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knee.
Important Note
This review summarises information on popliteal cysts of the knee with a view to clarifying the
existing evidence on causation.
It is not intended to replace clinical judgement, or be used as a clinical protocol. A reasonable
attempt has been made to find and review papers relevant to the focus of this report but it is not
exhaustive. The content does not necessarily represent the official view of ACC or represent
ACC policy.
Contents
Causation Review Popliteal Cysts/Bakers Cyst of the knee ..................................................4
Summary ..................................................................................................................................4
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 6
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 6
Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 8
1. Prevalence.................................................................................................................................. 8
2. Prevalence of symptomatic cysts and significance of large popliteal cysts.............................. 12
3. Association with age................................................................................................................ 13
4. Gender..................................................................................................................................... 13
5. Association of popliteal cysts with meniscal pathology, effusion, osteoarthritis and ACL tears
................................................................................................................................................. 13
General studies .................................................................................................................. 13
Meniscal pathology............................................................................................................ 14
Effusion.............................................................................................................................. 15
Osteoarthritis ..................................................................................................................... 15
ACL tears ........................................................................................................................... 16
6. Association with trauma.......................................................................................................... 16
7. Association with knee pain and other symptoms.................................................................... 17
8. Association of popliteal cysts with other pathologies.............................................................. 18
Causation .................................................................................................................................... 18
Suggestions for reviewing claims to ACC where personal injury is said to be a substantial
causative factor............................................................................................................................ 19
Summaries of papers reviewed.20
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 26
References ................................................................................................................................... 27
Strong associations of popliteal cysts with medial meniscal tears are typically and
consistently reported. In many populations (case series studies), of those with
popliteal cysts, 70 to 90% had medial meniscal tears.
There is good evidence that popliteal cysts have a high rate of occurrence in subjects
with OA and some evidence that prevalence is associated with severity of OA: in
older subjects with advanced OA prevalence of popliteal cysts may approach 50%.
5. There is good evidence that the great majority of popliteal cysts as detected by MRI or
ultrasonography are symptomless.
6. The mechanism of cyst formation as proposed by Lindgren1 supports the view that
degeneration of the knee joint capsule contributes to the formation of a popliteal cysts as
4
shown by the increased prevalence with age of a communication between the joint and
the bursa.
7. There is an absence of good data to show that prevalence of popliteal cysts are associated
directly with traumatic events but it seems highly likely that trauma resulting in internal
derangement, effusion or osteoarthritis will result in an increased incidence of popliteal
cysts as a consequence of the acquired pathology.
A number of criteria are given which may assist with the determination of compensability of
individual cases.
Evidence Statements
All the evidence statements below rely largely on patient case series studies or lower grade
cohort studies. Evidence is therefore at best only moderate for most statements.
1. The determination of prevalence of popliteal cysts is dependent on methodology; As
determined by MRI a prevalence of around 0 to 7% may be expected in middle aged
subjects with no internal knee derangements or disease, around 20% in the
asymptomatic knee of those with internal derangements in the contralateral knee,
range from 5 to 30% in those with suspected internal derangements of the knee and
reach a ratio of nearly one in two in older subjects with advanced OA.
2. There is some evidence that prevalence increases with age. In some case series
studies, over 50% of popliteal cysts found, were in those over 50 years of age.
3. The effect of gender on prevalence does not seem to be an important consideration.
4. The presence of a popliteal cyst is strongly associated with internal derangements of
the knee:
Strong associations of popliteal cysts with medial meniscal tears are typically and
consistently reported. In many populations (case series studies), of those with
popliteal cysts, 70 to 90% had medial meniscal tears
There is good evidence that popliteal cysts have a high rate of occurrence in
subjects with OA and some evidence that prevalence is associated with severity
of OA: in older subjects with advanced OA prevalence of popliteal cysts may
approach 50%.
5. There is good evidence that the great majority of popliteal cysts as detected by MRI
or ultrasonography are symptomless.
6. The mechanism of cyst formation as proposed by Lindgren1 supports the view that
degeneration of the knee joint capsule contributes to the formation of a popliteal
cysts as shown by the increased prevalence with age of a communication between
the joint and the bursa.
7. There is an absence of good data to show that prevalence of popliteal cysts are
associated directly with traumatic events but it seems highly likely that trauma
resulting in internal derangement, effusion or osteoarthritis will result in an
increased incidence of popliteal cysts as a consequence of the acquired pathology.
