounding water. When
another fish or a bear eats that fish it absorbs all of that accumulated
toxin. And the larger animals are likely to eat more than one fish. Rarely does

someone eat a single oyster. And while one good-sized trout may be enough
for today, an otter or bear will want more tomorrow. As a result, levels in
higher carnivores and omnivores (humans, for instance) can again be
thousands of times higher than those in the surrounding environment.
A number of heavy metals, as well as a whole raft of complex organic
compounds such as DDT, dioxins and persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
such as PAHs and PCBs, all fall into this class of chemicals. Removing them
from our soils and waters is a high priority. Compost can help do this.

Lifting Heavy Metals

The idea that compost can help remove or break down pollutants from
contaminated soil and water may sound like wishful thinking. But the use of
compost to decontaminate soils is a well-established field in which scientists
have been working for decades. Phytoremediation actually has several
branches.

Phytoextraction, for instance, involves a process in which plants take up

toxins from polluted soil or water and accumulate them in their foliage.
Plants that can absorb over a hundred times as much of a particular
chemical as can run-of-the-mill plants qualify as superaccumulaters. Once
the toxins have been accumulated in the plant stems or foliage, they can be
harvested and removed for further processing. This is generally much less
expensive that removing and treating soil, though it only works for some
chemicals.

The most unlikely plants turn out to tolerate and to lift toxins out of the soil.
The lowly alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens), whose habitat includes
several European countries and a wide swath of western North America, is
one of these. It can absorb high levels of cadmium and zinc without suffering
from phytotoxicity (damage through toxins).

Alpine Pennycress. Source: Wikipedia.

When compost is applied to contaminated soil where alpine pennycress is

grown, phytotoxicity falls even more. Precisely why this happens isnt yet
completely understood. But scientists suspect that whats at work is the
variety of ways that compost boosts plant health by introducing and
supporting beneficial micro-organisms, by binding nutrients in the soil and by
making them more available to plants rather through any one ingredient
or attribute.
Whatever the mechanism, the effect has been documented in a number of
studies. One 1997 study used alpine pennycress to remove zinc and
cadmium from a heavily contaminated Pennsylvania site. It reported in
suitably restrained tones that compost treatment reduced metal
phytotoxicity.

While compost helps hyper-accumulators absorb toxins it can, conversely,

bind others in soil, keeping them out of plants and helping to protect crops
(and people) from contamination. Arsenic is a key example.
The dangers of what is known as pressure-treated wood are well known.
Arsenic can contaminate soil near wood treated with chromated-copperarsenate as a preservative and can be taken up by vegetables such as
carrots and lettuce. In two recent studies by scientists at the University of
Florida, one in 2003, the other in2004, phosphate added to soil increased
plant uptake of arsenic while compost reduced it. In the second study,
arsenic uptake increased by as much as 79-86% compared to uptake in
uncomposted soils.

Both of those examples involve the application of compost to soil. But some
contaminants can actually be broken down by the composting process itself.
To the uninitiated (i.e., most of us), this sounds even more unlikely. Who
would guess that composting could directly transform 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene,
which most of us know as the explosive TNT, into less toxic minerals? Yet this
is so well established that scientists are testing not whether it is possible but
which composting method does the job best. A study published in 2004
found that compost started with a long anaerobic period degraded TNT more
completely than did compost that was constantly aerated.

Persistent Organic Pollutants

Up and down twenty miles or so of the upper Hudson River, a heavily

wooded stretch of seemingly pristine beauty, signs warn fishermen not to eat
their catch. They are restricted to catch-and-release not for the fishs sakes
but for their own. For almost 200 miles up from where the Hudson reaches
the Atlantic, the river, its bed, and all aquatic life in it are heavily
contaminated with PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) that were dumped in the
river over a quarter of a century ago.

PCB Pollution in the Hudson. Source: NY Dept. of Environmental

Conservation.

