Advanced Computer Networks

DR IMRAN SHAFI

SEQUENCE
REVIEW
PHYSICAL LAYER COVERED

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

ADDRESSING
TCP/IP VERSIONS
SWITCHED WANs

Physical layer
Handles the transmission of bits over a
communication channel from one hop to
the next
Includes voltage levels, connectors, media
choice, modulation techniques
Also defines the procedures and functions
that physical devices and interfaces have
to perform for transmission to occur
3

Physical layer (cont..)

The phy layer is concerned with

Physical char of interfaces and media

Representation of bits
Data rate
Synchronization of bits
Line configuration
Physical topology

Mesh topology
Star topology
Ring topology
Bus topology

Transmission mode
Simplex
Half-duplex
Full-duplex
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Figure 2-4

Physical Layer

Data link Layer

Responsible for taking the data and
transforming it into a frame with header,
control and address information, and error
detection code
Transforms the phy layer, a raw tx facility,
to a reliable link

Data link Layer

The responsibilities include
Framing
Convert stream of bits received from
network layer to manageable data units
called frames

Physical addressing
Adds a header to the frame to define
the sender and/or receiver of the frameon
same network
Receiver address is of the connecting device of
next network on different networks
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Data link Layer

Other responsibilities include
Flow control
Imposes a flow con mech to prevent
overwhelming the receiver for diff data rates

Error control
Adds reliability to the phy layer by adding
mech to detect and retx damaged/lost frames
Also recognize duplicate frames
Gen achieved by adding a trailer

Access control
8

Which device has con on link at any time

Data Link Layer

Node-to-node delivery

10

Network Layer
Responsible for source2destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks, whereas Data link layer
deliver b/w 2 systems on same network

Not needed if systems connected to same link

Other responsibilities include
Logical addressing
Physical addressing by data link layer handles address problem
locally. NL adds logical addressing of sender & receiver

Routing
For independant networks, the connecting devices route or switch
packets to final destination
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Network Layer

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End-to-end delivery

13

Transport Layer
Provides an end-to-end error-free network
connection
Makes sure data arrives at destination exactly as it
left the source
Responsible for process-to-process delivery in
contrast to network layer responsible for source-todestination delivery
NL treats each packet independently, as though
each piece belonged to separate message,
whereas TL ensures whole message arrives intact
& in order overseeing both error & flow control at
source-to-destination level
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Transport Layer
Other responsibilities include
Service point addressing (port address)
To ensure delivery to correct process (running
program) as host to host delivery is made by NL

Segmentation & reassembly

Message divided into transmittable segments, each
containing sequence no. which enable TL to
reassemble correctly & to identify and replace lost
packets
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Transport Layer cont..

Connection control
Transport Layer is either connectionless
or connection-oriented
Connectionless

Towards Enhancing Reliability in Hybrid Mobile Ad-Hoc Network

Treats each segment as independent packet and

deliver to Transport Layer at destination

Connection-oriented
First establish connection with Transport Layer at
destination before delivering packet
On completion of data delivery, connection is
terminated
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Transport Layer cont..

Flow control
End-to-end flow con rather than across a
single link like Data Link Layer

Error control
Process-to-process rather than across a
single link like Data Link Layer
Message is received without error
(damage, loss or duplication) achieved by
re-Transmission
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Transport Layer

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Reliable end-to-end delivery of a message

19

The Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) Model (continued)
Application layer
Where the application using the network
resides
Common network applications include web
browsing, e-mail, file transfers, and remote
logins

Presentation layer
Performs a series of miscellaneous functions
necessary for presenting the data package
properly to the sender or receiver
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10

The Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) Model (continued)
Session layer
Responsible for establishing sessions between users

Transport layer
Provides an end-to-end error-free network connection
Makes sure data arrives at destination exactly as it left
the source

Network layer
Responsible for creating, maintaining and ending
network connections
Transfers data packet from node to node within network
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The Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) Model (continued)
Data link layer
Responsible for taking the data and
transforming it into a frame with header,
control and address information, and error
detection code

Physical layer
Handles the transmission of bits over a
communications channel
Includes voltage levels, connectors, media
choice, modulation techniques
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The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

Model (continued)

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Network worker perform their job duties at each layer in the model

Summary of layers

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12

TCP/IP
PROTOCOL
SUITE

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Dev prior to the OSI model
Therefore layers do not match
First four layers correspond to first four layers of
OSI model
Provide physical stds, network interface,
internetworking and transport functions