Discussion
The findings below are dependent on case series; no studies based on general populations were
found. The findings are 1. Prevalence
Many studies were based on patients attending clinics for investigation of suspected internal
derangements3 6 10-14, for osteoarthritis2 15-18 and for symptoms of DVT (along with controls and
4
those with internal derangements) . Sometimes a control group of patients was included and
these were classified as healthy volunteers4, not having knee pain13 or no or low grades of OA2 16.
Two cohort studies were reviewed19 20 but in each case subjects with predetermined
characteristics were randomly recruited so the true prevalence of popliteal cysts in the general
population cannot be determined from the data. The findings relating to prevalence are (Table
1):
4 21
13
2
16
In control groups (healthy volunteers , no knee pain , no OA or low grades of OA )
prevalence ranged from 0 7% (mean ages ranged from 45 - 61)
In subjects recruited from a Veterans population and of mean age 67 prevalence was 28%
in those with no knee pain but OA present, 33% in those with pain and OA and 9.1% in
those with without knee pain or OA20
18
17
In patients with OA prevalence ranged from 22% to 47% this latter figure being seen
in subjects of median age 60 and with OA at multiple sites.
It would seem then that a prevalence of less than 7% may be expected in middle aged subjects1
with no internal knee derangements or disease, will be around 20% in asymptomatic knees of
those with internal derangements in the contralateral knee, range from 5 to 38% in those
presenting with internal derangement of the knee and reach a ratio of nearly one in two in older
subjects with advanced OA.
It is widely agreed that the prevalence of popliteal cysts is related to the diagnostic test
11
employed . High quality MRI is very sensitive and will find the cysts in as many as 38% of
patients referred with suspected nonacute knee internal derangements11. Many of these cysts are
small, asymptomatic and not usually of clinical relevance. MRI is protocol dependent as well
1
A study ( 23. Stehling C et al) investigating prevalence of knee lesions with past physical activity has reported
that in a random selection of 236, 45 55 year olds without knee pain and normal BMI, that by 3T MRI, popliteal
cysts were found in 31 images, a percentage prevalence of 13% (the present authors calculation) . This would
therefore suggest that by this technology presence of popliteal cysts in asymptomatic subjects is very common. The
data though has not been further used here as there are inconsistencies in relation to the popliteal cyst data which
inquires have not resolved.
though; it has been suggested that the low results of Fieldings study10 (5%) may be due to an
12
inappropriate imaging protocol although others using MRI have found low prevalence levels in
22
their populations . Ultrasonography appears to be also highly regarded for its diagnostic
utility16.
Conclusion
The quality of evidence on prevalence is largely dependent on case series data and there is a lack
of large community studies. It would seem however that popliteal cysts are very common in
populations with internal derangements of the knee or with osteoarthritis.
Most of the popliteal cysts found by the various diagnostic methods are asymptomatic and some
authors have speculated that if the structure is not giving rise to local symptoms that it should
24
not be called popliteal cyst at all .
Population
Number of
subjects and
mean age
% Prevalence
popliteal cysts
117 women
34% overall
Notes
MRI methodology
Hayes
19
Random selection
Mean age, 46
knees; in another 5%
they were moderate to
large.
of 4 categories
depending on the
presence of OA and
pain.
Tschirch
14
MRI
102 asymptomatic
knees
18.6%
8% of popliteal cysts
were greater than
30mm in diam
Mean age 43
Case series
Marti-Bonmati
11
asymptomatic knee
39.6% female
Suspected internal
382 patients
38%
MRI
Case series
38% female
Hill
20
458 subjects
3.1% of total
cysts
of cysts were of
In those with OA but
moderate to large in
Population
Number of
subjects and
mean age
% Prevalence
popliteal cysts
Notes
28%
relevance of these
of three groups.
investigated.
pain or OA 9.1%
Kornaat
17
Subjects with OA at
multiple joint OA
47%
MRI
Cohort
pain.
Median age 60
Sansone
22
MRI
4.7%
knee.
Case series
Fielding
10
Case series
age 36.3,
knee
approximately equal
5%
MRI
female.
21
Tarhan
58 patients with
controls
symptomatic knee
Case series
MRI and US
volunteer control
subjects (mean age
59, 75% female).
12
Miller
Case series
Patients referred to
not described
19%
the knee
MRI
Ultrasonography
Labropoulos
Healthy volunteers
50 subjects, 50%
4%
(prevalence based on
legs not cases)
Cases/controls
knee, inflammatory
19.8%
conditions or previous
trauma)
Suspected DVT
10
Population
Number of
subjects and
mean age
% Prevalence
popliteal cysts
Notes
de Miguel Mendieta
Attendees at a
Rheumatology Clinic
Ultrasonography
female.
