ET 10203A- Basic Electrical Engineering

Unit – 2 Single Phase AC Circuits

Disclaimer: Following notes are intended
only as guidelines prepared using various
sources including internet. Learners are
suggested to refer to text books and reference
books mentioned in course structure for
preparation of exams.
• Syllabus

Unit II: Single Phase AC Circuits

2.1 Representation of sinusoidal waveforms, peak, rms and average values, form factor and peak
factor, phasor representation, real power, reactive power, apparent power.
2.2 Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of R, L, C and their series combinations such
as RL, RC, RLC.
2.3 Series resonance.
2.4 Concept of power factor and importance of power factor improvement.

• Course Outcome corresponding Unit II:

After completing this unit learners will be able to

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 • Solve single phase ac circuits consisting series combinations of resistance, inductance
and capacitance along with phasor diagrams.

• Unit overview:

• Target skills- Application and Analysis

• Minimum requirement- To analyze a simple single phase AC circuit with series

combinations of R, L and C as well as series resonant circuits and determine impedance,
current, power factor, power, phase angle, resonance frequency and circuit parameters
during resonance.

2.1 Difference between AC and DC

The difference between AC and DC mainly includes the following:

An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction at regular

intervals of time.

Direct current is the current which has constant magnitude and direction with change in time.

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2.2 A.C. waveform and definitions

Single phase ac supply is represented in mathematical form as:

v(t) = Vm sin (ωt +θ)

Where Vm is the peak voltage,

ω = 2πf is the angular speed expressed in radians per second (rad/s)

f is the frequency expressed in Hertz (Hz)

t is the time expressed in second (s)

θ is phase of the sinusoid expressed in degrees.

Graphical representation of purely sinusoidal ac waveform is given in Fig. 1

Fig. 1

1. Peak Value:

The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is called its Peak value.
It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude. The sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains
its peak value at 90 degrees. The peak values of alternating voltage and current is represented by
Vm and Im respectively.

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2. Peak and Peak-to-Peak Value:

During each complete cycle of AC signal there are always two maximum or peak values, one for
the positive half-cycle and the other for the negative half cycle. The peak value is measured from
zero to the maximum value obtained in either the positive or negative direction. Peak value is
denoted by Vm or Vp . The difference between the peak positive value and the peak negative
value is called the peak-to-peak value of the sine wave. This value is twice the maximum or peak
value of the sine wave and is sometimes used for measurement of ac voltages. The peak value is
one-half of the peak-to-peak value. Peak-to-peak value is denoted by Vm-m or Vp-p .

3. Instantaneous Value: Instantaneous value of an AC signal is the value of voltage or current

at one particular instant. It is denoted by small variable as function of time like v(t), i(t).

4. Average Value: Average value of an AC current or voltage is the average of all the
instantaneous values from 0 to ᴨ. It is denoted by Iavg, Vavg.

Vavg = 0.637 Vm

5. R.M.S Value: The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (DC)
which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of
heat produced by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the same time.
Irms = 0.707 Im

6. Time Period: Time period of a waveform is the time required for completing one full cycle.
It is measured in seconds. T = 1/f

7. Peak Factor, Kp: It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the R.M.S value of an
alternating quantity.

For the current varying sinusoidally, the peak factor is given as:

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8. Form Factor Kf : The ratio of the root mean square value to the average value of an
alternating quantity (current or voltage) is called form factor.

For the current varying sinusoidally, the Form Factor is given as:

2.3 Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2
In above Fig.2 waveform indicates graphical representation for all three instantaneous
parameters and their mathematical representation. First waveform (a) has zero value at origin,

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second waveform (b) has positive value at origin and third waveform (c) has negative value at
origin.

2.4 Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

AC voltage and current changes its magnitude and direction continuously with respect to time.
So these parameters can be represented by phasor diagram.

Fig. 3

Above Fig. 3 shows how AC sinusoidal quantities are represented by the position of a
rotating vector. As the vector rotates it generates an angle. The location of the vector on the
plane surface is determined by the magnitude (length) of the vector and by the generated angle.

Fig. 4

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In above phasor diagram Fig.4, I lags V by an angle ɸ. Lagging parameters are measured in
clockwise direction with respect to reference vector. Here if V is represented as v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)
then I is represented as i(t) = Im sin (ωt - ɸ).

I as reference

Fig. 5
In above phasor diagram Fig.5, V leads I by an angle ɸ. Leading parameters are measured in
anticlockwise direction with respect to reference vector. Here if I is represented as i(t) = Im sin
(ωt) then V is represented as v(t) = Vm sin (ωt + ɸ).

