C LIENT GU IDE TO

M OBI LE LI DAR
S URVEYS
ISSUE 3
MAY 2015
TSA
Endorsed by:

The Survey Associations Client Guides are primarily

aimed at other professionals such as engineers,
architects, planners and clients in general. They are not
intended to go in depth into practical issues but to act
as a basic guide on a particular topic and in particular,
on procedures and regulations which may govern how
a particular aspect of the survey is carried out.
1.

What is a Mobile LiDAR System?

Mobile LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is a fast and reliable survey method for
obtaining 3-dimensional data for the generation of point cloud information, from
a moving platform, with a level of precision that will complement existing survey
techniques. A LiDAR system is an active sensor which uses laser to measure distances
to features and the ground. With an integral camera, digital images can supplement the
LiDAR data for a full evaluation of the captured features.
Mobile LiDAR systems are ideally designed for corridor mapping and therefore they
particularly suit both the road and rail network environments. The measurement range
of the sensor is dependant on the reflectivity and orientation of the objects or surface
but generally sensors are capable of recording data with a range of up to 200m.

Mobile LiDAR provides the ability to capture highly detailed and accurate point cloud
information, this data can then be utilised to extract valuable information such as
topographic mapping products.

1.1 How does it work?

A laser emits a light pulse which is projected to a mirror and is reflected from a vehicle
or moving platform. The light pulse travels out until it reaches an object and the pulse
is then reflected back to the system. Since the speed of light is a constant, a standard
mathematical equation can be used to determine the distance the light travelled within
a recorded time interval. This measurement tells you the range to an object.
In addition to knowing the range to the object, Inertial Navigation Systems are used
to verify latitude, longitude and elevation providing the X, Y and Z data points of a
three-dimensional data set.
Modern mobile LiDAR systems can produce hundreds of thousands of pulses every
second which allows for extremely rapid acquisition of data over long lengths of areas,
which may be a hostile or risky environment and therefore not suitable for traditional
methods of surveying. There are very few Health and Safety risks associated with a
mobile LiDAR survey and the lasers cause no harm to humans as they are manufactured
to be eye safe.

Motorway junction
scanned from main
carriageways and
over bridges.

Figure 1

1.2

What are Point Clouds?

A point cloud is a set of vertices in a three-dimensional coordinate system.

These vertices are usually defined by X, Y, and Z coordinates, and are intended
to be representative of the external surface of an object
Figure 1 above shows an example of a height shaded point cloud output.

1.3

Characteristics of Continuous Mobile LiDAR

Multiple scanners, collecting data forwards and backwards

Linked to an inertial navigational system (INS) for more precise location of points

Rapid acquisition of 100kms of route network per day

Sensors operate in day or night conditions

Can operate at speeds up to 100km/hr

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

2. Equipment
There are a wide variety of mobile LiDAR system available from specialised profilers
used on rail track surveys to more versatile corridor mapping system that utilise multiple
360 scanners.
Mobile LiDAR systems are made up from a number of components which are generally
referred to as the system, these can vary slightly in detail from system to system but
the main components are:

Laser Scanners

Inertial Navigational System (INS)

Cameras

2.1

Laser Scanner

A Laser scanner is a system for emitting an array of timed laser pulses, and measuring
the elapsed time/phase shift of the return pulse from the reflecting object, along with
the strength of the returning pulse (intensity). A common approach is to have a fixed
laser source, which is then deflected by a rotating or oscillating mirror, to generate a
scanning action.

Example of
targets with
multiple pulse
returns.

Figure 2 

Alternative approaches are also used, such as the use of a fibre array to generate a
scan pattern.
Most mobile laser scanners are capable of recording either multiple returns for a single
outgoing pulse or the Full Waveform return, which then allows discreet returns to be
extracted during post processing. Both these techniques allow the laser to measure
multiple targets with one pulse, provided all the targets fall within the footprint of the
pulse. The first pulse digital surface model depicts all the features identified by the
sensor without any filtering of points, the last pulse digital surface model after filtering
of the first and intermediate returns can depict the ground surface. It should be noted
that the last pulse return is not necessarily from the ground and thus needs to be
verified by ground truth data.

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

2.2

Inertial Navigational System (INS)

The solution for positioning and orientating the system whilst the laser scanner
component is recording data is critical to the accuracy of the final output. The INS
is reliant on blending information from Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
receivers and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) to generate highly accurate positional
and orientation estimates for the trajectory of the system - commonly referred to as
SBET (Smoothed Best Estimate of Trajectory). This commonly involves the use of the
latest GNSS base station technology to allow differential processing.

