Basic Commands

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Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide:

Chapter 16. External Filters, Programs and Commands

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16.1. Basic Commands

The rst commands a novice learns
ls
The basic le "list" command. It is all too easy to underestimate the power
of this humble command. For example, using the -R, recursive option, ls
provides a tree-like listing of a directory structure. Other useful options are
-S, sort listing by le size, -t, sort by le modication time, -v, sort by
(numerical) version numbers embedded in the lenames, [1] -b, show
escape characters, and -i, show le inodes (see Example 16-4).
bash$ ls -l
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:44 chapter10.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:44 chapter11.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:44 chapter12.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:44 chapter1.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:44 chapter2.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:44 chapter3.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:49 Chapter_headings.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 bozo bozo 0 Sep 14 18:49 Preface.txt

bash$ ls -lv
total 0
-rw-rw-r-- 1
-rw-rw-r-- 1
-rw-rw-r-- 1
-rw-rw-r-- 1
-rw-rw-r-- 1
-rw-rw-r-- 1
-rw-rw-r-- 1
-rw-rw-r-- 1

bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo

bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo
bozo

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep

14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14

18:49
18:49
18:44
18:44
18:44
18:44
18:44
18:44

Chapter_headings.txt
Preface.txt
chapter1.txt
chapter2.txt
chapter3.txt
chapter10.txt
chapter11.txt
chapter12.txt

The ls command returns a non-zero exit status when

attempting to list a non-existent le.
bash$ ls abc
ls: abc: No such file or directory

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bash$ echo $?
2

Example 16-1. Using ls to create a table of contents for burning a

CDR disk
#!/bin/bash
# ex40.sh (burn-cd.sh)
# Script to automate burning a CDR.

SPEED=10
# May use higher speed if your hardware supports it.
IMAGEFILE=cdimage.iso
CONTENTSFILE=contents
# DEVICE=/dev/cdrom
For older versions of cdrecord
DEVICE="1,0,0"
DEFAULTDIR=/opt # This is the directory containing the data to be burned.
# Make sure it exists.
# Exercise: Add a test for this.
# Uses Joerg Schilling's "cdrecord" package:
# http://www.fokus.fhg.de/usr/schilling/cdrecord.html
# If this script invoked as an ordinary user, may need to suid cdrecord
#+ chmod u+s /usr/bin/cdrecord, as root.
# Of course, this creates a security hole, though a relatively minor one.
if [ -z "$1" ]
then
IMAGE_DIRECTORY=$DEFAULTDIR
# Default directory, if not specified on command-line.
else
IMAGE_DIRECTORY=$1
fi
# Create a "table of contents" file.
ls -lRF $IMAGE_DIRECTORY > $IMAGE_DIRECTORY/$CONTENTSFILE
# The "l" option gives a "long" file listing.
# The "R" option makes the listing recursive.
# The "F" option marks the file types (directories get a trailing /).
echo "Creating table of contents."
# Create an image file preparatory to burning it onto the CDR.
mkisofs -r -o $IMAGEFILE $IMAGE_DIRECTORY
echo "Creating ISO9660 file system image ($IMAGEFILE)."
# Burn the CDR.
echo "Burning the disk."
echo "Please be patient, this will take a while."
wodim -v -isosize dev=$DEVICE $IMAGEFILE
# In newer Linux distros, the "wodim" utility assumes the

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#+ functionality of "cdrecord."
exitcode=$?
echo "Exit code = $exitcode"
exit $exitcode

cat, tac
cat, an acronym for concatenate, lists a le to stdout. When combined with
redirection (> or >>), it is commonly used to concatenate les.
# Uses of 'cat'
cat filename

# Lists the file.

cat file.1 file.2 file.3 > file.123

# Combines three files into one.

The -n option to cat inserts consecutive numbers before all lines of the
target le(s). The -b option numbers only the non-blank lines. The -v option
echoes nonprintable characters, using ^ notation. The -s option squeezes
multiple consecutive blank lines into a single blank line.
See also Example 16-28 and Example 16-24.
In a pipe, it may be more eicient to redirect the
rather than to cat the le.

