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CHAPTER THREE

Communications network
architecture

Alebachew D..
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outline
• Network line configuration
• Network architectures
• Protocol Layering
• Connection-oriented and connectionless
services
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Network line configuration

• Line configuration refers to the way two or more
communication devices attached to a link.
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected
in some way to the same link at the same time.
• There are two possible line configurations
• Point-to-Point Connection
• Multipoint Connection
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Point-to-Point Connection
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
• Provide dedicated link between two devices use actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two end
including microwave & satellite link.
• This topology is considered to be one of the easiest
and most conventional network topologies.
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Cont…
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Multipoint Connection
In this connection two or more devices share a single link.
• More than two devices share the link that is the capacity
of the channel is shared now.
• With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a
Multipoint Line configuration:
• Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link
simultaneously, its called Spatially shared line
configuration.
• Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns
using the link , then its called Temporally shared or
Time Shared Line configuration.
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Cont…
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Network architectures
An Overview of the OSI and TCP/IP Model
• The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection
Model) is a conceptual framework used to describe
the functions of a networking system.
• It is a reference tool for understanding data
communications between any two networked systems.
• It divides the communications processes into seven
layers.
• Each layer both performs specific functions to support
the layers above it and offers services to the layers
below it.
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Principles of layered architectures

• The basic principle of Layered Architectures is layer
independence
• A layer hides implementation details from other layers
• Adjacent layers communicate (interact) through an
interface (service interface )
• A layer provides a service to the upper layer through a (service) interface
• A layer uses the service provided by the layer below to
perform its own functions, thus adding value to the service
it provides to the layer above.
• With layered architectures, communications between two
corresponding layers requires a unit of data called a
protocol data unit (PDU).
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Cont…
• As data passes from one layer into another, headers are
added and removed from the PDU. This process of
adding or removing PDU information is called
encapsulation/ decapsulation.
• A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol
per layer, is called protocol stack.
• Protocols, or rules, can do their work in either hardware
or software or, as with most protocol stacks, in a
combination of the two.
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Cont…
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Cont…
• the Application layer along with the header added at
layer 7 is given to layer 6, the Presentation layer.
• This layer adds its header and passed the whole
package to the layer below. This Process is called
Encapsulation.
• The corresponding layers at the receiving side removes
the corresponding header added at that layer and sends
the remaining data to the above layer. This process is
called decapsulation.
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Why layering?
• Reduces complexity (breaks one big problem to smaller

ones)

• Standardizes interfaces (between layers)

• Facilitates modular engineering (different teams work on

different modules)

• Assures interoperable technology

• Accelerates evolution of networking technology

• Simplifies teaching and learning

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The main benefits of the OSI model

• Helps users understand the big picture of networking
• Helps users understand how hardware and software
elements function together
• Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into
manageable pieces
• Defines terms that networking professionals can use to
compare basic functional relationships on different networks
• Helps users understand new technologies as they are
developed
• Aids in interpreting vendor explanations of product
functionality
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OSI [Open Systems Interconnection] Model

• Was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) in 1984.

• Approved as an international standard for communications architecture

• It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability between various

types of network technologies.

• Divides the problem of moving information between computers over a

network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable Layers

• Defines how each layer communicates and works with the layers
immediately above and below it
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Cont…
• This provides a logical, or virtual, communication between
peer layers
• The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and
physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the
flow of data from end to end through the network.
• The upper three layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are
orientated more toward services to the applications.
• Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is
broken down into packets.
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OSI PDU
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Description of Layers in the OSI Model

Layer 7: Application Layer
• the application layer, provides an interface for the end user operating a
device connected to a network
• Perform user activities
• Provide the services to the user
• Both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the
software application

• The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
• It provides network services to the user’s applications.
• Contains all the higher level protocols that are commonly needed by
users.
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Layer 7: Application Layer

• Protocols:
• HTTP, HTTPs: for web surfing
• FTP: for file transfer
• SMTP: for emails
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Examples of application layer functionality

include
• Support for file transfers
• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web
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Layer 6: Presentation Layer

• Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information

transmitted.
• Ensures that the information that the application layer of one system
sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
• If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data
formats by using a common format.
• Provides translation, encryption and compression of data.
• Protocol: SSL (secure socket layer)
• Examples :- JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, HTML.
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Examples of presentation layer functionality

include
• Encryption and decryption of a message for
security
• Compression and expansion of a message so
that it travels efficiently
• Graphics formatting
• Content translation
• System-specific translation
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Layer 5: Session Layer

• Controls the conversations between different computers
• Allows users on different machines to establish sessions between
them.
• The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations
(called sessions) between applications.
• This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional
messages using dialogue control.
• keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
• It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers
and manages their data exchange.
• preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation at the same time
• offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
• check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue
from where they were after a crash.
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Layer 5: Session Layer

• Performs:
• Authentication: Who u are? (Username and Password)
• Authorization: privileges

• Session management : data download form the server

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Layer 4: Transport Layer

• The main responsibility of the transport layer is process to process delivery of the entire
message.