18
Naredo
50 consecutive
with primary OA
patients, 90 knees
pain 22%,
Ultrasonography
symptomatic, 10
knees asymptomatic
Case series
Rupp
arthroscopy;
Ultrasonography
In cases - 20%
mm
35% female,
100 hospital patients with
50% medium 30 50
Controls 0%
no knee complaints
100 without, mean
mm
45% large >50mm
Chronic OA 37%
Controls with no OA
Controls 2%
54 controls, gender
and age not given
16
Fam
Patients, 42%
series
OA <=1
Controls 0%
25 controls, mean age
61.3, 48% female
Ultrasonograpy
25
Liao
Case control
Ultrasonography
1,120 patients of
ultrasonography of the
knee
popliteal cyst.
12.9%
8% were ruptured
11
Population
Number of
subjects and
mean age
% Prevalence
popliteal cysts
Notes
55% female
Other methods
Johnson
Case series
knees
popliteal bursa
knee.
Mean age 40, 32%
Arthroscopy
3
Wolfe
Case series
female
Patients referred for
knees)
knee (mainly).
female
Group 2, 32%
Arthrography
Pulich
26
940 subjects
24.9%
23.5% were
symptomatic
12
General studies
It is commonly stated that popliteal cysts are almost always associated with other pathologies of
the knee such as internal derangements and OA and the evidence found in the studies reviewed
13
here would support this view. Miller in his case series12 determined by MRI the prevalence of
popliteal cysts in a general orthopaedic population of 384 subjects (mean age 47), and their
association with effusion, internal derangement, and degenerative arthropathy. Overall
prevalence of popliteal cysts was 19%; 99% were associated with other pathology and 80.5 %
with meniscal tears. There were significant associations (P < .01) for effusion, meniscal tears,
and degenerative arthropathy, independent of one another. The probability of having a popliteal
cyst for the whole series given the presence of any one variable was 0.08-0.10; any two
variables, 0.19-0.21; and all three variables, 0.38. They found only one case in the series which
occurred in the complete absence of internal derangement, effusion or degenerative joint
disease.
22
Sansone in his case series found that popliteal cysts were associated in 94% of cases with one,
or more disorders detected by MRI; the commonest lesions were meniscal (83%), frequently
involving the posterior horn of the medial meniscus, chondral (43%), and anterior cruciate
ligament tears (32%).
Conclusion
Case series data therefore suggest strong associations of intra-articular pathology with prevlance
of popliteal cysts.
Meniscal pathology
Strong associations with medial meniscal tears are typically and consistently reported. For
example Rupp in a controlled study of hospital patients13 found that of those with popliteal
cysts, 70% had medial meniscal tears compared to a prevalence of 19% in those without tears, a
3
difference that was highly significant. Wolfe found in patients at an airforce medical centre
(mean age 27), that of those with popliteal cysts, 86% had damage to one or both menisci; in
their general hospital population (mean age 40) of those with popliteal cysts 94% had damage
to one or both menisci.
Fielding10 reported that 71% of those with popliteal cysts had medial meniscal tears; and
lateral tears were seen in 38%
Sansone found that 90% of his cases with poplitieal cysts had medial meniscal tears and
16.6% lateral
Ahn31 found 68% of those with larger popliteal cysts had medial meniscus tears and 29%
lateral tears.
30
Studies that related prevalence of popliteal cysts to type of meniscal tear were not found apart
from the case series study by Marti-Bonmati who found prevalence to be statistically related to
the presence of meniscal degeneration and to meniscal tearing11. Further analysis of tear type
was not made. In subjects with primary OA the presence of popliteal cysts was significantly
18
associated with medial meniscus protrusion .
Though cysts have a high association with tears at the posterior horn of the medial meniscus
they are also associated with lateral tears and some consider that the incidence of association is
simply a reflection of the ratio of medial to lateral tears reported in the literature3.
14
Conclusion
It is concluded that meniscal tears and degeneration occur with high frequency in those who
have popliteal cysts.
Effusion
Wolfe3 believed that while there was a strong association between prevalence of popliteal cyst
and medial meniscal tears of the posterior horn this association is commonly observed because
it is one of the commonest joint derangments seen; they considered that it was the presence of
an effusion producing abnormality that was important.