stdin

to a le,

cat filename | tr a-z A-Z

tr a-z A-Z < filename

# Same effect, but starts one less process,

#+ and also dispenses with the pipe.

tac, is the inverse of cat, listing a le backwards from its end.

rev
reverses each line of a le, and outputs to stdout. This does not have the
same eect as tac, as it preserves the order of the lines, but ips each one
around (mirror image).
bash$ cat file1.txt
This is line 1.
This is line 2.

bash$ tac file1.txt

This is line 2.
This is line 1.

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bash$ rev file1.txt

.1 enil si sihT
.2 enil si sihT

cp
This is the le copy command. cp file1 file2 copies file1 to
overwriting file2 if it already exists (see Example 16-6).

file2,

Particularly useful are the -a archive ag (for copying an

entire directory tree), the -u update ag (which prevents
overwriting identically-named newer les), and the -r and
recursive ags.

-R

cp -u source_dir/* dest_dir
# "Synchronize" dest_dir to source_dir
#+ by copying over all newer and not previously existing files.

mv
This is the le move command. It is equivalent to a combination of cp and
rm. It may be used to move multiple les to a directory, or even to rename
a directory. For some examples of using mv in a script, see Example 10-11
and Example A-2.
When used in a non-interactive script, mv takes the
option to bypass user input.

-f

(force)

When a directory is moved to a preexisting directory, it

becomes a subdirectory of the destination directory.
bash$ mv source_directory target_directory
bash$ ls -lF target_directory
total 1
drwxrwxr-x
2 bozo bozo

1024 May 28 19:20 source_directory/

rm
Delete (remove) a le or les. The -f option forces removal of even
readonly les, and is useful for bypassing user input in a script.

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The rm command will, by itself, fail to remove lenames

beginning with a dash. Why? Because rm sees a dash-prexed
lename as an option.
bash$ rm -badname
rm: invalid option -- b
Try `rm --help' for more information.

One clever workaround is to precede the lename with a " -- "

(the end-of-options ag).
bash$ rm -- -badname

Another method to is to preface the lename to be removed

with a dot-slash .
bash$ rm ./-badname

When used with the recursive ag -r, this command removes

les all the way down the directory tree from the current
directory. A careless rm -rf * can wipe out a big chunk of a
directory structure.
rmdir
Remove directory. The directory must be empty of all les -- including
"invisible" dotles [2] -- for this command to succeed.
mkdir
Make directory, creates a new directory. For example, mkdir -p
project/programs/December creates the named directory. The -p option
automatically creates any necessary parent directories.
chmod
Changes the attributes of an existing le or directory (see Example 15-14).
chmod +x filename
# Makes "filename" executable for all users.
chmod u+s filename
# Sets "suid" bit on "filename" permissions.

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# An ordinary user may execute "filename" with same privileges as the file's owner.
# (This does not apply to shell scripts.)

chmod 644 filename

# Makes "filename" readable/writable to owner, readable to others
#+ (octal mode).
chmod 444 filename
# Makes "filename" read-only for all.
# Modifying the file (for example, with a text editor)
#+ not allowed for a user who does not own the file (except for root),
#+ and even the file owner must force a file-save
#+ if she modifies the file.
# Same restrictions apply for deleting the file.

chmod 1777 directory-name

# Gives everyone read, write, and execute permission in directory,
#+ however also sets the "sticky bit".
# This means that only the owner of the directory,
#+ owner of the file, and, of course, root
#+ can delete any particular file in that directory.
chmod 111 directory-name
# Gives everyone execute-only permission in a directory.
# This means that you can execute and READ the files in that directory
#+ (execute permission necessarily includes read permission
#+ because you can't execute a file without being able to read it).
# But you can't list the files or search for them with the "find" command.
# These restrictions do not apply to root.
chmod 000 directory-name
# No permissions at all for that directory.
# Can't read, write, or execute files in it.
# Can't even list files in it or "cd" to it.
# But, you can rename (mv) the directory
#+ or delete it (rmdir) if it is empty.
# You can even symlink to files in the directory,
#+ but you can't read, write, or execute the symlinks.
# These restrictions do not apply to root.