2.3 Cameras
Most mobile LiDAR systems can be mounted with multiple cameras. These can collect
imagery at various frame rates to ensure overlap and coverage of the area of interest.
If cameras are used with systems that have an Inertial Navigational System (INS) then the
images can be precisely time stamp using the onboard GNSS signal. The point cloud
can be colourised using the information from the imagery which adds extra contextual
information when interrogating the data.
Figures 3, 4 and 5 below show a typical rail and vehicle mounted mobile LiDAR survey
set-up.

3.

Uses of Point Cloud data

Mobile laser
scanners can be
mounted on many
different vehicular
platforms. In this
example the
vehicle has been
adapter for the
rail environment.
Figure 3

Figure 4 (Left) The primary use of mobile mapping

systems is on the highway
Figure 5 (Right) Compact scanning systems
can be fitted to off road vehicle
to reach inaccessible areas

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

Applications for the use of LiDAR are evolving, but generally any application that
requires a volumetric or three dimensional set of data or topographic vector information
can be considered.
As the result of a 3D scanning process point clouds are generated and used for many
purposes, including creating 3D CAD models and a multitude of visualisation and
animation products.

2.1 Applications
Typical applications include:

Infrastructure modelling

Asset inventory

2D and 3D Vector Mapping

Rail infrastructure and asset capture

Building modeling and facade detail

DTM generation by meshing or surfacing

Profiles and cross section generation

Visualisation / animation

Volumetric Analysis

An example of infrastructure capture and outputs are shown below in Figure 6.

Complex structures
can be surveyed
and processed to
point cloud data
very quickly. In
this example we
can see assets,
road surfaces
and the bridge
structure within
the same scan.
Figure 6

3.1

Output and deliverables

The outputs of the mobile LiDAR surveys are often dependent upon the application and
project requirements but in general the collected measurements can be supplied in a
number of formats, depending on the end users systems.

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

1. The LAS file format is a public file format for the interchange of 3-dimensional
point cloud data between data users; this binary format maintains information
specific to the LiDAR capture.
2. The generic ASCII file interchange is more familiar with organisations but tends
to be larger in file size and thus slower in processing whilst the use of specialist
formats such as POD & PTS is common within the surveying industry.
3. Gridded products such as DTM & DSM can be output in exchange formats such
as ASC Grid, ARC Grid, & GeoTIFF to name a few.
4. Ortho-rectified images can be supplied in common imagery exchange formats
such as Tiff, GeoTiff, ECW & Mr SID etc.
5. Vector dataset can be output in common vector exchange formats, such as
Shapefile, DXF, DWG, DGN etc.
6. The raw point cloud can be displayed in a 3D environment, providing a very
powerful tool for straight point to point measurement.
7. Even with multi sensor systems, the point cloud is usually supplied as one data
file which can be defined using an agreed tile naming convention. Unlike aerial
LiDAR data which is usually supplied in 1km tiles, mobile LiDAR data is more
suited to smaller subsets due to the density of the data.
Some example outputs are shown below in Figure 7.

In environments
where GNSS
masking may occur
it is advisable to
use additional
ground control
points to aid
accuracy checking
on the scan data.
Figure 7

4. What level of accuracy can be achieved?

Under optimal GNSS conditions an absolute height accuracy of up to 35mm to
1 sigma ( ) is achievable with most mobile LiDAR systems. These accuracies are
usually quantified by comparing laser returns on an open hard, flat surface with
survey ground control.
Please note that the price of a Mobile LiDAR survey can vary considerably when
requiring accuracies within the higher ranges.
These accuracies are however dependant on a number of operational conditions
and additional post-processing techniques.

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

Good GNSS signal is essential to generate precise trajectories

Quality of the Inertial Measurement Unit

Additional ground truth data may be required

The range to the target

It should also be noted that the accuracy of the point cloud data should always be
higher than the intended accuracy of the derived products.
Because the mobile scanner collects data dynamically, the overall accuracy of the
generated point cloud is directly limited by the underlying accuracy of the GNSS signal
and the quality of the IMU. The generation of an accurate survey can be sometimes
difficult, especially in urban areas due to the unreliability of obtaining a strong GNSS
positioning solution caused by buildings masking the signal. Therefore it is important
to discuss your requirements with the survey firm at an early stage to determine the
best solution.

5. Advantages of Mobile LiDAR System surveys compared

to traditional surveys
Highway corridor surveys are becoming increasingly more and more difficult and
expensive to carry out because of the lane closures, traffic disruptions and safety
hazards posed to the surveyors as well as the public. Roadway workers and surveyors
are at risk, whether in vehicles or not, when working in the traffic corridor if they cant
move with the flow of traffic. Safety for the travelling public is also a major problem
when lanes are closed, or blocked by slow moving vehicles. In order to mitigate
these problems, a Mobile LiDAR System can be implemented. It can collect detailed
topographic and infrastructure information without requiring traffic management,
lane closures or even a disruption in traffic flow.

Many health and

safety concerns
can be minimised
by removing staff
from the highway
environment!