There is good evidence that prevalence of popliteal cysts is significantly associated with the
presence and size of effusion11 12 20. 77% of cases with popliteal cysts had joint effusion in Millars
12
25
11
20
series , 91.7% in Liaos and 70% of Marti-Bonmatis . Hill found that in those with
moderate to larger effusion, 43.2% had cysts compared to 22.7% in those with an effusion
which was small or absent. There was also a weak but statistically significant relationship
between size of effusion and size of cyst. A case series study of those with primary OA of grade
2 or more found that effusion was present in 86% of knees with cysts compared to 36% without
cysts (p<0.02)16.
While Miller showed that effusion was strongly associated with the presence of popliteal cysts
he also concluded from his data that cysts could occur where there were normal physiological
amounts of fluid in the presence of a meniscal tear and/or degenerative arthropathy.
Vasilevska27 in their series in patients with medial compartment OA found no relationship
between the size of popliteal cysts and effusion.
Suggestions to account for the development of popliteal cysts in the absence of increased joint
effusion have been that fluid accumulation occurred within the cyst from previous resolved
joint effusions11 and that altered biomechanics due to presence of internal derangements are
sufficient to squeeze even normal amounts of fluid into the bursa. This last suggestion is
supported by studies which have shown that intra-articular pressure is higher in patients with
meniscal abnormalities compared to that in healthy individuals12.
Some authors suggest that the development of popliteal cysts cannot be explained by the
accumulation of intraarticular fluid accumulation alone; other factors are important as well such
as the patency status of the interconnection between the bursa and the joint, and the intrinsic
features of the joint capsule2.
Conclusion
It is concluded that effusion is an important feature associated with the development of
popliteal cysts but it is probably not the sole factor.
Osteoarthritis (OA)
2
15
popliteal cysts than in those without. Similarly Fam16 has determined the prevalence and
significance of popliteal cysts in primary OA of the knee in a prospective case-control series.
They found that cysts were present in 42% of patients with OA; 38% had bilateral cysts. In the
controls no cysts were detected. The majority of cysts were small and symptomless. The
occurrence of popliteal cysts correlated with the radiological grade of OA and were detected in
47% of knees with grade 3 or 4 OA compared to 18% with grade 2 p<0.03). They concluded
that OA may be a more common cause of popliteal cysts than generally recognized.
The results of some other studies were;
Ahn31 found in his case series on of those with a popliteal cysts, knee pain and an
associated intra-articular lesion, that 39% also had degenerative cartilage damage
25
Liao reported that 50.6% of those with popliteal cysts had OA
In a cohort study of patients with OA at multiple joint sites, 47% of patients had a
popliteal cyst17
Rupp also found a statistically significant association between prevalence of popliteal
13
cysts and presence of OA ; in patients with popliteal cysts grade 3 and 4 cartilage lesions
were predominant (70%) whereas in those without cysts only 6% had grade 3 or 4
lesions
In a case control study based on case series patients 35% of those with OA had popliteal
cysts compared to 6.9% of controls21
Conclusion
It is concluded that there is good evidence that popliteal cysts have a high rate of occurrence in
subjects with OA and some evidence that prevalence is associated with severity of OA.
ACL tears
Some authors found no statistical association between tears to the ACL and prevalence of
11 12
10
popliteal cysts . Feilding though found a 13% association with complete tear of the ACL and
22
Sansone in their study of 1001 adults referred for MRI for intra-articular disorders (mean age
36, 33% women) found an association in 32% of cases.
Conclusion
It is concluded that an association of popliteal cysts with ACL tears is found but it does not
reach the magnitude of the associations with meniscal tears, effusion, and OA. Moreover given
the close association of chronic ACL tears to other pathologies of the knee it is possible that the
ACL tear association with popliteal cyst prevalence is a reflection of the onset or development of
that pathology.
6. Association with trauma
Many studies did not address a history of trauma as a contributing factor 3 4 12 14 17 20 22 27 30. Cysts
certainly occur in the absence of a history of acute trauma, as in a number of studies patients
presenting after acute trauma were excluded. And excluding trauma cases does not seem to
16
exclude the finding of high rates of prevalence in populations with various pathologies such as
13
11
15
18
19
21
2
internal knee derangements or OA, eg 20% , 38% , 37% , 22% , 34% , 35% and 37% .
Pulich26 reported that 61% of those with popliteal cysts had a history of trauma. Johnson6 found
that 64% of his case series of patients presenting for suspected internal derangements of the
knee who had a bursal communication had a history of trauma compared to 66% of those
without a bursal communication. They concluded that there was no significance to the
presence of a history of trauma and prevalence of cysts.
