Chapter 1:

Networking Fundamentals
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE (CCNA)
Agenda
Internetworking Basics
Network Devices Components
The TCP/IP and OSI Networking Models
Planning and Cabling Networks

2
Internetworking Basics

3
Network History
Just a few years ago, people communicated mostly on a local level (communication was
complicated and expensive)
◦ Used the telephone for most voice communication
◦ Postal service delivered most of the written messages
◦ Television broadcast one-way video communication
◦ Limited to exchanging character-based information between connected computer systems.

Current networks
◦ Evolved to carry voice, video streams, text, and graphics between many different types of devices.

4
Today’s Popular Communication Tools
Instant messaging (IM): real-time text communication between two or more users and it has
expanded to include voice, photo and video sharing, and file transfers
Blogs: also known as weblogs, are web pages where people can publish their personal opinions
and thoughts about any conceivable topic
Wiki: another example of publicly created web content. Individuals create blogs, but wiki web
pages are created and edited by groups of people sharing information
Etc

5
 Elements of a Network
Rules or agreements: Rules or agreements (protocols) govern how the messages are sent, directed,
received, and interpreted
Messages: The messages or units of information travel from one device to another
Medium: A medium is a means of interconnecting these devices, that is, a medium can transport the
messages from one device to another
Devices: Devices on the network exchange messages with each other

6
Network Devices Components

7
Network Devices & Components
Four major components
◦ Endpoint
◦ PCs, Servers, Printers, Smart Phones, etc.
◦ Interconnections
◦ NIC card, Media, Connectors.
◦ Switches
◦ Connects end points to the Local Area Network (LAN).
◦ Routers
◦ Connect multiple LANs to form Internetworks.
◦ Chooses best path between LAN and Wide Area Network (WAN)

8
Type of Network Media
Copper
◦ Example: Twisted-pair cable usually used as LAN media
◦ Encoding: Electrical pulses

Fiber-optic cable
◦ Example: Glass or plastic fibers in a vinyl coating usually used for long runs in a LAN and as a trunk
◦ Encoding: Light pulses

Wireless
◦ Example: Connects local users through the air
◦ Encoding: Electromagnetic waves

9
 Type of Switches
Three level of “heirarchy”
◦ Access Switch
◦ Distribution/Aggregation Switch
◦ Core Switch
You can find series of the switch from this
site:
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/
hw/switches/index.html

10
 Types of Routers
Three main categories
◦ Branch: Lower end for SOHO or remote office connections
◦ WAN/Enterprise Edge: Mid to High end for main office connections
◦ Service Provider: High end for large scale Internet routing
You can find series of the router from this site:
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/hw/routers/index.html

11
Interpreting Network Diagrams
Two types of network diagrams
◦ Physical diagrams
◦ Show how devices are physically connected together
◦ Typically includes physical port assignment
◦ Logical diagrams
◦ Show high level view of how data moves through the network
◦ Useful for troubleshooting layer 3 or above issues
◦ Typically includes:
◦ Ethernet VLAN information
◦ Layer 2 WAN addressing
◦ Layer 3 IP Addressing
◦ Routing protocol information

12
Logical Network Diagram Icons

13
 Different Types of “Topologies”
The physical topology: what the network looks like and how all the cables and devices are connected to
each other.
◦ Bus topology
◦ Ring topology
◦ Star topology
◦ full-mesh topology

The logical topology: The path our data signals take through the physical topology

14
Converged Networks

15
Design Choices in Ethernet
LAN & WAN
Terminology of LAN
◦ Collision Domains: referred to an Ethernet concept of all ports whose transmitted frames would cause a
collision with frames sent by other devices in the collision domain
◦ Hubs create one collision domain
◦ Bridges or Switch break up collision domains
◦ Routers break up collision domains and use logical addressing to filter the network
◦ Broadcast Domains: An Ethernet broadcast domain is the set of devices to which that broadcast is
delivered
◦ Hubs create one broadcast domain
◦ Bridge or Switch create one large broadcast domain
◦ Routers break up broadcast domains and use logical addressing to filter the network