chattr
Change le attributes. This is analogous to chmod above, but with
dierent options and a dierent invocation syntax, and it works only on
ext2/ext3 lesystems.
One particularly interesting chattr option is i. A chattr +i filename marks
the le as immutable. The le cannot be modied, linked to, or deleted, not

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even by root. This le attribute can be set or removed only by root. In a

similar fashion, the a option marks the le as append only.
root# chattr +i file1.txt

root# rm file1.txt
rm: remove write-protected regular file `file1.txt'? y
rm: cannot remove `file1.txt': Operation not permitted

If a le has the s (secure) attribute set, then when it is deleted its block is
overwritten with binary zeroes. [3]
If a le has the u (undelete) attribute set, then when it is deleted, its
contents can still be retrieved (undeleted).
If a le has the c (compress) attribute set, then it will automatically be
compressed on writes to disk, and uncompressed on reads.
The le attributes set with chattr do not show in a le listing
(ls -l).
ln
Creates links to pre-existings les. A "link" is a reference to a le, an
alternate name for it. The ln command permits referencing the linked le
by more than one name and is a superior alternative to aliasing (see
Example 4-6).
The ln creates only a reference, a pointer to the le only a few bytes in
size.
The ln command is most often used with the -s, symbolic or "soft" link ag.
Advantages of using the -s ag are that it permits linking across le
systems or to directories.
The syntax of the command is a bit tricky. For example: ln -s oldfile newfile
links the previously existing oldfile to the newly created link, newfile.
If a le named
will result.

newfile

has previously existed, an error message

Which type of link to use?

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As John Macdonald explains it:

Both of these [types of links] provide a certain measure of dual reference
-- if you edit the contents of the le using any name, your changes will
aect both the original name and either a hard or soft new name. The
dierences between them occurs when you work at a higher level. The
advantage of a hard link is that the new name is totally independent of
the old name -- if you remove or rename the old name, that does not
aect the hard link, which continues to point to the data while it would
leave a soft link hanging pointing to the old name which is no longer
there. The advantage of a soft link is that it can refer to a dierent le
system (since it is just a reference to a le name, not to actual data).
And, unlike a hard link, a symbolic link can refer to a directory.

Links give the ability to invoke a script (or any other type of executable)
with multiple names, and having that script behave according to how it
was invoked.
Example 16-2. Hello or Good-bye
#!/bin/bash
# hello.sh: Saying "hello" or "goodbye"
#+
depending on how script is invoked.
#
#
#
#
#

Make a link in current working directory ($PWD) to this script:

ln -s hello.sh goodbye
Now, try invoking this script both ways:
./hello.sh
./goodbye

HELLO_CALL=65
GOODBYE_CALL=66
if [ $0 = "./goodbye" ]
then
echo "Good-bye!"
# Some other goodbye-type commands, as appropriate.
exit $GOODBYE_CALL
fi
echo "Hello!"
# Some other hello-type commands, as appropriate.
exit $HELLO_CALL

man, info

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These commands access the manual and information pages on system

commands and installed utilities. When available, the info pages usually
contain more detailed descriptions than do the man pages.
There have been various attempts at "automating" the writing of man
pages. For a script that makes a tentative rst step in that direction, see
Example A-39.

Notes
[1] The -v option also orders the sort by upper- and lowercase prexed
lenames.
[2]
Dotles are les whose names begin with a dot, such as ~/.Xdefaults. Such
lenames do not appear in a normal ls listing (although an ls -a will show
them), and they cannot be deleted by an accidental rm -rf *. Dotles are
generally used as setup and conguration les in a user's home directory.
[3] This particular feature may not yet be implemented in the version of the
ext2/ext3 lesystem installed on your system. Check the documentation for
your Linux distro.
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