Only one study investigated the prevalence of popliteal cysts in younger subjects (247 knees,
mean age 26, 85% male) most of whom presented with suspected internal derangement of the
knee3. This study is of some relevance since at this age significant degenerative pathology
would not be expected to be at an advanced state: cysts were found in 23% of knees.
A study that investigated the relationship of severe focal knee lesions to past physical activity
has reported that whereas prevalence of cartilage, meniscus and ligament lesions, bone marrow
edema and joint effusion were significantly related to past activity level, popliteal cysts were
23
not .
Conclusion
It is concluded that there is no good evidence to show that popliteal cysts form as a result of
trauma itself, however it seems reasonable, in the absence of good evidence to assume that
trauma resulting in internal derangements of the knee will then result in formation of popliteal
cysts in an unknown proportion of the population.
7. Association with knee pain and other symptoms
Popliteal cysts are often asymptomatic5. The presence of popliteal cysts as detected by MRI in
asymptomatic knees in subjects of mean age 42 was 18.6%14. Pulich found in his case series that
of the popliteal cysts observed in 24% of patients, 75% were asymptomatic.
Patients with symptoms typically present with internal or mechanical derangements, swelling, a
palpable mass, pain, tenderness or signs and symptoms of thrombophlebitis. Large popliteal
cysts may cause compression of adjacent structures, lead to mechanical problems in knee
5
flexion and limited mobility and may cause ischaemia and deep vein thrombosis .
There is conflicting evidence that prevalence is related to knee pain. In a cohort study of
patients with OA at multiple joint sites 47% of patients had a popliteal cyst; the presence of a
popliteal cyst was not however related to clinical symptoms and severe (Grade 2 or 3) cysts
were not significantly related to pain or stiffness17.
Labrapoulos4 though, found a much higher incidence of popliteal cysts in those with knee
symptoms compared to those without pain (19.8% v. 4%) as did de Miguel Mendieta(37% v.
15%) 15, Naredo18 (22% v. 0%) and Hill20 (33% v.20.8%). Not all of these differences were
statistically significant.
Conclusion
It is concluded that popliteal cysts may occur frequently in populations with asymptomatic
knees but there is a tendency for cyst prevalence to be higher in knees that are symptomatic.
The evidence for this statement is of low quality and findings probably depend on the
population studied.
17
18
Suggestions for reviewing claims to ACC where personal injury is said to be a substantial
causative factor
33
It is suggested that trauma may be accepted as a causative factor of a popliteal cysts when
The traumatic event resulted in the development of internal pathology to the knee
consistent with the injury and which is consonant with the formation of a popliteal cyst.
Such pathology would include effusion and medial meniscal tears likely to be of
traumatic origin.
The patient has not been symptom free from the date of injury (evidence of
derangement)
The popliteal cyst developed within a reasonable period from the date of injury
When the subject is older the presence of significant pre-existing meniscal degeneration,
OA and rheumatoid arthritis should be excluded. There should be no signs of advanced
joint disease in the contralateral knee. A weight bearing x-ray may be desirable.
19
4. Sansone described 30 cases of popliteal cyst (37% female, mean age 56) as seen at
arthropscopy and by sonography. In all cases there was an associated intra-articular
pathology. 90% of cases were related to a medial meniscal tear on the posterior horn and
the tear had horizontal components. In 10% (3) of cases the medial meniscus was
normal; 2 of the 3 cases had chondral lesions, the third serious rheumatoid synovitis.
66% had chondral lesions. In all cases a connection between the joint space and the cyst
was found. A case series Sign level = 3.
22
5. Sansone has studied the epidemiological features of popliteal cysts in 1001 adults
referred for MRI of intra-articular disorders (mean age 36, 33% women). Popliteal cysts
were seen in 4.7% of this group of whom 37% were women. The mean age of those with
20
cysts was higher than the whole group, 46 v. 36 (P<.001). The cysts had the highest
prevalence in those 50 60 and increased gradually with age. A communication with
the joint was invariably found. The cysts were associated with one, or more, disorders
detected by MRI in 94% of cases. The commonest lesions were meniscal (83%),
frequently involving the posterior horn of the medial meniscus, chondral (43%), and
anterior cruciate ligament tears (32%). 42% had chondral injury graded 3 or 4. Case
series, Sign level = 3.