16
Design Choices in Ethernet LAN &
WAN

17
Design Choices in Ethernet
LAN & WAN

18
 Design Choices in Ethernet
LAN & WAN
Quiz: In the following exhibit, identify the number of collision domains and broadcast domains in each
specified device

19
LANs, WANs, and Internetworks

20
 Scalable Network Architecture
A scalable network is able to grow
without undergoing fundamental
change at its core and the Internet is
an example of scalable design
The Internet has grown exponentially
in the past decade or so, and the core
design is unchanged
The Internet is a collection of many
private and public networks
interconnected by routers

21
The TCP/IP and OSI Networking Models

22
Protocol and Reference Models
• The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and process
involved in network communication process

• A protocol model provides a model that closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite
The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the functions that occur at each layer
of protocols within the TCP/IP suite
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the most widely known internetwork
reference model

23
TCP/IP Model

24
TCP/IP Communication Process
A complete communication process includes these steps:
◦ Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source
◦ Segmentation and encapsulation of data
◦ Generation of the data onto the media at the network access layer
◦ Transportation of the data through the internetwork
◦ Reception of the data at the network access layer of the destination
◦ Decapsulation and reassembly of the data
◦ Passing this data to the destination application

25
TCP/IP Encapsulation

26
OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, known as the OSI model, provides an abstract
description of the network communication process
Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to provide a road map for
nonproprietary protocol development
The OSI model is just a reference model, so manufacturers have been free to create protocols
and products that combine functions of one or more layers
The communication process begins at the application layer of the source, and data is passed
down to each lower layer to be encapsulated with supporting data until it reaches the physical
layer and is put out on the media

27
OSI Layering Concepts and Benefits
The following list summarizes the benefits of layered protocol specifications:
◦ Less complex
◦ Standard interfaces
◦ Easier to learn
◦ Easier to develop
◦ Multivendor interoperability
◦ Modular engineering

28
OSI and TCP/IP Models

29
Comparing OSI and TCP/IP

30
 OSI Reference Model Layer Definitions
Application: Performs services for the applications used by the end users.
Presentation: Provides data format information to the application.
Session: Manages sessions between users
Transport: Defines data segments and numbers them at the source, transfers the data, and reassembles
the data at the destination.
Network: Creates and addresses packets for end-to-end delivery.
Data Link: Creates and addresses frames for host-to-host delivery on the local LANs and between WAN
devices.
Physical: Transmits binary data over media between devices. Physical layer protocols define media
specifications.

31
OSI Reference Model—Example
Devices and Protocols

32
OSI Encapsulation Terminology
Like TCP/IP, each OSI layer asks for services from the next lower layer
To provide the services, each layer makes use of a header and possibly a trailer
OSI uses a more generic term: protocol data unit (PDU)
◦ A PDU represents the bits that include the headers and trailers for that layer, as well as the encapsulated
data

33
OSI Encapsulation Process

34
Application Layer Protocols
The most widely known TCP/IP application layer protocols are:
◦ Domain Name System (DNS): Used to resolve Internet names to IP addresses
◦ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Used to transfer files that make up the web pages of the World
Wide Web
◦ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for the transfer of mail messages and attachments
◦ Telnet: a terminal emulation protocol, is used to provide remote access to servers and networking
devices
◦ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for interactive file transfer between systems

35
Application Layer Protocols Port
TCP and UDP port numbers normally associated with these services. Some of these services are:
◦ Domain Name System (DNS): TCP/UDP port 53
◦ HTTP: TCP port 80
◦ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): TCP port 25
◦ Post Office Protocol (POP): UDP port 110
◦ Telnet: TCP port 23
◦ DHCP: UDP port 67
◦ FTP: TCP ports 20 and 21