Three topmost layers of OSI are rep by a single

layer in TCP/IP

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13

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite compared to the layers of the OSI model
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TCP/IP and OSI model

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No spec protocol, sp all std/propriety protocols, can be LAN or WAN

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Internetworking Protocol (IP)

Transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP
Unreliable and connectionless
Best effort delivery service
No error checking or tracking

Transport data in packets called datagrams

Separate transmission and on different routes
Can arrive out of sequence or duplicated

IP does not keep track of routes, cant reorder

datagrams
Limited functionality
Shall Not be considered a weakness as
It provides bare-bones transmission functionality and
Free the user to add missing facilities for a given application
and

Thus get max efficiency

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Address resolution protocol (ARP)

Used to associate an IP address with the
physical address
Each device on network (e.g. LAN) is
identify by a physical or station address
Usually imprinted on NIC

ARP is used to find the physical address

of node when its Internet address is
known
CHAPTER 6
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Reverse ARP
Allows a host to recover its Internet
address when it knows its physical
address
Used once a computer connects to
network first time or boots
CHAPTER 7

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Internet control msg protocol (ICMP)

A mechanism used by hosts & gateways
to send notification of datagram problem
back to sender
Sends query and error reporting
messages
CHAPTER 9

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Internet Gp msg protocol (IGMP)

Facilitate the simultaneous transmission of
message to a group of recipients
CHAPTER 10

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ADDRESSING
revisit
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17

Addresses in TCP/IP

35

Relationship
of
layers
and
addresses
in TCP/IP

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Physical Address
Also known as link address, is the address of
node as defined by its LAN or WAN
Included in the frame used by DLL
Lowest level address
The size & format vary depend on the network
Ethernet uses 6-byte (48 bits) physical address
that is imprinted
LocalTalk (Apple) uses 1-byte dynamic address
that changes for each reboot

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Physical

Addresses
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Some networks support all three types e.g

ethernet

burned-in address, Ethernet hardware

address (EHA), hardware address or
physical address, MAC addresses

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Example 1

Figure shows an example of physical

addresses.

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Physical addresses

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Example 2

Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6

bytes) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits, with every 2 bytes
separated by a hyphen as shown below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address

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Logical Address
Necessary for universal comm services
That are indep of underlying phy networks

Physical addresses not adequate in an

internetworking environment
Where different networks have different
address format
A universal addressing system where each
host be identified uniquely, regardless of
underlying physical network, is needed
Logical address are designed for this

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Currently a 32-bit address to uniquely

define a host connected to Internet

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Example 3

Figure shows an example of Internet

addresses.

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IP addresses

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Example 4

As we will see in future, an Internet address

(in IPv4) is 32 bits in length, normally
written as four decimal numbers, with each
number representing 1 byte. The numbers
are separated by a dot. Below is an example
of such an address.

132.24.75.9
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Port Address
First two addresses are necessary for qty of
data to travel from source to destination host
Not sufficient as computers run multiple processes
at same time

End objective of Internet communication is a

process communication
computer A communicates with computer B using
TELNET & with computer C using FTP
We need to label processes

In TCP/IP, label is called port address

16 bits long
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Example 5

Figure shows an example of transport layer

communication.

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Port addresses

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Example 6

As we will see in future, a port address is a

16-bit address represented by one decimal
number as shown below.

753

A 16-bit port address

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The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

(continued)
Application layer
Equivalent to OSIs application and presentation and
session layers

Transport layer
Equivalent to OSIs transport layer

Network (Internet or internetwork) layer

Equivalent to OSIs network layer

Network access (data link/physical) layer

Equivalent to OSIs data link and physical layers
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Network Connections in Action

The numerous network connections involved with a user downloading a web page at work
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The TCP/IP Protocol Suite in

Action
Note the flow of data from user to Web
browser and back
At each layer, information is either added
or removed, depending on whether the
data is leaving or arriving at a workstation
The adding of information over preexisting information is termed
encapsulation
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The TCP/IP Protocol Suite in Action

(continued)

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Path of a web page request as it flows from browser

to internet server and back bureaucracy

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TCP/IP
VERSIONS

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Versions:
Version 4 (current)
Version 5
Version 6 (future)
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Summary
Many services and products that we use every
day employ computer networks and data
communications in some way
Field of data communications and computer
networks includes data networks, voice
networks, wireless networks, local area
networks, metropolitan area networks, wide
area networks, and personal area networks

