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PHY605 Notes Semiconductor Materials
PHY605 Notes Semiconductor Materials
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS,
and MICROELECTRONICS
Materials science..
..is primarily concerned with the search of basic knowledge about the internal
structure, properties, and processing of materials.
Materials engineering..
..is mainly concerned with the use of fundamental and applied knowledge of
materials so that the materials can be converted into products needed or desired by
society.
Types of materials
Most engineering materials are divided into three main or fundamental classes;
Metallic materials
Polymeric materials
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Ceramic materials
Metallic materials..
..(metals and metal alloys) are inorganic materials that are characterized by high
thermal and electrical conductivities. Examples are iron, steel, aluminum, copper.
Polymeric materials..
..are materials consisting of long molecular chains or network of low weight elements
such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Most polymeric materials have low
electrical conductivities. Examples are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (pvc).
Ceramic materials..
..are materials consisting of compounds of metals and nonmetals. Ceramic materials
are usually hard and brittle. Examples are clay products, glass, and pure aluminum
oxide that has been compacted and densified.
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Composite materials..
.. are materials that are mixtures of two or more materials. Examples are fiberglass
reinforcing material in a polyester or epoxy matrix.
Electronic materials..
..are materials used in electronics especially microelectronics. Examples are silicon,
gallium arsenide.
Nanomaterials..
..are materials with a characteristic length scale smaller than 100 nm.
Assignment 1
Consider a lightbulb.
(a) Identify various critical components of a lightbulb.
(b) Determine the material selected for each critical component.
(c) Rationalize why the material was selected for each component.
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Semiconductor materials..
..are nearly perfect crystalline solids with small amount of imperfections, such as
impurity atoms, lattice vacancies, or dislocations, which are sometimes intentionally
introduced to alter their electrical characteristics
The semiconductors can be elemental, such as Si, Ge, and other chemical
elements from group IV.
They can be also compound, a combination between elements from group III and
group V, or respectively, from group II and group VI.
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Examples for such combinations are the binary compounds GaAs and ZnS.
There are also several combinations of practical importance, which involve two or
more elements from the same chemical group.
Such alloy semiconductors can be binary (e.g. SiGe ), ternary (e.g. AlGaAs ),
quaternary (e.g. InGaAsP), and even pentanary (GaInPSbAs) materials.
Electronic materials include insulators, semiconductors, conductors, and
superconductors.
This family of materials has truly revolutionalized the world. From spark plugs made
from alumina, and copper wires for electrical transmission to components for
wireless communications, high powered magnets used in magnetic resonance
imaging, capacitors, inductors, solar cells, active matrix displays, silicon, and gallium
arsenide based computer chips, electronic materials are found in countless numbers
of applications.
New advances in the materials sciences have led to several breakthroughs in the
developement of new electronic materials. We now have ceramics that are not just
excellent insulators, but also semiconductors and superconductors. Similarly, we
now have polymers that are semiconductive and, more recently, a superconductive
polymer has also been discovered.
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2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under lice
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Band gap..
Ternary compositions allow adjusting the band gap within the range of the involved
binary compounds; however, in case of combination of direct and indirect band gap
materials there is a ratio where indirect band gap prevails, limiting the range usable
for optoelectronics; e.g. AlGaAs LEDs are limited to 660 nm by this.
Lattice constant..
Lattice constants of the compounds also tend to be different, and the lattice
mismatch against the substrate, dependent on the mixing ratio, causes defects in
amounts dependent on the mismatch magnitude; this influences the ratio of
achievable radiative/nonradiative recombinations and determines the luminous
efficiency of the device.
Band gap and lattice constant..
Quaternary and higher compositions allow adjusting simultaneously the band gap
and the lattice constant, allowing increasing radiant efficiency at wider range of
wavelengths; for example AlGaInP is used for LEDs .
Materials transparent to the generated wavelength of light are advantageous, as this
allows more efficient extraction of photons from the bulk of the material. That is, in
such transparent materials, light production is not limited to just the surface.
