• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different

layers) used in the Internet today.

• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of
which provides a specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is
supported by the services provided by one or more lower level
protocols.
Application Layer
• Supporting network applications
• Generates messages
• Encryption/decryption, translation
• Session maintenance
• Protocols:
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web (WWW).
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in electronic mail (e-mail) service.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host to another.
• The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing a site remotely.
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administrator to manage the Internet at
global and local levels.
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find the network-layer address of a
computer.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to collect membership in a group.

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Transport Layer
• Process-to-process communication: / End to End Delivery
• Socket/port addressing,
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Flow control - matching the sending data rate of the source host with the receiving data rate
of the destination host
• Error control - to guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination without error and
resending the corrupted ones
• Congestion control - to reduce the loss of segments due to congestion in the network
• Protocols:
TCP - > Transmission Control Protocol : Creates a logical connection, provides flow, error, congestion control
UDP -> User Datagram Protocol : Connectionless transmission. It doesnot provide flow, error, congestion
control
SCTP-> Stream Control Transmission Protocol: used for multimedia transmission.

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Network Layer
• Source-to-destination delivery: / Host to host Delivery
• IP addressing,
• Routing & Forwarding
• Packet/Datagram Creation
• Protocols
• Internet Protocol – used to create datagram
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol : to report some problems when routing a
packet.
• Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) - helps IP in multitasking.
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - helps IP to get the network-layer address
for a host.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) - helps IP to find the link-layer address of a host

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Data Link Layer
• Hop-to-hop delivery:
• Physical addressing,
• Framing,
• Medium access control (MAC),
• Error control,
• Flow control

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Physical Layer
• to move data in the form of electromagnetic signals across a
transmission medium.
• Encoding/ decoding

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Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Multiplexing means that a
protocol at a layer can
encapsulate a packet from
several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time);
• demultiplexing means that a
protocol can decapsulate and
deliver a packet to several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a
time).
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.12
OSI Model
 OSI Reference Model
• OSI Reference Model - internationally standardised
network architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open
systems, i.e. systems open for communications with
other systems.
• Specified in ISO 7498.
• Model has 7 layers.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to
facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying
hardware and software
Lack of OSI Model’s Success
• OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time
and money had been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
• some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined with actual
protocols
• it did not show a high enough level of performance to entice the
Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI
model.
 7-Layer OSI Model
Layer 7 Application Layer • Layers 1-4 relate to
communications technology.
Layer 6 Presentation Layer
• Layers 5-7 relate to user
Layer 5 Session Layer applications.
Layer 4 Transport Layer

Layer 3 Network Layer

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

Communications subnet boundary

 Layer 7: Application Layer
• Level at which applications access network services.
• Represents services that directly support software
applications for file transfers, database access, and
electronic mail etc.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• Related to representation of transmitted data
• Translates different data representations from the Application layer into
uniform standard format
• The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its
sender-dependent format into a common format.
• The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common
format into its receiver-dependent format.

• Providing services for secure efficient data transmission

• e.g. data encryption - to ensure privacy
• data compression - to reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
 Layer 5: Session Layer
• Allows two applications on different computers to
establish, use, and end a session.
• e.g. file transfer, remote login
• Establishes dialog control
• Regulates which side transmits, plus when and how long it
transmits.
• Performs token management and synchronization.
• To allows a process to add checkpoints, synchronization points, to a
stream of data.
• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to
insert checkpoints after ever 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit
is received and acknowledged independently
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• Service point addressing / Port Addressing
• Manages transmission packets - Segmentation
• Repackages long messages when necessary into small
packets for transmission
• Reassembles packets in correct order to get the original
message.
• Handles error recognition and recovery.
• Transport layer at receiving acknowledges packet delivery.
• Resends missing packets
• Connection, Flow, Error Control
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• Manages addressing/routing of data within the subnet
• Logical addressing
• Determines the route from the source to the destination
computer
• Manages traffic problems, such as switching, routing, and
controlling the congestion of data packets.
• Routing can be:
• Based on static tables
• determined at start of each session
• Individually determined for each packet, reflecting the
current network load.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
· Packages raw bits from the Physical layer into frames
(logical, structured packets for data).
· Physical addressing
· Flow, Error, Access Control
· Provides reliable transmission of frames
· It waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving
computer.
· Retransmits frames for which acknowledgement not
received
 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Transmits bits from one computer to another
• Regulates the transmission of a stream of bits over a
physical medium.
• Defines how the cable is attached to the network
adapter and what transmission technique is used to
send data over the cable. Deals with issues like
• The definition of 0 and 1, e.g. how many volts represents a
1, and how long a bit lasts?
• Whether the channel is simplex or duplex? Topology, Line
configuration
• How many pins a connector has, and what the function of
each pin is?
 Services in the OSI Model
• In OSI model, each layer provide services to layer
above, and ‘consumes’ services provided by layer
below.
• Active elements in a layer called entities.
• Entities in same layer in different machines called peer
entities.
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.26
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.27
Application layer
• SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• It helps to send email to another email address.
• FTP – File Transfer Protocol
• It is used for sending large files.
• HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
• Used to transfer the web pages.
• TFTP – Trivial File Transfer Protocol
• It is used for sending/receiving files similar to FTP but simpler than it
• DNS – Domain Name System
• It translates the website name to IP addresses.
• TELNET – Terminal Network
• Bi-directional text communication via a terminal application.
• SNTP – Simple Network Time Protocol
• It provides the time of a day to the network devices.

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Transport Layer
• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
• Connection-oriented, reliable protocol
• UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• Connection-less, un-reliable protocol
• SCTP – Stream Control Transport Protocol
• Connection-oriented, reliable, multi-stream communication protocol

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Network Layer
• IPv4 – Internet Protocol version 4
• 32 bits addressing
• IPv6 – Internet Protocol version 4
• 128 bits addressing
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
• Supporting protocol at network layer mainly for error/status reporting
• DHCP – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
• To dynamically assign IP addresses to devices
• IGMP – Internet Group Message Protocol
• To support in multicast message transmission
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
• To resolve the MAC address for the given IP address
• RARP – Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
• To resolve the MAC address for the given IP address

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Data Link layer, Physical layer
• Ethernet
• A very popular wired LAN technology
• FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface
• for information transmission on fiber-optic lines in Local Area Network
• HDLC – High-level Data Link Control
• A bit oriented protocol for data link layer
• PPP – Point-to-Point Protocol
• A byte oriented protocol for data link layer

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