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Summary (continued)
Application areas can be understood in terms of
general network connections:

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Terminal/microcomputer-to-mainframe computer
Microcomputer-to-local area network
Microcomputer-to-Internet
Local area network-to-local area network
Personal area network-to-workstation
Local area network-to-metropolitan area network
Local area network-to-wide area network
Wide area network-to-wide area network
Sensor-to-local area network
Satellite and microwave
Wireless telephone

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Summary (continued)
A network architecture, or communications
model, places network pieces in layers
Layers define model for functions or services that
need to be performed

The International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) created the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
OSI model is based on seven layers: application
layer, presentation layer, session layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer, physical layer
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Summary (continued)
The TCP/IP protocol suite is also known
as the Internet model and is composed of
five layers:
Application layer
Transport layer
Network layer
Network access layer
DLL
Physical Layer
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TCP/IP and OSI model

61

No spec protocol, sp all std/propriety protocols, can be LAN or WAN

Underlying
Technologies
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MULTICASTING
multicast is the delivery of a message
or information to a group of destination
computers simultaneously in a single
transmission from the source creating
copies automatically in other network
elements, such as routers, only when the
topology of the network requires it.
IEEE 802.1D, IEEE MAC Bridges standard
STP multicast address 01:80:C2:00:00:00
BPDU, configuration, topologychange, ack
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Exchanged every 2 sec

Take quiz from STP, its states, purpose of

multicasting in physical address etc given
in the previous slide

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MULTICAST ADDRESS IN
ETHERNET
Ethernet frames with a value of 1 in
the least-significant bit of the first
octet of the destination address
(01-00-0C-CC-CC-CC )are treated
as multicast frames and are flooded
to all points on the network.

While frames with ones in all bits of

the destination address
(FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF) are sometimes
referred to as broadcast packets,

Difference between OSI &

TCP/IP (DLL) NO DIFFERENCE AT PHY
LAYER

The data link layer in

the OSI world makes
use of the Q.921 LapD
protocol
which must support an
information field length
of at least 512 octets
according to G.784.
LapD is based on HDLC
framing.

66

In the internet world

there is no real data link
layer protocol, but the
subnet protocol which
has quite many
similarities.
The subnet protocol
consists of the IMP-IMP
protocol which aims to
provide a reliable
connection between
neighbored IMPs.

For ethernet based networks e.g. LANs

(Local Area Network), the data link
protocol LLC (Logical Link Control) is
equally used in OSI and TCP/IP
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bitnetworks.
oriented synchronous data link layer protocol

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Difference between OSI &

TCP/IP (NL)
OSI uses the CLNS
(Connection Less
Network Service)
protocols
ES-IS for communication
of an end system to an
intermediate system and
IS-IS for communication
between intermediate
systems

TCP divides messages

in datagrams of up to
64k length
Each datagram consists
of a header and a text
part
IP routes these
datagrams through the
network using e.g.
the protocol OSPF (Open
Shortest Path First) or
RIP (Route Information
Protocol) for path
calculation purposes

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Difference between OSI &

TCP/IP (TL)

The OSI transport layer protocol (TP4) and the internet transport protocol
(TCP) have many similarities but also some remarkable differences

TP4 uses nine different

TPDU (Transport
Protocol Data Unit)
types
whereas the TP4
header takes at least 5
bytes
TP4 uses a different
flow control mechanism
for its messages,

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whereas TCP knows

only one
This makes TCP
simpler but every TCP
header has to have all
possible fields and
therefore the TCP
header is at least 20
bytes long

it also provides means

for quality of service
measurement.

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Internet Header Length (IHL)

The second field (4 bits) is the Internet
Header Length (IHL) telling the number of
32-bit words in the header.
Since an IPv4 header may contain a
variable number of options, this field
specifies the size of the
The minimum value for this field is 5

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which is a length of 532 = 160 bits = 20

bytes.
Being a 4-bit value, the maximum length is
15 words (1532 bits) or 480 bits = 60 bytes.