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Si vs GaAs
Compound semiconductors have both advantages and disadvantages.
For example, gallium arsenide (GaAs) has six times higher electron mobility than
silicon, which allows faster operation; wider band gap, which allows operation of
power devices at higher temperatures, and gives lower thermal noise to low power
devices at room temperature.
Direct band gap gives compound semiconductors more favorable optoelectronic
properties than the indirect band gap of silicon; it can be alloyed to ternary and
quaternary compositions, with adjustable band gap width, allowing light emission at
chosen wavelengths, and allowing e.g. matching to wavelengths with lowest losses
in optical fibers.
GaAs can be also grown in a semi-insulating form, which is suitable as a latticematching insulating substrate for GaAs devices.
Conversely..
Silicon is robust, cheap, and easy to process.
whereas..
GaAs is brittle and expensive, and insulation layers cannot be created by just
growing an oxide layer; GaAs is therefore used only where silicon is not sufficient.
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Description
Indium arsenide is a semiconductor material made of arsenic and indium.
The semiconductor has a melting point of 942 C and appears in the form of grey
crystals with a cubic structure.
It is very similar to gallium arsenide and is a material having a direct bandgap.
Indium arsenide is popular for its narrow energy bandgap and high electron mobility.
Applications
The applications of indium arsenide are listed below:
Detectors that are cryogenically cooled have low noise but InAs detectors can
be used in high-power applications at room temperature also.
Indium arsenide and gallium arsenide are similar and it is a direct bandgap
material.
It is also possible to form quantum dots in indium gallium arsenide in the form
of indium arsenide dots arranged in the gallium arsenide matrix.
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Gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium arsenide (InAs), and aluminium gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs) are semiconductor applications. Although the increased use of these
materials has raised concerns about occupational exposure to them, there is little
information regarding the adverse health effects to workers arising from exposure to
these particles. However, available data indicate these semiconductor materials can
be toxic in animals.
Although acute and chronic toxicity of the lung, reproductive organs, and kidney are
associated with exposure to these semiconductor materials, in particular, chronic
toxicity should pay much attention owing to low solubility of these materials.
Between InAs, GaAs, and AlGaAs, InAs was the most toxic material to the lung
followed by GaAs and AlGaAs when given intra-tracheally. This was probably due to
difference in the toxicity of the counter-element of arsenic in semiconductor
materials, such as indium, gallium, or aluminium, and not arsenic itself. It appeared
that indium, gallium, or aluminium was toxic when released from the particles,
though the physical character of the particles also contributes to toxic effect.
Although there is no evidence of the carcinogenicity of InAs or AlGaAs, GaAs and
InP, which are semiconductor materials, showed the clear evidence of carcinogenic
potential. It is necessary to pay much greater attention to the human exposure of
semiconductor materials.
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OLED
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) could revolutionize the market for displays.
OLEDs are..
self-luminous
rich in contrast
extremely flat
video-capable
Numerous manufacturers have now introduced their own brands for OLED products,
including Osram Opto Semiconductors. Osram Opto Semiconductors is currently
producing only passivematrix displays made of polymers.
Two types of organic chemicals emit light when a voltage is applied to them: longchain polymers and small molecules. Furthermore, two underlying phenomena are
involved: fluorescence and phosphorescence. And in the field of display technology,
there are two contrasting architectures: active-matrix and passive-matrix. Here, the
anode and cathode consist of narrow conductor paths that cross at 90 degrees and
enclose the polymer layer (see graphic). The points at which these electrodes
intersect form pixels. Light is radiated outward through a transparent electrode made
of indium tin oxide. Passive-matrix displays are relatively easy to manufacture, but
because of losses in their electrical conductors, they are limited in size to screen
diagonals of about five centimeters. This limitation is absent in active-matrix displays,
which are more complex. Here, each pixel is individually activated, which requires an
integrated circuit at the display level. The ideal solution would be thin-film transistors
made of polycrystalline silicon, but they are not yet widely available. If integrated
circuits use competing amorphous silicon technology, however, power consumption
is too high.