Over several decades, General Electric dumped an estimated 1.3 million pounds of
PCBs into the Hudson from its manufacturing plants at Hudson Falls and Fort Edward.
Dumping ceased in 1977 and 197 miles of the river were declared a Superfund site in
1983. Ensuing legal battles dragged on so long that General Electric will only begin
dredging out the contaminated soil in the spring of 2009.
PCBs, like dioxins, DDT and others, are persistent organic pollutants or POPs.
POPs rate as some of the worlds most toxic and troublesome pollutants, for
reasons explained in part by their name. They persist in the environment for
a very long time, resisting most natural degradation processes. Yet
vermicompost, which has a very high level of microbial activity, effectively
remediates POP-contaminated soils, reducing them to their constituent and
less dangerous pieces and parts.

The health problems caused by POPs are many and serious. In A Global
Issue, a Global Response, the EPA reports that In people, reproductive,
developmental, behavioral, neurologic, endocrine, and immunologic adverse
health effects have been linked to POPs. The language is cautious but the
list long. The World Bank puts it more poetically, if more bluntly: They
[POPs] are highly toxic, causing an array of adverse effects, notably death,
disease, and birth defects among humans and animals. This source then
goes on to list some of those adverse effects: cancer, allergies and
hypersensitivity, damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems,
reproductive disorders, and disruption of the immune system.
Persistent means that these chemicals are extraordinarily stable. It also
means that they tend to accumulate in both animals and humans because
most organisms can neither eliminate or break them down. In other words,
they usually bioconcentration, bioaccumulation and biomagnification. As a
result, in fatty tissue, POP concentrations can become magnified by up to
70,000 times the background levels. (See What are POPs? The World
Bank.)
Two of the chemical groups classed as POPs PAHs (polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons) and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) are objects of
particular concern.
PAHs, naturally present in most fats and oils, are produced by a wide array
of chemical processes. Theyre also produced whenever an organic
substance wood, coal, tar, tobacco, gasoline, kerosene, cotton, wool,
paper burns incompletely. Theyre in the charred material that builds up
on the inside of the grill and the charred material on the steak that comes off

the grill. Theyre probably whats behind the commonly repeated truth that
char-broiled meats are carcinogenic. They are also found in all fossil fuels as
well as in some edible fats and oils. Many PAHs cause cancer or birth defects.

PCBs had wide industrial use in the decades after WWII, especially in the
electrical industry, despite having been recognized as extremely toxic as
early as 1937. Manufactured in the U.S. solely by Monsanto, they entered the
environment through manufacturing pollution and routine if irresponsible
disposal as well as through numerous spills and accidents. Though they were
banned in the US in the 1970s and are increasingly restricted around the
world, theyre still found in rivers, lakes and soils where they leaked or were
dumped.

A spate of studies in the past decade or so testifies to the extraordinary

ability of composts, worms and their castings to help detoxify even these
most resistant and dangerous chemical compounds. Some studies have
tested vermicomposting itself, which consists essentially of adding worms
and a food source (usually bio-sludge) to contaminated sites or contaminated
soils. The soils are then tested for contaminant levels, as are the worms
themselves. (A 2008 overview of such studies can be found here.)
Other studies have added compost or vermicompost to treatment processes,
still others have used eitherbacteria or various mycelia (molds and
mushrooms) isolated from composts. Again, results are usually positive. In
these cases, the micro-organisms that flourish in composts eat the toxins,
producing simpler, less toxic compounds.

Why does compost detoxify pollutants?

The last few words in the title of one scientific paper help to explain why
compost and vermicompost are so effective. The paper explores how a nonacclimated, complex source of microorganisms was used to remediate the
soil at a seriously contaminated site.

