Protocol

Hierarchies :
• Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or
contain a large number of pieces of hardware and
software. To just simplify network design, various
networks are organized and arranged as a stack of layers
of hardware and software, one on top of another. The
number, name, content, and function of each layer might
vary and can be different from one network to another.
The main purpose of each of layers is just to offer and
provide services to higher layers that are present. Each
and every layer has some particular task or function. In
programming, this concept is very common. The
networks are organized and arranged as different layers
or levels simply to reduce and minimize complexity of
design of network software.
 The layers generally reduce complexity
of communication between networks

It increases network lifetime.

Advantages :
It also uses energy efficiently.

It does not require overall knowledge

and understanding of network.
 • Interfaces and Services is a process that generally provides and gives a
Interfaces and common technique for each layer to communicate with each other. Standard
terminology basically required for layered networks to request and aim for
Services the services are provided. Service is defined as a set of primitive operations.
Services are provided by layer to each of layers above it. Below is diagram
showing relation between layers at an interface. In diagram, layers N+1, N,
and N-1 are involved and engaged in process of communication among each
other.
 • is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data
communication. Rules are basically defined for each and
every step and process at time of communication among
two or more computers. Networks are needed to follow
these protocols to transmit the data successfully. All
protocols might be implemented using hardware,
software, or combination of both of them. There are
three aspects of protocols given below :
protocol • Syntax – It is used to explain data format that is needed
to be sent or received.
• Semantics – It is used to explain exact meaning of each
of sections of bits that are usually transferred.
• Timings – It is used to explain exact time at which data is
generally transferred along with speed at which it is
transferred.
 Types of Network Protocols

• 1. Network Communication
• Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so crucial that it is not possible to
have computer networks without them. These protocols formally set out the rules and formats through which data is
transferred. These protocols handle syntax, semantics, error detection, synchronization, and authentication.
• 2. Network Management
• These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring, maintaining, and managing the
computer network. These protocols also help in communicating these requirements across the network to ensure stable
communication. Network management protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections between a host and a
client.
• 3. Network Security
• These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine how the network secures data
from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make sure that no unauthorized devices, users,
or services can access the network data. Primarily, these protocols depend on encryption to secure data.
 • Both encapsulation and decapsulation
processes are simultaneously running over
a network in order to make effective
communication possible. Encapsulation is
ENCAPSULATION the process which is executed on the
sender’s side whereas decapsulation
occurs on the receiver’s side.
 ENCAPSULATION
PROCESS :
• Step-1 :
The process starts from the Application, Presentation and Session layer in the OSI model
or Application layer in TCP/IP model, takes the data input from user and adds a header
section (optional) then forwards it to the Transport layer.
• Step-2 :
After this, further the transport layer again adds additional new information,
called “segment header”. This whole data packet is called “Segment” and at the end while
decapsulation, this information is required. Now, this data is passed onto the next layer in
the model, Network Layer.
• Step-3 :
Similarly, the Network Layer adds header and trailer sections in the “Data Segment”
received from the Transport Layer and forms new entity called as a Datagram. This data is
further passed onto the Data Link Layer.
• Step-4 :
Again, the Data Link Layer adds another field of data on the input received from the
Network Layer. And this whole new data fragment is passed to the next layer, i.e. Physical
Layer.
• Step-5 :
At the end, the last layer Physical Layer adds the ultimate data in the input received from
the previous layer. And the process of Encapsulation terminates.
 OSI Model

• The OSI model, created in 1984 by

ISO, is a reference framework that
explains the process of
transmitting data between
computers. It is divided into seven
layers that work together to carry
out specialised network functions,
allowing for a more systematic
approach to networking.
The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user
and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer
just above another layer.

The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of
the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.
 • Physical Layer

7 Layers of OSI
• Data-Link Layer

• Network Layer

Model •

•
Transport Layer

Session Layer

• Presentation Layer

• Application Layer
1) Physical layer

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is

the physical layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical
connection between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the
signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which
will put the frame back together.
Functions of a Physical layer:

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.

Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.

Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.

Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
 • The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
• Logical Link Control Layer

2) Data-Link Layer •
•
It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is receiving.
It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
• It also provides flow control.
• Media Access Control Layer
• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
 • Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides
a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful
to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special
bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
Functions of receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of
the Data Link error control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or
lost frames.
Layer • Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides
else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates
the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is
shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link
layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
 • It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network

3) Network Layer conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.

• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples
of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of the Network Layer

Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header
by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
 • The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order
in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
Transport Layer • The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
Functions of Transport Layer:

• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to
the destination not only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer
adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is
to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message
to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer, it divides the message into
multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message
has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless
service treats each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-
oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-
oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the
single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.
 • It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
5) Session Layer • The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and
synchronizes the interaction between communicating
devices.
Functions of the Session Layer

Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.

Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization
points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.
 • A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics
6) Presentation of the information exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
Layer • This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:

Translation: The processes in two systems Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain Compression: Data compression is a process of
exchange the information in the form of character privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers sender-transmitted information into another form of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
use different encoding methods, the presentation and sends the resulting message over the important in multimedia such as text, audio,
layer handles the interoperability between the network. video.
different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 • An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes
to access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
7) Application Layer • An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application
layer functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
 Functions of Application layer:

File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An Mail services: An application layer provides the facility Directory services: An application provides the
application layer allows a user to access the files in a for email forwarding and storage. distributed database sources and is used to provide that
remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer global information about various objects.
and to manage the files in a remote computer.
TCP/IP Model

• The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to
describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components.
Layers of TCP/IP Model

• Application Layer
• Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
• Network/Internet Layer(IP)
• Data Link Layer (MAC)
• Physical Layer
 • It is a group of applications requiring
network communications. This layer is
1. Physical responsible for generating the data and
requesting connections. It acts on behalf of
Layer the sender and the Network Access layer on
the behalf of the receiver. During this article,
we will be talking on the behalf of the
receiver.
 • The packet’s network protocol type, in this
case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link
2. Data Link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are
Layer also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet
IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of
data-link layer protocols.
 • This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s
Network layer. It defines the protocols which
are responsible for the logical transmission
of data over the entire network.The Internet
Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP)
3. Internet suite, which is the set of protocols that
Layer define the Internet. The Internet Layer is
responsible for routing packets of data from
one device to another across a network. It
does this by assigning each device a unique
IP address, which is used to identify the
device and determine the route that packets
should take to reach it.
 • The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt
acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure
that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
• TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as
4. Transport though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP
transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point
Layer that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in
byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection
make up this transmission.
• UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the
other transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving
and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP
because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.
 • This layer is analogous to the transport layer
of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-
5. to-end communication and error-free
delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer
Application applications from the complexiThe host-to-
Layer host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model that is responsible
for providing communication between hosts
(computers or other devices) on a
networkties of data.