In a passive-matrix display the cathode and anode form a square grid. Pixels made
of OLED material are excited by an electrical current, causing them to emit light.
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OLED vs LCD
OLED displays have the following advantages over LCD displays;
Lower power consumption
Faster refresh rate and better contrast
Greater brightness - The screens are brighter, and have a fuller viewing
angle
Exciting displays - new types of displays, that we do not have today,
like ultra-thin, flexible or transparent displays
Better durability - OLEDs are very durable and can operate in a
broader temperature range
Lighter weight - the screen can be made very thin, and can even be
'printed' on flexible surfaces
Flexible and transparent OLED displays
It turns out that because OLEDs are thin and simple - they can be used to create
flexible and even transparent displays.
This is pretty exciting as it opens up a whole world of possibilities:
Curved OLED displays, placed on non-flat surfaces
Wearable OLEDs
Transparent OLEDs embedded in windows
OLEDs in car windshields
New designs for lamps
And many more we cannot even imagine today...
OLED video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqyW9vdS0x0
*Video (@youtube)
-Bendable smartphone
http://ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-today/video-new-smartphone-prototype-bends-tomeet-consumers-needs
-the verge
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Quantum dot
A quantum dot contains a small finite number (of the order of 1-100) of conduction
band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons, i.e., a finite number of elementary
electric charges.
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Server
Telecom
Solar
UPS
PC Silverbox
Motor Drives
Lighting
Features
Benefits
Temperature independent
switching behavior
Enabling higher
frequency/increased power
max 175C)
density
Reduced EMI
Diodes
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Solar cells
Photodetectors
Photoluminescence
Electroluminescence
Light-emitting diodes
Laser diodes
Image sensors
Heterojunction Bipolar
Transistors
Optoelectr
onic
Devices
Bipolar
junction
transistor
s
Diodes
Metal-OxideSemiconductor FET
(MOSFET)
Junction FET (JFET)
pn homojunctions
Heterojunctions
Metal-semiconductor
junctions
Fieldeffect
transistor
s
Diodes
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Tunnel diode
Gunn diode
Impatt diode
Power bipolar transistor
Power MOSFET
Thyristor
Microwav
e and
Power
Devices
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanomaterials are defined as materials with at least one external dimension in the
size range from approximately 1-100 nanometers.
Nanoparticles are objects with all three external dimensions at the nanoscale.
Nanotechnology encompasses the understanding of the fundamental physics,
chemistry, biology and technology of nanometre-scale objects.
Nanoparticles can either be..
- the naturally occurring
(e.g., volcanic ash, soot from forest fires)
- the incidental byproducts of combustion processes
(e.g., welding, diesel engines)
- are usually physically and chemically heterogeneous and often termed
ultrafine particles.
Engineered nanoparticles
-
are intentionally produced and designed with very specific properties related
to shape, size, surface properties and chemistry.
Often, the behavior of nanomaterials may depend more on surface area than
particle composition itself.
Relative-surface area is one of the principal factors that enhance its reactivity,
strength and electrical properties.
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(from article)
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causing pulmonary inflammation and lung tumors. Results from in vitro cell culture
studies with similar materials are generally supportive of the biological responses
observed in animals.
Experimental studies in animals, cell cultures, and cell-free systems have shown that
changes in the chemical composition, crystal structure, and size of particles can
influence their oxidant generation properties and cytotoxicity.
Studies in workers exposed to aerosols of some manufactured or incidental
microscopic (fine) and nanoscale (ultrafine) particles have reported adverse lung
effects including lung function decrements and obstructive and fibrotic lung diseases.
The implications of these studies to engineered nanoparticles, which may have
different particle properties, are uncertain.
Research is needed to determine the key physical and chemical characteristics of
nanoparticles that determine their hazard potential.
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gloves)
Working with nanomaterials in liquid during pouring or mixing operations, or
nanomaterials.