The point about composts and vermicomposts is that they support such a
rich, varied and robust range and quantity of microbes, fungi and other
organisms. Instead of trying to refine and purify a particular strain of microbe

to tackle a particular pollutant, scientists in some areas are relying more and
more on the sheer diversity of microbes in compost to do the work. Put this
non-specific mix of microbes in contact with contaminated soil or water and
the microbe capable of digesting the contamination will proliferate, digesting
the pollutant.
This approach makes especially good sense when we consider that very few
sites are in fact polluted with only one thing, and that the chemical stew in
one place is unlikely to be reproduced anywhere else. In other words,
tailoring a treatment to a site would be expensive and time-consuming.
There are places for such tailoring, but in many cases its quicker, cheaper
and more efficient to just use compost.
http://www.planetnatural.com/composter-connection/environmental-issues/water-soil-remediation/

Remediation Technology Types

Air Sparging involves the injection of air or oxygen through a contaminated

aquifer to remove volatile and semivolatile organic contaminants by volatilization.
The injected air helps to flush the contaminants into the unsaturated zone for
treatment.
Bioreactor Landfills rapidly transform, degrade and stabilize organic waste
through the addition of liquid and air enhance microbial processes.
Bioremediation uses microorganisms to degrade organic contaminants in soil,
groundwater, sludge and solids. The microorganisms break down contaminants by
using them as an energy source or cometabolizing them with an energy source.
Electrokinetics applies low-intensity direct current through the soil between
ceramic electrodes that are divided into a cathode array and an anode array. This
current mobilizes charged species, causing ions and water to move toward the
electrodes, and removal of contaminants at the electrode may be accomplished by
several methods.
Evapotranspiration Covers utilize natural processes to manage water
precipitating on municipal landfills, hazardous and industrial waste landfills to
contain waste.
Environmental Fracturing technologies enhance or create openings in bedrock or
soil with low effective porosity, such as clay, to help soil and groundwater cleanup
methods work better.
Ground-Water Circulating Wells create a three-dimensional groundwater
circulation pattern that can provide subsurface remediation inside a well, in the
aquifer or both. Groundwater is drawn into a well through one screened section and
is pumped through the well to a second screened section where it is reintroduced to
the aquifer.
In Situ Chemical Reduction places a reductant or reductant-generating material
in the subsurface to degrade toxic organic compounds to potentially nontoxic or less
toxic compounds. It immobilizes metals by adsorption or precipitation and degrades
non-metallic oxyanions.
In Situ Flushing floods a zone of contamination with an appropriate solution to
remove the contaminant from the soil. Contaminants are mobilized by solubilization,
formation of emulsions or a chemical reaction with the flushing solutions and
brought to the surface for disposal, recirculation or on-site treatment and
reinjection.
In Situ Oxidation typically involves reduction/oxidation (redox) reactions that
chemically convert hazardous compounds to nonhazardous or less toxic compounds
that are more stable, less mobile or inert.
Multi-Phase Extraction uses a vacuum system, sometimes combined with a
downhole pump, to remove various combinations of contaminated groundwater,

separate-phase petroleum product and vapors from the subsurface. The system
lowers the water table around the well, exposing more of the formation for vapor
extraction.
Nanoscale Materials for Environmental Site Remediation have been
developed and used to remediate contaminated soil and groundwater, such as sites
contaminated by chlorinated solvents or oil spills. Nanoscale materials can be highly
reactive in part because of the large surface area to volume ratio and the presence
of a larger number of reactive sites.
Natural Attenuation relies on natural processes to clean up or attenuate pollution
in soil and groundwater. Natural attenuation occurs at most polluted sites. However,
the right conditions must exist underground to clean sites properly.
Remediation Optimization uses defined approaches to improve the effectiveness
and efficiency of an environmental remedy. Optimization approaches include sitewide optimization reviews, statistical evaluation tools, consideration of emerging
technologies, review of operating system costs and the identification of cost
reduction methods without loss of protectiveness.
Permeable Reactive Barriers are subsurface emplacements of reactive materials
through which a dissolved contaminant plume must move as it flows, typically
under natural gradient. Treated water exits the other side of the permeable reactive
barrier.
Phytotechnologies are broadly defined as the use of vegetation to address
contaminants in soil, sediment, surface water and groundwater. Cleanup objectives
for phytotechnologies can be contaminant removal and destruction, control and
containment or both.
Soil Washing separates contaminants sorbed onto fine soil particles from bulk soil
in a water-based system based on particle size. Soils and wash water are mixed in a
tank or other treatment unit and usually separated using gravity settling.
Soil Vapor Extraction applies a vacuum to unsaturated zone soil to induce the
controlled flow of air and remove volatile and some semivolatile organic
contaminants from the soil.
Solidification encapsulates waste to form a solid material, coat the waste with lowpermeability materials to restrict contaminant migration or both. Solidification can
be accomplished by mechanical processes or by a chemical reaction between a
waste and binding reagents, such as cement, kiln dust, or lime/fly ash.
Solvent Extraction uses an organic solvent to separate organic and metal
contaminants from soil. The solvent is mixed with contaminated soil in an extraction
unit and then passed through a separator, where the contaminants and extractant
are separated from the soil.
Ex Situ Thermal Treatment generally involves the destruction or removal of
contaminants through exposure to high temperature in treatment cells, combustion
chambers or other means. Contaminated media is contained during the remediation
process.

