CHAPTER 3: SENSORS

SECTION 3.1: POSITIONAL SENSORS

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (LVDT)
HALL EFFECT MAGNETIC SENSORS
RESOLVERS AND SYNCHROS
INDUCTOSYNS
ACCELEROMETERS

3.1
3.1
3.6
3.9
3.13
3.15

iMEMS ANGULAR-RATE-SENSING GYROSCOPE

GYROSCOPE DESCRIPTION
CORIOLIS ACCELEROMETERS
MOTION IN 2 DIMENSIONS
CAPACITIVE SENSINGS
IMMUNITY TO SHOCK AND VIBRATION
REFERENCES

3.19
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.23
3.25
3.27

SECTION 3.2: TEMPERATURE SENSORS

INTRODUCTION
SEMICONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE SENSORS
CURRENT OUT TEMPERATURE SENSORS
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE OUTPUT TEMPERATURE SENSORS
THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLES AND COLD-JUNCTION
COMPENSATION
AUTO-ZERO AMPLIFIER FOR THERMOCOUPLE
MEASUREMENTS
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)
THERMISTORS
DIGITAL OUTPUT TEMPERATURE SENSORS
THERMOSTATIC SWITCHES AND SET-POINT CONTROLLERS
MICROPROCESSOR TEMPERATURE MONITORING
REFERENCES

SECTION 3.3: CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES (CCDs)

REFERENCES

SECTION 3.4: BRIDGE CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION
AMPLIFING AND LINEARIZING BRIDGE OUTPUTS
DRIVING REMOTE BRIDGES
SYSTEM OFFSET MINIMIZATION
REFERENCES

SECTION 3.5: STRAIN, FORCE, PRESSURE

AND FLOW MEASUREMENTS
STRAIN GAGES

3.29
3.29
3.31
3.33
3.34
3.38
3.45
3.47
3.52
3.56
3.58
3.61
3.64
3.65
3.68
3.69
3.69
3,75
3.80
3.84
3.87
3.89
3.89

BASIC LINEAR DESIGN

SECTION 3.5: STRAIN, FORCE, PRESSURE
AND FLOW MEASUREMENTS (CONT)
SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAGES
BRIDGE SIGNAL CONDITION CIRCUITS
REFERENCES

3.92
3.95
3.99

SENSORS
POSITIONAL SENSORS

CHAPTER 3: SENSORS
SECTION 3.1: POSITIONAL SENSORS
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs)
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is an accurate and reliable method
for measuring linear distance. LVDTs find uses in modern machine-tool, robotics,
avionics, and computerized manufacturing.
The LVDT (see Figure 3.1) is a position-to-electrical sensor whose output is proportional
to the position of a movable magnetic core. The core moves linearly inside a transformer
consisting of a center primary coil and two outer secondary coils wound on a cylindrical
form. The primary winding is excited with an AC voltage source (typically several kHz),
inducing secondary voltages which vary with the position of the magnetic core within the
assembly. The core is usually threaded in order to facilitate attachment to a
nonferromagnetic rod which in turn in attached to the object whose movement or
displacement is being measured.

+
THREADED
CORE

VA

VOUT = VA VB

AC
SOURCE

VB

1.75"
_
VOUT

VOUT

SCHAEVITZ
E100

POSITION +

POSITION +

Figure 3.1: Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The secondary windings are wound out of phase with each other, and when the core is
centered the voltages in the two secondary windings oppose each other, and the net
3.1

BASIC LINEAR DESIGN

output voltage is zero. When the core is moved off center, the voltage in the secondary
toward which the core is moved increases, while the opposite voltage decreases. The
result is a differential voltage output which varies linearly with the core's position.
Linearity is excellent over the design range of movement, typically 0.5% or better. The
LVDT offers good accuracy, linearity, sensitivity, infinite resolution, as well as
frictionless operation and ruggedness.
A wide variety of measurement ranges are available in different LVDTs, typically from
100 m to 25 cm. Typical excitation voltages range from 1 V to 24 VRMS, with
frequencies from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
Note that a true null does not occur when the core is in center position because of
mismatches between the two secondary windings and leakage inductance. Also, simply
measuring the output voltage VOUT will not tell on which side of the null position the
core resides.

ABSOLUTE
VALUE

AC
SOURCE

FILTER

VOUT

ABSOLUTE
VALUE

FILTER

LVDT
+ VOUT

POSITION +
_

Figure 3.2: Improved LVDT Output Signal Processing

A signal conditioning circuit which removes these difficulties is shown in Figure 3.2
where the absolute values of the two output voltages are subtracted. Using this technique,
both positive and negative variations about the center position can be measured. While a
diode/capacitor-type rectifier could be used as the absolute value circuit, the precision
rectifier shown in Figure 3.3 is more accurate and linear. The input is applied to a V/I
converter which in turn drives an analog multiplier. The sign of the differential input is
3.2