Cleaning of dust collection systems used to capture nanoparticles.
Machining, sanding, drilling, or other mechanical disruptions of materials
containing nanoparticles.
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(from website)
MEMS Technology
https://www.mems-exchange.org/MEMS/what-is.html
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Over the past several decades MEMS researchers and developers have
demonstrated an extremely large number of microsensors for almost every possible
sensing modality including temperature, pressure, inertial forces, chemical species,
magnetic fields, radiation, etc. Remarkably, many of these micromachined sensors
have demonstrated performances exceeding those of their macroscale counterparts.
That is, the micromachined version of, for example, a pressure transducer, usually
outperforms a pressure sensor made using the most precise macroscale level
machining techniques. Not only is the performance of MEMS devices exceptional,
but their method of production leverages the same batch fabrication techniques used
in the integrated circuit industry which can translate into low per-device production
costs, as well as many other benefits. Consequently, it is possible to not only achieve
stellar device performance, but to do so at a relatively low cost level. Not surprisingly,
silicon based discrete microsensors were quickly commercially exploited and the
markets for these devices continue to grow at a rapid rate.
More recently, the MEMS research and development community has demonstrated a
number of microactuators including: microvalves for control of gas and liquid flows;
optical switches and mirrors to redirect or modulate light beams; independently
controlled micromirror arrays for displays, microresonators for a number of different
applications, micropumps to develop positive fluid pressures, microflaps to modulate
airstreams on airfoils, as well as many others. Surprisingly, even though these
microactuators are extremely small, they frequently can cause effects at the
macroscale level; that is, these tiny actuators can perform mechanical feats far larger
than their size would imply. For example, researchers have placed small
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microactuators on the leading edge of airfoils of an aircraft and have been able to
steer the aircraft using only these microminiaturized devices.
The real potential of MEMS starts to become fulfilled when these miniaturized
sensors, actuators, and structures can all be merged onto a common silicon
substrate along with integrated circuits (i.e., microelectronics). While the electronics
are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) process sequences (e.g., CMOS, Bipolar,
or BICMOS processes), the micromechanical components are fabricated using
compatible "micromachining" processes that selectively etch away parts of the
silicon wafer or add new structural layers to form the mechanical and
electromechanical devices. It is even more interesting if MEMS can be merged not
only with microelectronics, but with other technologies such as photonics,
nanotechnology, etc. This is sometimes called heterogeneous integration. Clearly,
these technologies are filled with numerous commercial market opportunities.
While more complex levels of integration are the future trend of MEMS technology,
the present state-of-the-art is more modest and usually involves a single discrete
microsensor, a single discrete microactuator, a single microsensor integrated with
electronics, a multiplicity of essentially identical microsensors integrated with
electronics, a single microactuator integrated with electronics, or a multiplicity of
essentially identical microactuators integrated with electronics. Nevertheless, as
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A surface micromachined resonator fabricated by the MNX. This device can be used as both
a microsensor as well as a microactuator.
well as in how the devices are designed and manufactured. Already, MEMS is
revolutionizing many product categories by enabling complete systems-on-a-chip to
be realized.
Nanotechnology is the ability to manipulate matter at the atomic or molecular level to
make something useful at the nano-dimensional scale. Basically, there are two
approaches in implementation: the top-down and the bottom-up. In the top-down
approach, devices and structures are made using many of the same techniques as
used in MEMS except they are made smaller in size, usually by employing more
advanced photolithography and etching methods. The bottom-up approach typically
involves deposition, growing, or self-assembly technologies. The advantages of
nano-dimensional devices over MEMS involve benefits mostly derived from the
scaling laws, which can also present some challenges as well.
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Similarly the atomic force microscope (AFM) which is used to manipulate the
placement and position of individual atoms and molecules on the surface of a
substrate is a MEMS device as well. In fact, a variety of MEMS technologies are
required in order to interface with the nano-scale domain.