36
User Applications, Services, and
Application Layer Protocols

37
 Application Layer Protocol Functions
Client/Server Model

38
 Application Layer Protocol Functions
Finding the Web Server Using DNS

39
 Application Layer Protocol Functions
Transferring Files with HTTP

40
 Application Layer Protocol Functions
Multiple Clients’ Service Requests

41
OSI Transport Layer
Provides transparent transfer of data between end users
Providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers
Controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and
error control
The two most common transport layer protocols of the TCP/IP protocol suite are:
◦ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
◦ User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

42
Purpose of the Transport Layer
Tracking the individual communications between applications on the source and destination
hosts
Segmenting data and managing each piece
Reassembling the segments into streams of application data
Identifying the different applications
Performing flow control between end users
Enabling error recovery
Initiating a session

43
Transport Layer Protocols

44
Transport Layer Protocols
Key Features of TCP and UDP

TCP UDP
Sequenced Unsequenced
Reliable Unreliable
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Virtual circuit Low overhead
Acknowledgments No acknowledgment
Windowing flow control No windowing or flow control

45
Transmission Control Protocol
Defined in RFC 793
Connection-oriented protocol
TCP provides error recovery (Consumes more bandwidth and uses more processing cycles)
Same-order delivery, reliable delivery, and flow control
Create a virtual circuit before transferring data
Example applications use TCP:
◦ Web browsers
◦ E-mail
◦ File transfers

46
 TCP Header Fields
TCP Header Fields

More Information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol

47
 TCP Port Addressing
The header of each segment or datagram contains a source and destination port
The source port number is the number for this communication associated with the originating application
on the local host
The destination port number is the number for this communication associated with the destination
application on the remote host.

48
 TCP Multiplexing
Multiplexing Using TCP Port Numbers

49
TCP Socket Connection
Connections Between Sockets

50
Popular TCP Application
Popular Applications and Their Well-Known Port Numbers
◦ FTP data: TCP port 20
◦ FTP control: TCP port 21
◦ SSH: TCP port 22
◦ Telnet: TCP port 23
◦ SMTP: TCP port 25
◦ DNS: TCP/UDP port 53
◦ DHCP: UDP port 67,68
◦ TFTP: UDP port 69
◦ HTTP (WWW): TCP port 80
◦ POP3: TCP port 110
◦ SNMP: TCP port 161
◦ SSL: TCP port 443

51
 TCP three-way Handshake
Three-way connection establishment flow (three-way handshake) must complete before data transfer
can begin
◦ ACK: Acknowledgment field significant
◦ SYN: Synchronize sequence numbers

52
 TCP Session Termination
To close a connection, the FIN control flag in the segment
header must be set. To end each one-way TCP session, a
two-way handshake is used, consisting of a FIN segment
and an ACK segment
◦ ACK: Acknowledgment field significant
◦ FIN: No more data from sender

53
 TCP Acknowledgment
One of TCP’s functions is to make sure that each segment reaches its destination
The TCP services on the destination host acknowledge the data that they have received to the source
application

54
 TCP Retransmission
TCP provides methods of managing these segment losses, including a mechanism to retransmit segments
with unacknowledged data
A destination host service using TCP usually only acknowledges data for contiguous sequence bytes
If one or more segments are missing, only the data in the segments that complete the stream is
acknowledged
◦ If segments with sequence numbers 1500 to 3000 and 3400 to 3500 were received
◦ The acknowledgment number would be 3001, because segments with the sequence numbers 3001 to 3399 have
not been received

55
 TCP Congestion Control: Minimizing
Segment Loss
Flow Control
◦ Adjusting the effective rate of data flow between the two services in the session
◦ When the source is informed that the specified amount of data in the segments is received, it can continue
sending more data for this session.
◦ The window size field in the TCP header specifies the amount of data that can be transmitted before an
acknowledgment must be received

Dynamic Window Sizes

◦ When network resources are constrained, TCP can reduce the window size to require that received segments be
acknowledged more frequently

56
 TCP Window Size
The initial window size for a TCP session represented is set to 3000 bytes
When the sender has transmitted 3000 bytes, it waits for an acknowledgment of these bytes before
transmitting more segments in this session
After the sender has received this acknowledgment from the receiver, the sender can transmit an
additional 3000 bytes.