Figure 8 

As data is collected from the survey platform while it is moving at speeds up to

100 km/h the mobile LiDAR System gives opportunity to increase productivity
whilst minimising exposure of staff to high risk environments such as highway
corridors or the railway.

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

6. What information do I need to provide to obtain

a quotation?
When procuring mobile LiDAR works the following information should be provided:

Purpose of the survey

Expected accuracy of the deliverable products

Information on the survey environment & specific requirements, such as

surveying at specific times i.e. if vegetation penetration is required

A plan with the survey route or area outlined

Specification including any special requests

Deliverable data format

Access and security arrangements (if necessary for a ground truthing survey
or Traffic Management Scheme)
Reference section 3.1 for deliverables that you might expect.

7.

Return of information

A company practiced in mobile LiDAR surveys can turn around a quotation quickly and
as a client you should insist on the following details in your quotation, as a minimum:

A start time for the survey work to commence

A delivery time of the survey data

The survey Companys terms and conditions; so you understand the procedures
the company uses during the course of the project
A provision in the fee for a weekly (or daily) progress report; so you can allow
for any changes in the program and effectively plan resources accordingly.
Additional information such as method statements and risk assessments can be
requested and should be supplied if required.
Contact the UK Survey Association phone 01636 642840 or visit the TSA website
www.tsa-uk.org.uk to locate an established mobile LiDAR survey firm.

8. Summary
Mobile LiDAR systems offer an alternative to traditional survey techniques. It provides
high speed data capture solution of complex surfaces and often inaccessible
environments. It is a very effective and time-saving system that can be used on highways
without requiring traffic management or lane closures.
There are many possible outputs available from point-clouds from basic measurements
through to ortho-images, derived 2D/3D drawings, meshing/surfacing or solid
modelling.
However, it is important to approach this survey in an informed way. This leaflet provides
a basic guide to terminology and an overview.

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

The Survey Association

Formed in 1979 as The UK Land and Hydrographic Association, TSA is now established
as the representative organisation for UK private surveying firms. The Associations
aims are:

> To provide a vehicle for members to act effectively together on agreed
courses of action

> To promote the interests of the profession to all those who determine
the economic and social conditions in which the industry operates

>

To identify and represent the views of the industry.

Using a TSA member

By using a TSA member you can be assured that your project will get off to the best
possible start. Whatever the size of project, you can be certain that TSA member
companies are expert in the provision and management of spatially related data on
which to base your concept, design and construction.
Professional attention from a TSA surveyor will reduce risk, repetition, possibly save
you money and will ensure that your project receives the best possible attention.

TSA Contact Details

If you would like any more information about the TSA or its members or about other
Information leaflets then please contact Rachel Tyrrell at:
The Survey Association
Northgate Business Centre, 38 Northgate,
Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire NG24 1EZ
Tel: 01636 642 840
Email: office@tsa-uk.org.uk
Website: www.tsa-uk.org.uk

TSA Disclaimer
Whilst The Survey Association (TSA) makes every attempt to ensure the accuracy and
reliability of the information contained in this publication, this information should not be
relied upon as a substitute for formal advice from the originating bodies or services of
TSA members. You should not assume that this publication is error-free or that it will be
suitable for the particular purpose which you have in mind when using it. TSA assumes
no responsibility for errors or omissions in this publication or other documents which are
referenced by or linked to this publication.
In no event shall TSA and its employees and agents be liable for any special, incidental,
indirect or consequential damages of any kind, or any damages whatsoever, including,
without limitation, those resulting from loss of use, data or profits, whether or not
advised of the possibility of damage, and on any liability, arising out of or in connection
with the use or performance of this publication or other documents which are
referenced by or linked to this publication.

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA

Glossary of Terms
TERM

EXPLANATION

DSM A Digital Surface Model represents the earths surface and

includes all objects on it such as buildings, vegetation, etc
DTM A Digital Terrain Model is a digital representation of ground
surface topography or terrain. It represents the bare ground
surface without any objects like plants and buildings
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
INS

Inertial Navigational System - combines information from GNSS

receivers and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) to generate
highly accurate positional and orientation estimates for the
trajectory of the system

LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging is an optical remote sensing

technology that can measure the distance to, or other properties
of target by illuminating the target with light, often using pulses
from a laser
Point Cloud A point cloud is a set of vertices in a three-dimensional
coordinate system. These vertices are usually defined by
X, Y, and Z coordinates, and typically are intended to be
representative of the external surface of an object

Document Revision History

Issue 1
Issue 2
Issue 3

10

March 2012
January 2015
May 2015

Original document
Accuracy/pricing related edits
TSA disclaimer added

CLIENT GUIDE TO MOBILE LIDAR SURVEYS

ISSUE 3 MAY 2015 TSA