6. Johnson6 has sought to establish by arthroscopy the incidence of popliteal cysts in 187
consecutive knee surgery patients (199 knees, mean age 40, 32% female). A cyst was
defined as such only if it had a communication with the knee joint via the posterior
medial compartment. 37% of knees had a popliteal bursa so identified (mean age 43.4,
33% female, age range 13.0 75 years) There was a significant correlation with age
(p<.05) for right knees only. A history of trauma was identified in 66% of the those
without bursal communication and in 64% of those with cysts and respectively, posterior
pain, 15% v. 21%; joint effusion in 37% v. 32%; meniscal tear in 66% v. 71% and OA
80% v. 82%. None of these differences were significant. Case series, Sign level = 3.
7. Wolfe3 has analysed by arthrography two case series: Group 1; 247 knees, Mean age 27,
15% female; and Group 2; 202 knees, mean age 40, 52% female. They found that in
Group 1 the prevalence of cysts was 23%; 24% in males and 19% in females. 86% of
those with cysts had damage to one or both menisci. The lateral meniscus was damaged
in 12.5% of patients. In group 2, prevalence was 32%; 36% in males and 27.6% in
females. 94% had damaged menisci. The lateral meniscus was involved in 14% of
patients. The average age of those with cysts was always greater than those without, 32
v. 26 in group one and 46 v. 37 in group 2. Incidence of cysts increased with age from
25.7% in those 21 30 to 53.5% in those 51 90. They considered that there was
overwhelming evidence that popliteal cysts were usually secondary to intra-articular
pathological processes. Case series Sign level = 3.
10
8. Fielding has reviewed MRIs from a case series to find the incidence of popliteal cyst and
its associated injuries in 1103 patients referred for evaluation of internal derangement;
(approximately even numbers of male and female, mean age 36.3). The incidence of
popliteal cyst was 5%. Mean age of those with cysts was 51.6 and those without 35.4.
50% of cysts occurred in those greater than 50. 71% of those with cysts had a meniscal
tear at the posterior horn of the medial meniscus. Lateral tears were found in 38%; 27%
had tears in both menisci. 13% had a tear to the ACL, 71% had supratellar joint
effusions and 21% signs of OA. They concluded that the reported higher incidence
found with arthrography is thought to be due to arthrographic distension of normal,
collapsed bursae. Case series, Sign level 3.
12
9. Miller has determined by MRI the prevalence of popliteal cyst in a general orthopaedic
population and its association with effusion, internal derangement, and degenerative
arthropathy in 384 subjects, mean age 47, age range 14 88.
Prevalence was 19%. 62.3% of those with cysts were female. Mean age of those with
cysts was 53 compared to those without cysts of 46 years. The epicentre of 44% cysts
were located at the level of the knee joint and 52% slightly superior to it. 99% of cysts
21
were associated with other pathology, 80.5% being with meniscal tears. No association
was found between popliteal cyst and anterior cruciate ligament tear or medial collateral
ligament injury. There were significant associations (P < .01) for effusion, meniscal tear,
and degenerative arthropathy, independent of one another. Probability of having
popliteal cyst given the presence of any one variable was 0.08-0.10; any two variables,
0.19-0.21; and all three variables, 0.38. Case series Sign level = 3.
10. Rupp13 has studied by ultrasonography the prevalence of popliteal cysts and the
associated intraarticular lesions via a prospective case-control study based on case series
subjects. They studied 100 patients scheduled for arthroscopic surgery of the knee, all
with knee pain (mean age 41, 35% women) and 100 patients without any knee
complaints as a control group (mean age 50, 45% women) from subjects hospitalised for
other spine, joint or foot surgery. The prevalence of popliteal cysts was 20% in the study
group and 0% in the control group. Patients with a popliteal cyst had a significantly
higher prevalence of medial meniscal tears (70% versus 19%) (P<.001) and of chondral
lesions (85% versus 28%) (P<.001). Tears of the lateral meniscus were more evenly
distributed (20% versus 36%) (p = ns). They concluded that the popliteal cyst is a
secondary phenomenon and that treatment should address the underlying intraarticular
lesions. Case-control Sign level 3.
1 29
11. Lindgren has described the anatomy and histology of the gastrocnemiosemimembranosus bursa after reviewing 544 patients attending for clinical arthrography
and 248 knee joints from 154 autopsy cases (Age range 10 100). A communication
between the joint and the bursa was found with greater frequency in the older subjects,
frequency increasing from age group 10 - 19 to 40 50 from where it appears to plateau
at around 50 to 60% of subjects: a communication was present in over half of those over
50 years, none in those under 10. There was no gender difference in the frequency of a
communicating bursa; the frequency did not differ between those with and without
other knee abnormalities as established by radiography; the duration of symptoms had
no influence on the frequency of joints with and without communication. The wall of
the bursa and the wall of the joint capsule had a similar histological appearance. They
concluded that the results supported the hypothesis that the popliteal cyst is formed via
rupture of the joint capsule giving a communication with the normal gastrocnemiosemimembranosus bursa. Case series sign level 3.