57
 TCP Flow Control
If a receiving host has congestion, it can respond to the sending host with a segment with a reduced
window size
The receiver changed the window size field in the TCP header of the returning segments in this
conversation from 3000 to 1500
This caused the sender to reduce the window size to 1500

58
User Datagram Protocol
UDP is a simple, connectionless protocol, described in RFC 768.
A simple protocol that provides the basic transport layer functions
It has much lower overhead than TCP, because it is not connection oriented and does not
provide the sophisticated retransmission, sequencing, and flow control mechanisms
UDP is connectionless and provides no reliability, no windowing, no reordering of the received
data, and no segmentation of large chunks of data into the right size for transmission
Applications that use UDP include:
◦ Domain Name System (DNS)
◦ Video streaming
◦ Voice over IP (VoIP)

59
 UDP Header Fields

nformation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol

60
 UDP Datagram Reassembly
Because UDP is connectionless, sessions are not established before communication takes place as they
are with TCP
UDP has no way to reorder the datagrams into their transmission order

61
 UDP Client Process
Because UDP does not create a session, as soon as the data is ready to be sent and the ports are
identified, UDP can form the datagram and pass it to the network layer to be addressed and sent on the
network

62
 OSI Network Layer
The network layer describes four tasks to be performed:
◦ Encapsulation & Decapsulation
◦ Addressing packets with an IP address
◦ Routing
◦ Router devices working here

63
 OSI Network Layer
Encapsulation & Decapsulation
◦ Each PDU sent between networks needs to be identified with source and destination IP addresses in an IP header
◦ The IP header contains the address information and some other bits that identify the PDU as a network layer PDU
◦ An IP packet arrives at a router’s network interface encapsulated in a Layer 2 frame on the physical OSI layer. The
router’s network interface card (NIC) accepts the packet, removes the Layer 2 encapsulation data, and sends the
packet up to the network layer

64
OSI Network Layer
The following sections describe the protocols at the Network layer:
◦ Internet Protocol (IP)
◦ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
◦ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
◦ Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
◦ Proxy ARP

65
Internet Protocol (IP)
IP requires each sending and receiving device to have a unique IP address
Devices in IP networks that have IP addresses are called hosts
The IP address of the sending host is known as the source IP address
The IP address of the receiving host is known as the destination IP address
IPv4 uses 32-bit (four-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4294967296 (2 32)
addresses
IPv4 is described in IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981)
IPv4 is a connectionless protocol for use on packet-switched networks. It operates on a
best effort delivery model, in that it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper
sequencing or avoidance of duplicate delivery

66
IPv4 Header

Other Protocol Number

ICMP 1
IGRP 9
OSPF 89

More Information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4

67
IPv4 Address Format

68
IP Terminology
BIT: A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0
BYTE: A byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether parity is used
OCTET: An octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8-bit binary number
NETWORK ADDRESS: This is the designation used in routing to send packets to a remote
network. for example: 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, and 192.168.10.0
BROADCASR ADDRESS: The address used by applications and hosts to send information to all
nodes on a network is called the broadcast address. Example: 10.255.255.255, 172.16.255.255,
and 192.168.10.255

69
Biner to Decimal
Conversion Biner to Decimal

Biner Decimal
10000000 128
11000000 192
11100000 224
11110000 240
11111000 248
11111100 252
11111110 254
11111111 255

Binary 128 (27) 64 (26) 32 (25) 16 (24) 8 (23) 4 (22) 2 (21) 1 (20) Decimal

10000100 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 132
11010010 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 210

70
Biner to Hexadecimal
Hex Biner Decimal Hex Biner Decimal
0 0000 0 8 1000 8
1 0001 1 9 1001 9
2 0010 2 A 1010 10
3 0011 3 B 1011 11
4 0100 4 C 1100 12
5 0101 5 D 1101 13
6 0110 6 E 1110 14
7 0111 7 F 1111 15
Biner to Hexadecimal
Example Conversion: Decimal  Biner  Hexadecimal

172.16.30.56
10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
AC.10.1E.38

Example Conversion: Hexadecimal  Biner  Decimal

50:B7:C3:4E:F7:8A
01010000:10110111:11000011:01001110:11110111:10001010
80:183:195:78:247:138
IPv4 Address Classes

73
IPv4 Private Address
Defined in RFC 1918
Used within local networks only (behind routers and firewalls)
Using NAT (Network Address Translation) technology to route IPv4 Private Address to public
network.