In Situ Thermal Treatment includes many different methods and combinations of

techniques to apply heat to polluted soil, groundwater or both. The heat can destroy
or volatilize organic chemicals, and the gases can be extracted through collection
wells for capture and cleanup in a treatment unit.
https://www.epa.gov/remedytech/remediation-technology-descriptions-cleaningcontaminated-sites

Soil Contamination & Remediation

Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man made chemical alterations
in naked ground. This type of contamination typically results from the rupture of
underground storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of
contaminated surface water, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from
landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common
chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and
other heavy metals.
It is almost always directly correlated with the degree of industrialization and
intensities of chemical usage. Large urbanized, heavily populated areas are also
a source of contaminated biosolids or treated sewage sludge which contain not
only human fecal matter but many of these same chemical contaminants
washed through the system over the years. Philadelphia has a single sewer
system which means everything from rainwater to toilet flushes to industrial
residue all goes to the same place. Yuck.
Given Philadelphias rich industrial past it is an issue that takes on a particular
importance for us, more so those, such as our own communities, who live in
some of the most heavily post industrial sections of Philadelphia. The past has
unfortunately left behind many chemical remnants, the very ingredients in fact,
that went into the light to heavy industry-the heavy metals that forged the
locomotives, petroleums that drove the freight lines, ships and base materials
metal such as lead cadmium and zinc -that formed the nucleus of Philadelphias
once thriving business past.
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from
direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and
from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil.
Many local residents have been witness to the level of activity involved in the
clean up of contaminated sites. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the
resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive
amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry and computer modeling skills.
How does this relate to our common gardening experience. Does this mean it is
unsafe to grow tomatoes in your side yard? Bring cut flowers into the house that
came from Grandmas in Port Richmond? By no means! First, lets point out that
there are resources for getting your soil tested regardless of where you live.
Penn State Extension Offices (get to them while they still have funding!) is one

place and almost every state offers a variety of testing some of which may make
more sense for your situation. For example we tend toward the testing done at
University of Massachusetts which always looks at lead levels given
Greensgrows location. You might want to have a test run for salinity or organic
matter if you feel confident in your soils safe but feel the garden is not
delivering the punch it once did to your basil.
If you have issues with your soil, growing above ground in raised beds is always
an option as is growing in an assortment of everything from old sneakers (talk
about contaminated) to unused kiddie pools. Dont try to take on remediation
yourself unless you have a strong back, deep scientific and financial resources
and a way of removing the soil that is there. Moving your problem to someone
elses yard is not the answer. Leave that to the professionals who have multiple
technologies available to them-including phytoremediation -ironically the use of
plants to pull the contaminants out of the soil, restructure them and release
them into the air.
Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field
measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models for analyzing
transport and fate of soil chemicals. There are several principal strategies for
remediation:
Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for
human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging
of bay muds containing toxins.
Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating
air pollution)
Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface
temperatures sufficiently high to volatilize chemical contaminants out of the soil
for vapour extraction. Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating
(ERH), and ET-DSPtm.
Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals.
Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora.
Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical
system, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.
Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over
in place).
Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals
http://www.greensgrow.org/nursery/urban-gardening/soil-contaminationremediation/#sthash.uRnLn1wU.dpuf
http://www.greensgrow.org/nursery/urban-gardening/soil-contaminationremediation/