Likewise, many MEMS technologies are becoming dependent on nanotechnologies
for successful new products. For example, the crash airbag accelerometers that are
manufactured using MEMS technology can have their long-term reliability degraded
due to dynamic in-use stiction effects between the proof mass and the substrate. A
nanotechnology called Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAM) coatings are now
routinely used to treat the surfaces of the moving MEMS elements so as to prevent
stiction effects from occurring over the products life.
Many experts have concluded that MEMS and nanotechnology are two different
labels for what is essentially a technology encompassing highly miniaturized things
that cannot be seen with the human eye. Note that a similar broad definition exists in
the integrated circuits domain which is frequently referred to as microelectronics
technology even though state-of-the-art IC technologies typically have devices with
dimensions of tens of nanometers. Whether or not MEMS and nanotechnology are
one in the same, it is unquestioned that there are overwhelming mutual
dependencies between these two technologies that will only increase in time.
Perhaps what is most important are the common benefits afforded by these
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Cleanroom
(from website)
Cleanroom http://www.advancetecllc.com/nanotechnology_microelectronics.html
Whether you require a 1,000 square foot Class 100 cleanroom or a fully functional volume
production fab, AdvanceTEC can address your critical requirements for contamination
control, code compliance, and process tool fit-up & installation.
Our Approach
AdvanceTEC provides comprehensive cleanroom design and cleanroom construction
capabilities to serve Nanotech and Semiconductor clients. We understand the technical
challenges of these facilities, and deploy the capabilities required to ensure your success.
Requirements
Gathering
Process utility
studies
Code compliance
evaluations
Chemical and gas
storage and distribution
plans
HVAC, mechanical
Construction
Management
Process tool
constructability and
maintainability
Experienced,
salaried Project and
Construction Management
Clean Build
Protocol construction
Commissioning,
certification and training
Process tool fit-up
and hook-up
Site safety
Our Experience
AdvanceTEC has a proven track record of addressing diverse mechanical, architectural and
process utility requirements of leading edge Nanotech and Semiconductor cleanrooms.
Applications
Design Approach
Facility Types
Design Approach
Facility Types
Cleanliness Classifications
Federal Standard 209e
more information
more information
Class 10
Class 100
Class 1,000
Class 10,000
Class 100,000
ISO 4
ISO 5
ISO 6
ISO 7
ISO 8
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(from article)
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countries like India, where growth of infrastructure plays a significant role in the
growth of the country, engineering of green and smart construction material will
enormously help to generate public, private, strategic and societal goods. Among all
the nano forms of metals and non-metals, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) seem to have
the most promising role towards developing an ideal (high strength, ductile, crack
free, durable) construction material like concrete. The carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
attract the researchers since their discovery, because of their higher strength and
relatively low weight. These nanotubes are useful for any application where
robustness and flexibility are necessary. Further, nanotubes are also stable under
extreme chemical environments, high temperatures and moisture as well. Use of
nano engineered concrete would lead to considerable reduction in the dimensions of
the structural members which could result in much less consumption of cement and
thereby reduction of CO2 release and make the world sustainable through ecofriendly products. Further, carbon nanotubes can also be used to make nano
composite steel. Initial research findings reveal that they are about 50 times stronger
and 10 times lighter than conventional steel. Apart from technical intricacies and lack
of information, one of the main obstacles in using CNTs in construction is cost of
CNTs as construction materials need to be produced in mass and should be
reasonably cheap. Exorbitant cost implications in production of CNTs are diminishing
very fast. For example, cost of industrial CNT was $27,000/lb in 1992, $550/lb in
2006 and $120/lb in 2011. It is also predicted that the price would be as low as
$0.5/lb in 201314 [1]. To bring out the best from carbon nanotubes to the
construction industry, specifically, in usage of construction materials, the
extraordinary geometrical shape, unparallel mechanical properties, complex but
challenging synthesis processes, and probable areas of applications are essential to
be known. Therefore, an overview of these aspects of carbon nanotubes with the
current state of knowledge is brought out in the present paper.
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