Mountain Building - Orogenesis

Archimedes principle
The mass of the water displaced by the
block of material equals the mass of the
whole block
Thus for a material with a lower density
than water, the proportion of material above
the water surface is constant
For example wood (density 0.8 gm/cm) will
have 20% of its mass above water (density
of 1.0 gm/cm). Thus for a 1 m block 0.2 m
will be above water and 0.8 m below, but
for a 2 m block .4 m will be above water
and 1.6 m below

Fig. 6.28

Isostasy & Mountain Roots

Continental Crust has roots
As a result of isostacy, the thicker the surface exposure of rock, the thicker the
crustal roots
As continental crust is compressed it shortens and thickens
Avg. continental crust is 35-40 km thick, under deformed crust avg. is 50-70 km,
with the majority of the difference in the roots

Fig. 6.29

Isostasy &
Mountain Roots

Fig. 6.31

Mountain-Types

Fault-Block Mountains
Formed from tensional
stress
Normal Faulting
Example: Basin and
Range Provinces SW
USA

Mountain-Types

Upwarped Mountains
Formed from compressional stress
Broad arching of the crust or great vertical displacement
along faults
Example: Black Hills SD

Mountain-Types
Folded Mountains

Formed from compressional stress

Reverse Faulting and Folding highly deformed rocks
Will have highly metamorphosed rocks
Example: Appalachians, Himalayas

Mountain-Types

Volcanic Mountains
Formed volcanic activity
Associated with plate
boundaries or hot spots
Example: Cascade Mts. Or
mountains within Japan

Mountain Building (Orogenesis)

Zones
Convergence Zones
Continental Collision
Continental Rifting

Convergence
Zones
Oceanic-Continental

Folded Mt. Belts

Thrust Faults
Volcanic Chains
Accreted Terranes
Example: Andes Mountains,
Cascades

Accreted Terranes
As exotic blocks collide
with continents they
become sutured to the
continent.
The blocks are referred to
accreted terranes
Accreted Terranes are
island arcs, portions of
ocean floor, fragments of
continental crust

Convergence
Zones
Oceanic-Oceanic
Volcanic Chains
Examples:
Japan,
Philippines

Collision Zones
Folded Mt. Belts
Thrust Faults
Remnants of Volcanic
Chains
Examples: Alps,
Himalayas

Continental Rifting
Fault-block mountains

Mountain
Building
Multiple
Events
Example:
Appalachian
Mountains

Mountain Building, Rock Cycle

and Plate Tectonics

Why does the Earth

have mountains of
various height?
Erosion attacks
mountains remember
Earth wants to be flat
Orogenic collapse.

classified on the basis of1-direction of the camera axis

2-combination of more than one
photograph
3-according to angle of coverage
4-on the basis of colour

camera axis
1-vertical photographs
2-horizontal or terrestrial
photographs
3-oblique photographs

1-the lens axis is perpendicular to

the surface of the earth.
2-it covers a relatively small area.
3-the shape of the ground area
covered on a single vertical photo
closely approximates a square or
rectangle.
4-being a view from above, it
gives an unfamiliar view of the
ground
5-distance and direction may

theodolites from camera station

on the ground.
2-these are used for survey of
structures and mounments of
architectural or archaeological
value.

the optical axis of the aerial

camera tilted fro, the vertical
2-these photographs cover large
areas of ground.
3-but the clarity of details
diminishes towards the far end of
the phothgraph.

trapezoid, althouth the photo is

square or rectangular.
3-the objects have a more
familiar view, comparable to
viewing from the top of a a high
hill or tall building.
4-no scale is applicable to the
entire photograph, and distance
cannot be measured.
Parallel lines on the ground are

2-the ground area covered is a

trapezoid, but the photographis
square or rectangular.
3-the view varies from the very
familear to unfamiliar, depending
on the height at which the
photograph is taken.
4-distances and directions are not
measured on this photograph for
the same reasons that they are not

camera exposed simultaneously

at successive exposure station,
with their axis tilted at a fixed
inclination from vertical in
opposite directions in the
direction of flight line so that the
forward exposure of the first
station forms a stereopair with
the backward exposure of the
next station.

which the central photograph is

vertical and the side ones are
oblique.
2-this photography can be used
for rapid production of
reconnaissance maps on small
scales.

through the front nodal point of

the lens.
1-standard or normal angle
photography- the angle of
coverage is of the order of 60
2-wide angle photography-the
angle of coverage is of order of
90/
3-super wide angle-the angle of
coverage is of order of 120.

-these photographs present the

objects as they appear in their
natural colour.
-for good colour cintrast, scale
larger than 1:25000 is normally
used.
-it has better in terpretation
capabilities.
-it is better ofr photogrammeric
studies.

-infrared raiaions which are

invisible to human eye have
wavelengths ranging from 0.7 um
to about 1.6um.
-infrared photography can be
black and white or in colouir
depending on the type of film
used.

of red.
-the differentiation between types
of healthy and unhealthy
vegetation is brought out in
distinctive colours.
-infrared colour with the
combination of panchromatic
capabilities.

photography appears in lighter

tones on ir black and white
photographs.
-water appears dark in ir black
and white because water has high
absorption characteristics in
infrared.
Yellow filter is used to reduce
haze.

-the film used in iR black and

white negatives.
-dispositive are made from the
negatives and the four images are
combined in registration in an
additive colour viewer to produce
a true colour or a false colour
viewer to produce a true colour
or a false colour image on a
screen which can subsequently be
photographed.