74
Broadcast Address
Layer 2 broadcasts: These are sent to all nodes on a LAN
◦ Example: FF.FF.FF.FF.FF.FF

Broadcasts (layer 3): These are sent to all nodes on the network
◦ Example: 172.16.255.255

Unicast: These are sent to a single destination host

Multicast: These are packets sent from a single source and transmitted to many devices on
different networks
◦ Example: 224.0.0.9 (RIP Multicast), 224.0.0.5 (OSPF Multicast), 224.0.0.10 (EIGRP Multicast).

Anycast: methodology in which datagrams from a single sender are routed to the topologically
nearest node in a group of potential receivers

75
 Internet Control Message Protocol
It is used by the operating systems of networked computers to send error messages indicating
Ping uses an ICMP echo request datagram testing IP connectivity between hosts.
Traceroute using ICMP time-outs, Traceroute is used to discover the path a packet takes as it traverses an
internetwork

More Info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Control_Message_Protocol

76
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Defined in RFC 826
An Internet protocol used to map an IP address to a MAC address.
When IP has a datagram to send, it must inform a Network Access protocol, such as Ethernet or Token Ring, of the
destination’s hardware address on the local network
ARP table: A list of IP addresses of neighbors on the same VLAN, along with their MAC addresses, as kept in memory by
hosts and routers

More Info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_Resolution_Protocol

77
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP)
RARP resolves Ethernet (MAC) addresses to IP addresses
When an IP machine happens to be a diskless machine, it has no way of initially knowing its IP address
Discovers the identity of the IP address for diskless machines by sending out a packet that includes its
MAC address and a request for the IP address assigned to that MAC address

More Info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RARP

78
 IP Routing
Hosts actually use some simple routing logic when choosing where to send a packet
If the destination IP address is in the same IP subnet, it send the packet directly to that destination host
Otherwise, send the packet to default gateway, also known as a default router. (This router has an
interface on the same subnet as the host.)

79
 Data Link Layer
Provides a means for exchanging data over a common local media
Provides the physical transmission of the data and handles error notification, network topology, and flow control
Ensure that messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN using hardware addresses and will translate
messages from the Network layer
The Data Link layer formats the message into pieces, each called a data frame, and adds a customized header
containing the hardware destination and source address
Bridge and Switch devices working here

More Info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_link_layer

80
 Data Link Layer Sub-Layer
Logical Link Control (LLC) places information in the frame that identifies which network layer protocol is
being used for the frame. This information allows multiple Layer 3 protocols, such as IPv4, IPv6, and IPX,
to utilize the same network interface and media.
MAC provides data link layer addressing and delimiting of data according to the physical signaling
requirements of the medium and the type of data link layer protocol in use.

81
 Ethernet Addressing
Also called Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, are 6-byte-long (48-bit-long) binary numbers
Most computers list MAC addresses as 12-digit hexadecimal numbers
Most MAC addresses represent a single NIC or other Ethernet port, so these addresses are often called a
unicast Ethernet address

82
 Data Link Layer Frames
Sample Data Link Layer Frames:
◦ Ethernet
◦ PPP
◦ High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
◦ Frame Relay
◦ ATM

83
 Ethernet Protocol
Ethernet is a family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards
Ethernet standards define both the Layer 2 protocols and the Layer 1 technologies
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and supports data bandwidths of 10, 100, 1000, or
10,000 Mbps
Ethernet provides unacknowledged connectionless service over a shared media using CSMA/CD as the
media access method