26
12. Pulich has investigated asymptomatic popliteal cysts in 940 patients of whom 234 had
popliteal cysts; 179 were asymptomatic. No age or gender data was given. Prevalence
was 24.9%; 76.5% were asymptomatic. Of those with asymptomatic cysts; 68.2% had a
history of a related traumatic event and 59.8% had meniscal tears; 70.4% had no joint
effusion. The author suggests that the term popliteal cyst refer only to a clinically
evident entity. Case series, Sign level 3.
22
four categories: (a) no pain and no OA of the knee, (b) no pain and OA of the knee, (c)
pain and no OA of the knee, and (d) pain and OA of the knee; a small popliteal cyst was
found in 29% of knees; in 5% they were moderate to large. The prevalence of popliteal
cyst did not significantly correlate with radiographically determined incidence of OA
though a qualitative trend was observed. Sign level 2-.
2. Hill 20 has evaluated the association of effusions, popliteal cysts, and synovial thickening
with knee symptoms in older persons in a cross-sectional analysis of subjects selected
from a veterans cohort. The knee pain/XROA group had knee symptoms and
radiographic OA (259 male, 122 female (33%)); No knee pain/XROA (radiographic OA)
group (17 male, 8 female) had no knee symptoms and radiographic OA; and No knee
pain/no XROA group (29 male, 23 female) had no knee symptoms and a normal
radiograph. Mean age 67. Popliteal cysts were seen in 20.8% of those without knee pain
and 33% of those with knee pain. The cysts were more common in those with OA than
in those without. Prevalence was also related to size of effusion (p<.001). After
adjusting for the severity of radiographic OA, there was no difference in the prevalence
of popliteal cysts between those with and without knee pain. It was concluded that knee
pain is not related to the presence of popliteal cysts. A cross-sectional analysis of a
selection from a cohort. Sign level 2-.
3. de Miguel Mendieta15 investigated the prevalence of clinical and sonographic factors
associated with painful episodes in patients with knee OA. Patients were selected from
attendees at a Rheumatoid Clinic; Group A: 81 patients with knee pain during physical
activity >or=30 mm in visual analogue scale (VAS) for pain for at least 48 h prior to
inclusion (96.3% female, mean age 66.8); Group B: 20 patients without knee pain from
at least 1 month prior to inclusion (70% female, mean age 62.1). The prevalence of
popliteal cyst was 37% v 15% (P=0.06). Sign level 3.
4. Naredo18 has compared ultrasonographic findings with clinical and radiographic
assessment of knee OA. Fifty consecutive patients with primary knee OA attending
rheumatology clinic, mean age 64.3, 88% female, 10 unilateral OA, 40 bilateral were
examined clinically and with ultrasonography. 22.2% of knees with symptoms (90
knees) had a popliteal cyst, none without symptoms had cysts (p = NS). The presence of
popliteal cyst was significantly associated with medial meniscus protrusion (p<.005),
and effusion (P,.005) but not with pain. Sign level 3.
17
5. Kornaat has prospectively evaluated the association between clinical features and
structural abnormalities found at magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in patients with
osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee in a cross-sectional analysis of a cohort. The study
examined by MRI 205 subjects (80% female) of median age 60 years; all patients in had
symptomatic OA at multiple joint sites. 35% had radiographically diagnosed OA in the
knee. 47% of patients had a popliteal cyst. The presence of a popliteal cyst was not
related to clinical symptoms; Grade 2 or 3 cysts were not significantly related to pain
(p=.16) or to stiffness p = .14. Cross-sectional analysis of cohort. Sign level 2-.
23
6. Vasilevska27 has evaluated the relationship between size of popliteal cyst and medial
compartment knee osteoarthritis in a retrospective review of a case series. 66 patients
with popliteal cyst and medial compartment knee osteoarthritis were investigated. 31
had a large popliteal cyst (65% female, mean age 54) and 35 had a small popliteal cyst
(only detectable by MRI) (66% female, mean age 59). In the group with the large
popliteal cysts, 84% had medial compartment cartilage loss and 58% of these had
associated 3rd degree meniscal degeneration; 16% cases had only medial meniscus
involvement. There was a statistically significant relationship between meniscal
degeneration and distension of the cyst (p<.01) in this group. In the second group, 48%
of cases had cartilage loss, and of these 82% had 3rd degree meniscal degeneration. In
52% of cases meniscus degeneration was only present. They concluded that the size of
the popliteal cyst was strongly correlated with degenerative changes of the cartilage and
with the degree of meniscus degeneration in the medial compartment of the knee joint.