• The Transport layer is responsible for segmentation and reassembly of the message into
segments which bear sequence numbers. This numbering enables the receiving
transport layer to rearrange the segments in proper order.

• Protocols:
• TCP (Transport control protocol)
• Connection-oriented protocol that first establishes a logical connection
• Have feedback( lost frames can be retransmitted)
• Example: www, FTP, e-mail
• UDP (User datagram protocol)
• Have no feedback . Example: video, audio
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Cont…
• At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the
session layer, divides it into units called segments and sends it
to the network layer.
• At the receiving side, the transport layer receives packets from
the network layer, converts and arranges into proper sequence
of segments and sends it to the session layer.
• To ensure process to process delivery the transport layer makes
use of port address to identify the data from the sending and
receiving process.
• It is a 16 bit address. Ex. TELNET uses port address 23,
HTTP uses port address 80.
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Layer 4: Transport Layer

 Services include:
 Connection-oriented = TCP
 Connectionless = UDP
 Provides
• Segmentation
• Port number & Sequence Number
• Flow Control (end to end rather than node to node)
• Error Control
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Some of the functions offered by the transport

layer include
• Application identification
• Client-side entity identification
• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact
• Segmentation of data for network transport
• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns
• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits
• Transmission-error detection
• Realignment of segmented data in the correct order on the
receiving side
• Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical
link
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Layer 3: Network Layer

• Controls the operation of the subnet
• Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
• Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the
packets can be delivered.
• The network layer is responsible for source to destination delivery
of data.
• In order to achieve this the network layer relies on two things:
a. Logical Addressing The network layer uses logical address
commonly known as IP address to recognize devices on the
network.
b. Routing The network layer divides data into units called equal
size packets.
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Layer 3: Network Layer

Functions of Network Layer
• Logical Addressing
• Routing
• Path determination
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Layer 3: Network Layer

• Routing
• Is a method of moving a data packet form source to destination
• Based on logical address format of IPV4 or IPV6
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Layer 3: Network Layer

• Path Determination
• Best possible path for data delivery from source to destination
• Protocols used are:
• OSPF: open shortest path first
• BGP: border gateway protocol
• IS-IS: intermediate system to intermediate system
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Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Its used for error free transfer of data frames
• Done, by the sender break up the input data into data frames (few
thousand bytes) and transmits the frames sequentially

• If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each

frame by sending back an acknowledgement frame.

• Provides access to the networking media and physical transmission

across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended
destination on a network.
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Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.

• The main responsibility of the data link layer is hop to hop

transmission of frames.

• Concerned with access control, error control , and flow control.

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Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Performs two functions
• Access the media: by using a framing technique
• Media Access control and Error Detection
• Controls how data is placed and received from the media
• Data link layer has two sub-layers:
• Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and
error control
• Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media
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Common networking components that function

at layer 2 include
• Network interface cards
• Ethernet and Token Ring
• switches
• Bridges
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Layer 1: Physical Layer

 Concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel

 The layer that actually interacts with the transmission media.

 The physical part of the network that connects network components

together.

 It provides a standardized interface to physical transmission media, including :

a. Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables, for example
maximum cable length

b. Electrical specification of transmission line

c. Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery

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Cont…
• On the sender side, the physical layer receives the data from
Data Link Layer and encodes it into signals to be transmitted
onto the medium.
• On the receiver side, the physical layer receives the signals
from the transmission medium decodes it back into data and
sends it to the Data Link Layer.
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Components of the physical layer include:

• • Cabling system components
• • Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• • Connector design and pin assignments
• • Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• • Wireless system components
• • Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
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summary
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TCP/IP
• Used in the grandparent of all wide area computer
networks, the ARPANET and its successor, the worldwide
Internet
• Developed by Department of Defense (DoD) to ensure
and preserve data integrity as well as maintain
communication in the even of catastrophic war.
• It’s a network model used in current internet architecture

• Used to connect remote machines

• A model designed to standardize computer networking

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TCP/IP Protocol Stack

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Application Layer

• Responsible for process to process communication

• Some of the protocols used in Application Layer

• Telnet - allows a user on a remote client machine, called the Telnet

client, to access the resources of another machine, the Telnet server.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - is the protocol used to transfer

files, and it can accomplish this between any two machines using it.

• Network File System (NFS) - a protocol specializing in file

sharing allowing two different types of file systems to interoperate.