2.5 Two Sinusoidal Waveforms

2.5.1 In-phase

Irms Vrms

Phasor diagram for in

phase current

(a) (b)
Fig. 6

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In above Fig. 6(a) V and I waveforms are represented graphically and phasor diagram is
represented in Fig. 6(b). Here V and I both are in phase.

v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)

i(t) = Im sin (ωt)

2.5.2 Lagging phase

Fig. 7
In above Fig.7, I lags V by an angle of ɸ=300. So mathematical expression for V and I is

v(t) = Vm sin (ωt )

i(t) = Im sin (ωt - ɸ ) = Im sin (ωt - 300)

Fig. 8 Phasor diagram for lagging

current

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Fig. 8 represents phasor diagram for V and I.

2.5.3 Leading phase

Fig. 9

In above Fig. 9, I leads V by an angle of ɸ=900.

v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)

i(t) = Im sin (ωt + ɸ) = Im sin (ωt + 900)

Fig. 10 Phasor diagram for leading

current
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2.6 Polar Form and Rectangular Form

AC voltage and current can be represented in polar form to make calculations easy. Using
instantaneous equation of an alternating quantity, we can find polar form and polar form can be
converted into rectangular form. E.g., For v(t) = Vm sin (ωt + ɸ) =100 sin (ωt + 300), it’s polar
form is Vrms∠ ɸ = 70.71∠300 and this polar form now can be converted into rectangular form.
Its rectangular form is (61.24+ j 35.35).

Fig. 11 Polar representation

While plotting phasor diagram:

a. Positive angle is measured in anticlockwise direction and negative angle is measured in

clockwise direction with respect to reference axis.

b. Also leading vectors are shown in anticlockwise direction and lagging vectors are shown in
clockwise direction with respect to reference vector.

2.7 Purely Resistive Circuit

Purely resistive circuit is shown in Fig.12.

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 Fig. 12 Purely resistive circuit

Alternating voltage is given by v(t)=Vm sin ωt ……… (1)

Current flowing in the circuit is I. Using ohm’s law:

i(t)=Im sin ωt

From equation (1) and (2) we can conclude that V and I in purely resistive circuit are in phase.
Hence ɸ= 00. Hence cos ɸ = cos 00 = 1. Hence p.f. is unity.

Fig. 13 Phasor Diagram

Instantaneous power in above circuit can be derived as follows:

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For purely resistive circuit Impedance is Z = R∠00 =R = R + j0 Ω.

Waveforms of V, I and P are shown in Fig. 14.

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 Fig. 14 Waveforms of V, I, and P

2.8 Purely Inductive Circuit

Fig. 15 Purely inductive circuit

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From equations (1) and (2) we can conclude that I lags V by 900. Hence ɸ= 900. Hence cos ɸ =
cos 900 = 0. Hence p.f. is zero.

Instantaneous power equation is

Pavg = 0

Fig. 16 Waveforms of V, I, P Fig. 17 Phasor diagram

Inductance acts as short circuit for dc, as f=0 for dc. For ac circuit as frequency increases XL
increases. Following graph in Fig. 18 shows variation of XL with frequency.

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 Fig. 18 Variation of inductive reactance with frequency

2.9 Purely Capacitive Circuit

Fig. 19 Purely capacitive circuit

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From equations (1) and (2) we can conclude that I leads V by 900. Hence ɸ= 900. Hence cos ɸ =
cos 900 = 0. Hence p.f. is zero.

Instantaneous power equation is

Pavg = 0

Fig. 20 Waveforms of V, I, and P Fig. 21 Phasor diagram

Capacitor acts as open circuit for dc, as f=0 for dc. For ac circuit as frequency increases XC
decreases. Following graph in Fig. 22 shows variation of XC with frequency.

Fig. 22 Variation of capacitive reactance with frequency

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2.10 Series R-L Circuit:

Following Fig. 23 shows R and L connected in series.

Fig. 23 Series R-L Circuit

Fig. 24

Above Fig. 24 shows phasor diagram and voltage triangle.

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 Fig. 25

Above Fig. 25 shows impedance triangle for series R-L circuit. Dividing every side of voltage triangle by current,
we get impedance triangle .

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 Fig. 26

Above Fig. 26 shows power triangle for series R-L circuit. Multiplying every side of voltage triangle by current,
we get power triangle.

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 Fig. 27 Waveforms of V, I and P

Sample Solved Example:

A coil has a resistance of 30Ω and an inductance of 0.5H. If the current flowing through the coil
is 4 A, what will be the value of the supply voltage, VS, VL, VR and power factor if supply
frequency is 50Hz?