Sign level 3.
7. Chatzopoulos2 has determined the ultrasonographic prevalence of popliteal cysts in
knees with chronic osteoarthritic pain in a case series study on 196 patients with chronic
OA, (mean age 69, 75% female) and 54 non-osteoarthritic controls, (age and gender mix
not given). Popliteal cysts were detected in 37% of OA patient compared to 2% in non
OA patients. 9% of patients had bilateral cysts. There was no significant difference in
prevalence between men and woman nor was an age affect observed although this may
have been due to the population studied. Abnormal and intense tracer accumulation in
early-phase bone scintigraphy (detects the severity of inflammation in soft-tissue) were
significantly more frequent in osteoarthritic knees with popliteal cysts (97 and 56%,
respectively), than in those without (89 and 40%, respectively, P<0.05 for both). A case
series; Sign level 3.
8. Fam16 has determined the prevalence and significance of popliteal cysts in primary
osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee in a prospective case-control series by ultrasonography in
50 patients with primary OA (grade 2 or more) , mean age 64.6, 84% female; and 25
controls, mean age 61.3, 48% female with radiographic OA = 0 or1. They found that
cysts were found in 42% of patients; (38%) had bilateral cysts, and in 0% of controls.
The majority of cysts were small and symptomless. The occurrence of cysts correlated
with the presence of knee effusion (effusion was present in 86% of knees with cysts
compared to 36% without cysts (P<.02)) and the radiological grade of OA (P<.002).
Cysts were detected in 47% of knees with grade 3 or 4 OA compared to 18% with grade
2 (p<.03). They concluded that OA may be a more common cause of popliteal cysts
than generally recognized. Prospective case series, Sign level = 3.
31
9. Ahn has examined the functional and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) outcomes of
popliteal cysts with combined intra-articular pathologies that were treated
arthroscopically. There were 31 subjects with popliteal cysts combined with pain and an
intra-articular lesion or with larger popliteal cysts unresponsive to aspirations; 55%
female, mean age 47.7.
The connecting valvular mechanism was found in all cases. 68% were associated with
medial meniscal tears, 29% lateral meniscal tears, 39% degenerative cartilage damage and
6% synovitis. Case series, Sign level 3.
24
25
10. Liao has investigated the pathology associated with popliteal cyst (BC) in patients
attending a rheumatology clinic using a case series design. Of 1,120 patients who
underwent ultrasound studies, 145 had popliteal cyst; mean age 59.6, 54% female.
Prevalence 12.9%. The associated diseases were as follows: 50.6% osteoarthritis of the
knee, 20.6% rheumatoid arthritis, 13.9% gout, 7.8% seronegative spondyloarthropathy
and 7.2% pyrophosphate arthropathy. Effusion was present in 91.7% of knees with
popliteal cysts and synovitis present in 69.9%. Case series, Sign level 3.
11. Tarhan21 has reported the prevalence of the abnormalities detected by magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasonography in a group of 58 patients with
symptomatic knee OA (mean age 57.4, 83% female) and 16 volunteer control subjects
(mean age 59, 75% female). All knees with OA had cartilage abnormalities on US
examinations and normal cartilage was detected in less than 3% of these knees by MRI.
Joint effusion was present in 24.1% of the controls; 6.9% had synovial thickening and
6.9% popliteal cysts as shown by MRI. In the cases, synovial thickening was present in
50%, effusion in 85% and popliteal cysts in 35% as determined by MRI. This study
confirmed that there was a significant correlation between the MRI and US techniques
for evaluating the cartilage and soft tissue changes in the patients with knee OA.
Case series, Sign level 3.
25
Well conducted case control or cohort studies with a low risk of confounding, bias or chance
and a moderate probability that the relationship is causal
2-
Case control or cohort studies with a high risk of confounding, bias or chance and a significant
risk that the relationship is not causal.
Non-analytic studies
Expert opinion
Acknowledgements
The timely and helpful assistance of the ACC librarians, Helen Brodie and Beth Tillier is
gratefully acknowledged.
26
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