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Application Layer
• Some of the protocols used in Application Layer
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - uses a spooled, or queued,
method of mail delivery.
• POP3 is used to receive mail.
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) - collects and
manipulates valuable network information.
• This protocol stands as a watchdog over the network, quickly notifying
managers of any sudden turn of events.
• Domain Name Service (DNS) – resolves hostnames—specifically,
Internet names, such as www.ethioitaly.edu.et to the IP address 10.6.10.3
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - gives IP addresses to
hosts.
• It allows easier administration and works well in small-to-even-very
large network environments.
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Transport Layer
• End to end delivery of segments (user datagram)
• Some of the protocols used in Transport Layer
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - takes large blocks of
information from an application and breaks them into segments.
• It numbers and sequences each segment so that the destination’s TCP
protocol can put the segments back into the order the application
intended.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) - does not sequence the segments and
does not care in which order the segments arrive at the destination.
• But after that, UDP sends the segments off and forgets about them. It
doesn’t follow through, check up on them, or even allow for an
acknowledgment of safe arrival — complete abandonment.
• TCP for reliability and UDP for faster transfers.
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Network Layer
• Responsible for creating a connection between the source computer and

destination computer.

• The communication is host to host

• Responsible for choosing the best route for each packet

• Protocols are:

• IP
• Internet Protocol (IP) essentially is the Internet layer.
• The other protocols found here merely exist to support it.
• It can do this because all the machines on the network have a software,
or logical address called an IP address.
• ICMP
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Network Layer
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol )

• works at the Network layer and is used by IP for many different

services.
• ICMP is a management protocol and messaging service provider
for IP.
• The following are some common events and messages that
ICMP relates to:
• Destination Unreachable If a router can’t send an IP
datagram any further, it uses ICMP to send a message back
to the sender, advising it of the situation.
• Buffer Full If a router’s memory buffer for receiving
incoming datagrams is full, it will use ICMP to send out this
message until the congestion abates(stops).
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Network Layer
• Each IP datagram is allotted a certain number of routers, called

Hops, to pass through.

• If it reaches its limit of hops before arriving at its destination, the

last router to receive that datagram deletes it.

• The executioner router then uses ICMP to send a message,

informing the sending machine of the end of its datagram.

• Ping (Packet Internet Groper) uses ICMP echo messages to check

the physical and logical connectivity of machines on a network.

• Traceroute Using ICMP timeouts, Traceroute is used to discover

the path a packet takes as it traverses an internetwork.

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Data link Layer

• Responsible for taking datagrams and encapsulates it into a packet

called frame.

• Data link layer has two sub-layers:

• Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and

error control

• Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media

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Physical Layer
• Responsible for carrying individual bits

• The lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite

• Connected by transmission medium (cable, air)

• The transmission medium carries electrical or optical signals

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Network Access Layer

• A network access layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• It is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of
IP addresses into physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI,
X.25, frame relay.
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OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO (International Standard It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Organization). Agency Network).

It is an independent standard and generic protocol used It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
as a communication gateway between the network and development of an internet. It is a communication
the end user. protocol that provides the connection among the hosts.

In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a guarantee for The transport layer does not provide the surety for the delivery
the delivery of the packets. of packets. But still, we can say that it is a reliable model.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

It is also known as a reference model through which various It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP model is built
from the OSI model. It is also referred to as a guidance tool.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be easily In this model, the protocol cannot be easily replaced.
replaced when the technology changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, and interfaces as In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and interfaces are
well as provides a proper distinction between them. not properly separated.
It is protocol independent. It is protocol dependent.
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Connection-oriented and connectionless services

• Data communication is a telecommunication network to send and
receive data between two or more computers over the same or
different network.
• There are two ways to establish a connection before sending data
from one device to another, that are Connection-
Oriented and Connectionless Service.
• Connection-oriented service involves the creation and
termination of the connection for sending the data between two or
more devices.
• In contrast, connectionless service does not require establishing
any connection and termination process for transferring the data
over a network.
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Connection-Oriented Service
• It is a network service that was designed and developed after the
telephone system.
• A connection-oriented service is used to create an end to end
connection between the sender and the receiver before
transmitting the data over the same or different networks.
• It uses a handshake method that creates a connection between
the user and sender for transmitting the data over the network.
• Hence it is also known as a reliable network service.
• There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of
connection oriented service. These are:
 Connection is established.
 Information is sent.
 Connection is released.
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Connection oriented communication

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Cont….
• Suppose, a sender wants to send data to the receiver. Then, first,
the sender sends a request packet to a receiver in the form of
an SYN packet.
• After that, the receiver responds to the sender's request with an
(SYN-ACK) signal/packets.
• That represents the confirmation is received by the receiver to start
the communication between the sender and the receiver.
• Now a sender can send the message or data to the receiver.
• Similarly, a receiver can respond or send the data to the sender in
the form of packets.
• After successfully exchanging or transmitting data, a sender can
terminate the connection by sending a signal to the receiver. In this
way, we can say that it is a reliable network service.
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Connectionless Service
• A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes
along different route paths from the source to the destination address.
• It is used in the network system to transfer data from one end to
another end without creating any connection.
• So it does not require establishing a connection before sending the
data from the sender to the receiver.
• It is not a reliable network service because it does not guarantee
the transfer of data packets to the receiver, and data packets can be
received in any order to the receiver.
• Therefore we can say that the data packet does not follow a defined
path.
• In connectionless service, the transmitted data packet is not received
by the receiver due to network congestion, and the data may be lost.
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Connection less service

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