The impedance of the circuit will be:

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Then the voltage drops across each component is calculated as:

The phase angle between the current and supply voltage is calculated as:

ɸ = 79.20

p.f. = cos ɸ = 0.19 lagging

The phasor diagram will be:

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2.11 Series R- C Circuit

Fig. 28 Series R-C circuit Fig. 29 Phasor diagram Fig. 30 Impedance Triangle

Voltage and current equation:

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2.12 Series R-L-C Circuit

Fig. 31 Series R-L-C Circuit

Fig. 32

Phasor Diagram (a) – Capacitive circuit i.e. XC > XL

Phasor Diagram (b) – XL = XC

Phasor Diagram (c) – Inductive circuit i.e. XL > XC

Dividing every side of voltage triangle, we get impedance triangle as shown in fig. 33:

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 Fig. 33 Impedance triangles for R-L-C series circuit

When XL = XC in series R-L-C circuit, power factor becomes unity and circuit is said to be in
resonance.

fo is called resonant frequency.

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 Fig. 34 Variation of Z, R, XL, XC and I with frequency

2.13 SUMMARY:

Power Power
Type of Phase
V and I equations factor Impedance consumed
circuit difference
(cos ɸ)
V(t)=Vm sin ωt
Purely
I(t)=Im sin ωt ɸ = 00 1 Z=R Pavg=VI
resistive

V(t)=Vm sin ωt
Purely I(t)=Im sin (ωt -
ɸ = 900 0 Z=jXL Pavg=0
inductive 900)

V(t)=Vm sin ωt
Purely I(t)=Im sin (ωt +
ɸ = 900 0 Z= - jXC P=0
Capacitive 900)

V(t)=Vm sin ωt P=V I cos ɸ

Series R-L 00˂ ɸ˂ 900 0<p.f.<1 Z=R+jXL
I(t)=Im sin (ωt - ɸ) Q=V I sin ɸ

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 S=VI

P=V I cos ɸ
V(t)=Vm sin ωt
Q=V I sin ɸ
Series R-C I(t)=Im sin (ωt + ɸ) 00˂ ɸ < 900 0<p.f.<1 Z=R-jXC
S=VI

P=V I cos ɸ
V(t)=Vm sin ωt
Q=V I sin ɸ
I(t)=Im sin (ωt - ɸ) 00˂ ɸ ˂ 900 0<p.f.<1 Z=R+j(XL-Xc)
S=VI
More inductive

Z=R-j(Xc-XL)
V(t)=Vm sin ωt P=V I cos ɸ
Series R-L-C I(t)=Im sin (ωt + ɸ) 00˂ ɸ ˂900 0<p.f.<1 0r Q=V I sin ɸ
More capacitive Z=R+j(XL-Xc) S=VI

V(t)=Vm sin ωt
I(t)=Im sin ωt P=VI
ɸ = 00 1 Z=R
Resistive at
resonance

2.14 Suggested Readings:

1. A Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume- I –B. L. Theraja, S. Chand and Company
Ltd., New Delhi.
2. Basic Electrical Engineering - V. K. Mehta, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi.
3. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering - S. K. Bhattacharya, Pearson Education.
4. Electrical and electronics Technology- Edward Hughes, Seventh Edition, Pearson
Education.
5. Basic Electrical Engineering- I. J. Nagrath and Kothari, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010.
6. Basic Electrical Engineering- D. C. Kulshreshtha, McGraw Hill, 2009.

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2.15 Suggested reading points:

Topic A Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume- I –B. L.

Theraja, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi.

From To
Chapter 11 – A. C. Fundamentals

Average value, RMS

value, peak factor, form 453 467
factor, Phase, Phase
difference
Representation of
478 486
alternating quantities
Purely resistive, Purely
inductive, Purely
Capacitive single phase
ac circuits 488 496
Chapter 13 – A. C. Series Circuit
Series R-L, Series R-C,
Series R-L-C single 507 542
phase ac circuits
Topic Electrical Technology- Edward Hughes, Seventh Edition,
Pearson Education
From To
Chapter 9 – Alternating voltage and current

Average value, RMS

value, peak factor, form 192 206
factor, Phase, Phase
difference

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Representation of
206 216
alternating quantities
Chapter 10- Single Phase Series Circuits

Purely resistive, Purely

inductive, Purely
Capacitive single phase
ac circuits 217 237
Series R-L, Series R-C,
Series R-L-C single
phase ac circuits

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