CONTENTS
LANS
POINT-TO-POINT WANS
SWITCHED WANS
CONNECTING DEVICES

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Series of backbones
Run by ISPs
Connecting devices
End users are either

Local ISP LAN

P2P networks to LAN

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Internet model
Conceptually, Internet is a set of switched
WANs (backbones (IBB)), LANs, P2P
WANs, and connecting or switching
devices
IBB are principal data routes between
large, strategically interconnected networks
and core routers in the Internet. Hosted by
commercial, government, academic and
other high-capacity network centers,
the Internet exchange points and network
access points, between the countries,
continents and across the oceans of the
world

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UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGIES
TCP/IP concerned with only
Network
Transport
Application layers
Although shown as 5 layer stack

It assumes existence of
WANs
LANs
Connecting devices
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LOCAL AREA
NETWORKS
(LANS)
Wired LANs
Wireless LANs
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Wired LANs: Ethernet

Most widely used LAN protocol
Data rate of 10 Mbps and bus topology
designed in 1973 by xerox
Today enhanced to 100 and 1000 Mbps
Formally defined by IEEE 802.3

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Traditional Ethernet
Access method (CSMA/CD)
Topology (bus)
One station talks all listen or receive
How to sense two are using same time
If yes, frame will collide
The solution is CSMA/CD

Every sta has an equal right to medium(multiple access)

Every sta first listens before sending (carrier sense)
Both senses and tx, collision occurs
Protocol forces sta to keep listening to the line, & on collision
Each sending sta send a jam signal to destroy data on line
Wait different amount of time and resend

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CSMA/CD

77

The time station needs to wait to be sure that there is no data on the
line is the min frame length divided by txn rate(time req to send out the min
frame length). This time is proportional to the time needed for the 1st bit
to travel the max network distance (collision domain)

Minimum frame length/Transmission rate

is proportional to
Collision domain / Propagation speed
Min frame length is 520 bits, tx rate is 10 Mbps,
propagation speed is 2/3 of speed of light
Collision domain comes out to be 2500 m
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Ethernet layers

Flow & error

con
CSMA/CD
Framing
Encoding
Detection & reporting
collisions

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Ethernet frame
Less than 1518 length field
Greater than 1536 (0x0600) defines
upper layer protocol in Ethernet v 2.0 by
DEC, Intel & xerox

461500 B

No acknowledgment making it unreliable

Each station has NIC with 6 B address in
hexadecimal notation
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
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For example, an EtherType value of 0x0800 signals that the

frame contains an IPv4 datagram. Likewise, an EtherType of
0x0806 indicates an ARP frame, 0x8100 indicates an IEEE
802.1Q frame and 0x86DD indicates an IPv6 frame.

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Ethernet implementation
(4 in toto)

Transceiver responsible
for encoding, collision
detection and
transceiving
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Ethernet implementation

83

Ethernet implementation

84

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Ethernet implementation

85

FAST ETHERNET
Need for higher data rate (100Mbps)
Principles are same as traditional ethernet
CSMA/CD in MAC layer
Data rate increased to 100 Mbps

Variable are

Data rate
Speed of light
Frame length time to propagate
Collision domain 2500 m traditional

Less time to leave sender, for FRAME

Sender has less time to hear collision
For CSMA/CD to work
86

Either increase min frame length

Or dec the collision domain

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FAST ETHERNET
Increasing frame length
Involves additional overhead
Extra bytes if data is short
Loss of efficiency

Collision domain has been reduced by a

factor of 10
With a star topology
250 m is acceptable in many cases

87

Fast Ethernet implementation

(Either 2 wire or 4 wire)

88

2 wire implementation is called 100BASE-X with

Either twisted pair cable (100BASE-TX)
Or fiber optic cable
(100BASE-FX)

44

Fast Ethernet implementation

89

Fast Ethernet implementation

The 4 wire implementation is only for twisted pair cable (100BASE-T4)

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GIGABIT ETHERNET
Need for even higher data rate (1000Mbps)
To achieve this data rate
Keeping CSMA/CD
Dropping CSMA/CD

For CSMA/CD to work

Either increase min frame length
Or dec the collision domain
25 m is unacceptable
Min frame length is increased

If CSMA/CD is dropped
Every sta is connected by 2 sep paths to
central hub
Full duplex Ethernet
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No collision
No need for CSMA/CD

Gigabit Ethernet implementation

(either 2 wire or 4 wire)

2 wire implementation is called 100BASE-X with

Either optical fiber tx short wave laser signal (1000BASE-SX)
Or
optical fiber tx long wave laser signal
(1000BASE-LX)
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Gigabit Ethernet implementation

The 4 wire implementation uses twisted pair cable (1000BASE-T)

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