84
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/collision
detect (CSMA/CD)
A protocol that helps devices share the bandwidth evenly without having two devices transmit
at the same time on the network medium
When a host wants to transmit over the network, it first checks for the presence of a digital
signal on the wire
◦ If all is clear (no other host is transmitting), the host will then proceed with its transmission

When a collision occurs on an Ethernet LAN

◦ A jam signal informs all devices that a collision occurred
◦ The collision invokes a random backoff algorithm
◦ Each device on the Ethernet segment stops transmitting for a short time until the timers expire
◦ All hosts have equal priority to transmit after the timers have expired

85
 Physical layer
These standards deal with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium, including
connectors, pins, use of pins, electrical currents, encoding, light modulation, and the rules for
how to activate and deactivate the use of the physical medium.
Example Devices:
◦ LAN Hub
◦ LAN Repeater
◦ Cables

Example Protocols:
◦ RJ-45
◦ Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

More Info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layer

86
Duplex Communication System
A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of two connected parties
or devices that can communicate with one another in both directions, simultaneously. An
example of a duplex device is a telephone
◦ Half-duplex: A half-duplex (HDX) system provides communication in both directions, but only one
direction at a time (not simultaneously).
◦ Full-duplex: A full-duplex (FDX), or sometimes double-duplex system, allows communication in both
directions, and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously.

87
 Half Dulpex & Full Duplex
Half Dulplex (CSMA/CD)
◦ Unidirectional data flow
◦ Higher potential for collision
◦ Hub connectivity
◦ One wire pair
◦ Shared collision domain
◦ Lower Effective Throughput

Full Duplex
◦ Point-to-point only
◦ Attached to dedicated switched port
◦ Required full-duplex support on both ends
◦ Collision free
◦ Collision detect circuit disabled
◦ Two wire pair
88
 Types of Physical Media
Copper
Fiber
Wireless
Media Maximum Segment Length
10BASE-T EIA/TIA Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP, four-pair 100 m (328 feet)
100BASE-TX EIA/TIA Category 5 UTP, two-pair 100 m (328 feet)
100BASE-FX 5.0/62.5-micron multimode fiber 2 km (6562 feet)
100BASE-CX STP 25 m (82 feet)
10GBASE-ZR Single-mode fiber Up to 80 km

89
Planning and Cabling Networks

90
Physical Ethernet Networks with UTP
Straight-Through Cable is used to connect:
◦ Host to switch or hub
◦ Router to switch or hub

Crossover Cable can be used to connect:

◦ Switch to switch
◦ Hub to hub
◦ Host to host
◦ Hub to switch
◦ Router direct to host

Rolled cable is used to connect:

◦ A host to a router console serial communication (com) port

91
Physical Ethernet Networks with UTP

92
Physical Ethernet Networks with UTP

93
 Physical Ethernet Networks with UTP
Network with Straight-Through and Crossover Cables

94
 Physical Ethernet Networks with Serial
Cable
DCE (Data Communications Equipment): A device that supplies the clocking services to another device.
Typically, this device is at the WAN access provider end of the link
DTE (Data terminal equipment): A device that receives clocking services from another device and adjusts
accordingly. Typically, this device is at the WAN customer or user end of the link

95
 Physical Ethernet Networks with Serial
Cable
Serial DCE and DTE WAN Connections

Setting Up WAN Connections in the Lab

96
 The Cisco Three-Layer
Hierarchical Model
The core layer is responsible for transporting large amounts of traffic both reliably and quickly
The distribution layer is sometimes referred to as the workgroup layer and is the communication point
between the access layer and the core
The access layer controls user and workgroup access to internetwork resources.

97
Data rate units Terminology
Data rate units Terminology

Unit Bit/Second Byte/Second

1 Kbps 1.000 125
1 Mbps 1.000.000 125,000,000
1 Gbps 1,000,000,000 125,000,000,000
1 Tbps 1,000,000,000,000 125,000,000,000,000
◦ Bandwidth: the maximum amount of data that can pass from one point to another in a unit of time
◦ Throughput: the average rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel

98
Campus Design Terminology
Campus LAN with Design Terminology Listed

99