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The m-factors specified below shall not be applied in conjunction with approximate load
distribution factors specified in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis of ERA
design manual, except where the lever rule is used or where special requirements for
exterior beams in beam-slab bridges is applied.
Number of Loaded Lanes
Multiple Presence Factors m
1
1.20
2
1.0
3
0.85
>3
0.65
If 100 ADTT 1000; 95 % of the specified force effect shall be used; and
If ADTT < 100; 90 % of the specified force effect shall be used.
This adjustment is based on the reduced probability of attaining the design event during a
75-year design life with reduced truck volume.
Design Truck
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The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as specified in
Figure 2-1. A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as specified in the following
subchapter on Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance.
Plan of Design Truck Load
showing tire contact areas
4.3 m
4.3 9.0 m
1.8 m
3.000 mm
FIGURE 2-1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DESIGN TRUCK
Except as specified in following subchapters on the application of Design Vehicular Live
Loads and Fatigue Loads, the spacing between the two 145 kN axles shall be varied
between 4.3 and 9.0 m to produce extreme force effects.
Design Tandem
The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges shall consist of a pair of 110 kN axles
spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. A dynamic
load allowance shall be considered as specified in a following subchapter. The spacing
and loading is illustrated in Figure 3-2
110 kN
1.2 m
110 kN
1.8 m
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The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly distributed in the
longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be
uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load
shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.
A pedestrian load of 4.0 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m
and considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.
See the provisions of above subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load for applying the
pedestrian loads in combination with the vehicular live load. Usually the 4 kN/m2 load
will allow for small cars to pass. To avoid accidents for bridges wider than 2.4 m,
provision shall be made for an additional axle load.
Where sidewalks, pedestrian, and/or bicycle bridges are intended to be used by
maintenance and/or other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be considered in the
design. If unknown, at least one movable axle load of 70 kN acting together with the
pedestrian load shall be applied. The dynamic load allowance need not be considered for
these vehicles.
In half-through-trusses of steel, the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be
designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a
permanent load for the Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly.
IM
75%
15%
33%
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The dynamic load allowance (IM) in Table 3.3 is an increment to be applied to the static
wheel load to account for wheel load impact from moving vehicles.
Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall be attributed to two sources:
Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface
discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delaminations, and
Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to
long undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill,
or to resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge
and vehicle. The frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.
BURIED COMPONENTS
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken
as:
IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%
Where:
DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)
WOOD COMPONENTS
Wood structures are known to experience reduced dynamic wheel load effects due to
internal friction between the components and the damping characteristics of wood.
For wood bridges and wood components of bridges, the dynamic load allowance values
specified in table of dynamic load allowance shall be reduced to 70 of the values
specified therein for IM.
2.5 TIRE CONTACT AREA
The tire contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tires shall be assumed to be a
single rectangle, whose width is 500 mm and whose length () in mm shall be taken as:
l = 2.28 x 10-3 (1 + IM/100) P
where: = load factor for the limit state under consideration.
IM = dynamic load allowance percent
P = 72.5 kN for the design truck and 55 kN for the design tandem
(2.1)
The tire pressure shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. The
tire pressure shall be assumed to be distributed as follows:
On continuous surfaces, uniformly over the specified contact area, and
On interrupted surfaces, uniformly over the actual contact area within the footprint
with the pressure increased in the ratio of the specified to actual contact areas.
However, for all concrete decks including composite decks the length 200 mm shall be
used in Equation 2.1.
2.6 APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS
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The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load are superimposed in order to obtain
extreme values.
Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the larger of the
following:
The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load, or
The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in the
subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load above, combined with the effect of the
design lane load, and
For both negative and positive moment between points of contraflexure under a
uniform load on all spans, and reaction at interior piers only, 90% of the effect of two
design trucks spaced a minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one truck and the
rear axle of the other truck, combined with 90% of the effect of the design lane load.
The distance between the 145 kN axles of each truck shall be taken as 4.3 m.
The design truck or tandem shall be positioned transversely such that the center of any
wheel load is not closer than:
For the design of the deck overhang - 300 mm from the face of the curb or railing,
and
For the design of all other components - 600 mm from the edge of the design lane.
Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or parts thereof, that contribute to
the extreme force effect under consideration, shall be loaded with the design lane load.
The lane load is not interrupted to provide space for the axle sequences of the design
tandem or the design truck.
2.7 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES (CE= VEHICULAR CENTRIFUGAL FORCE)
Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or
tandem and the factor C, taken as:
C = 4 v2
3 g*R
where: v = highway design speed (m/s)
g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
Highway design speed shall not be taken to be less than the value specified in the
Geometric Design Manual-2001, Chapter 5: Design Controls & Criteria, Section 5.8:
Design Speed. The multiple presence factors specified above in subchapter Multiple
Presence of Live Load shall apply. Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a
distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.
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Lane load is neglected in computing the centrifugal force, as the spacing of vehicles at
high speed is assumed to be large, resulting in a low density of vehicles following and/or
preceding the design truck.
2.8 BRAKING FORCE (BR= VEHICULAR BRAKING FORCE)
Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration (retardation), the braking
force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:
v2
2ga
where a = the length of uniform deceleration.
b =
Calculations using a braking length of 122 m and a speed of 90 km/h (25 m/s) yield b =
0.26 for a horizontal force that will act for a period of about 10 seconds. The factor "b"
applies to all lanes in one direction because all vehicles may have reacted within this time
frame. Only the design truck or tandem is to be considered.
Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem
per lane placed in all design lanes which are considered to be loaded in accordance with
above subchapter Number of Design Lanes, and which are carrying traffic headed in the
same direction. These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at the level of the
roadway surface in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects. All
design lanes shall be simultaneously loaded for bridges likely to become one-directional
in the future.
2.9 WIND LOAD (WL= WIND ON LIVE LOAD; WS= WIND LOAD ON STRUCTURE)
HORIZONTAL WIND PRESSURE
General
Pressures specified herein shall be assumed to be caused by a base design wind velocity,
VB, of 160 km/h (= 45 m/s).
Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed on the area exposed to the wind.
The exposed area shall be the sum of areas of all components, including floor system and
railing, as seen in elevation taken perpendicular to the assumed wind direction. This
direction shall be varied to determine the extreme force effect in the structure or in its
components. Areas that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration
shall be neglected in the analysis.
For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above low ground or water level, the
design wind velocity, VDZ (km/h), at design elevation, z, should be adjusted according to:
V 10 Z
VDZ 2.5 * Vo In
VB Zo
where: V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level (km/h)
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Fundamentals of bridge design Chapter 2
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VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h (45 m/s) at 10 m height, yielding design
pressures specified in following subchapters Wind Pressure on Structures
and Vertical Wind Pressure
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated as measured from
low ground, or from water level, > 10 m (m)
Vo = friction velocity, a meteorological wind characteristic taken, as specified in
Table 3-4, for various upwind surface characteristics (km/h)
Zo = friction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic taken
as specified in Table 3-4 below (m)
V10 shall be established from:
Basic Wind Speed charts available from National Meteorological Services Agency
for various recurrence intervals,
Site-specific wind surveys, or
In the absence of better criterion, the assumption that V10 = VB =145 km/h (= 40 m/s)
shall be used for small and medium sized bridges.
The following descriptions are for the terms "open country" and "suburban" in Table 3-4:
Open Country: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less
than 10 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.
Urban and Suburban: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain
with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family or larger
dwellings. Use of this category shall be limited to those areas for which
representative terrain prevails in the upwind direction at least 500 m.
CONDITION
OPEN COUNTRY
Vo (km/h)
Zo (m)
13.2
70
17.6
1000
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Equation 3.2 below is based on boundary layer theory combined with empirical
observations and represents the most recent approach to defining wind speeds for various
conditions as used in meteorology. In the past, an exponential equation was sometimes
used to relate wind speed to heights above 10 m. This formulation was based solely on
empirical observations and had no theoretical basis.
Z
(2.2)
VDZ CV10 *
10
The purpose of the term C and exponent "" was to adjust the equation for various
upstream surface conditions, similar to the use of Table 3-4 (further information can be
found in Refs.)
Wind Pressure on Structures: WS
For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the wind load on
structures shall be neglected.
For large and/or light bridges the following shall apply. If justified by local conditions, a
different base design wind velocity shall be selected for load combinations not involving
wind on live load. The direction of the design wind shall be assumed horizontal, unless
otherwise specified in the following subchapter Aero elastic Instability. In the absence of
more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:
2
VDZ
V DZ
PD PB
PB 25600
V
B
STRUCTURAL COMPONENT
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(2.3)
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CD
0.7
1.4
1.4
0.8
The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure
and the projected surface exposed thereto.
Floating logs, roots, and other debris may accumulate at piers and, by blocking parts of
the waterway, increase stream pressure load on the pier. Such accumulation is a function
of the availability of such debris and level of maintenance efforts by which it is removed.
It shall be accounted for by the judicious increase in both the exposed surface and the
velocity of water.
The following provision (Ref. 2) shall be used as guidance in the absence of site-specific
criteria:
Where a significant amount of driftwood is carried, water pressure shall also be
allowed for on a driftwood raft lodged against the pier. The size of the raft is a matter
of judgment, but as a guide, Dimension A in Figure 3-3 should be half the water
depth, but not greater than 3m. Dimension B should be half the sum of adjacent span
lengths, but no greater than 14 m. Pressure shall be calculated using Equation 3.3,
with CD = 0.5.
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CL
0.0
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.0
(Ref 15)
Table 2-9 Lateral Drag Coefficient
The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the
surface exposed thereto.
2.11 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS (EQ= EARTHQUAKE)
GENERAL
Earthquake loads shall be taken to be horizontal force effects determined on the basis of
the elastic response coefficient, Csm and the equivalent weight of the superstructure,
adjusted by the response modification factor, R.
ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT
The coefficient, "A", to be used in the application of these provisions shall be determined
from the contour map of Ethiopia in Figure 3-5. Linear interpolation shall be used for
sites located between contour lines or between a contour line and a local maximum or
minimum.
IMPORTANCE CATEGORIES
The bridges within Zone 4 (mainly Rift Valley) shall be classified into one of three
importance categories as follows:
Critical bridges,
Essential bridges, or
Other bridges.
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Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency
vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a
475-year return period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after
the design earthquake and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense
purposes immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event.
These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.
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ACCELERATION COEFFICIENTS
Each bridge shall be assigned to one of the seismic zones in accordance with Table 2-10
below:
EBCS zone from Figure 3-9
1
2
3
4
Acceleration Coefficient
A 0.03
0.03 < A 0.05
0.05 < A 0.07
0.07 < A 0.10
Site
Coefficient
S
III
1.5
IV
2.0
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A profile with soft to medium-stiff clays and sands, characterized by 9 m or more of soft
to medium-stiff clays with or without intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless
soils shall be taken as Type III.
A profile with soft clays or silts greater than 12 m in depth shall be taken as Type IV.
These materials shall be characterized by a shear wave velocity of less than 152 m/s and
might include loose natural deposits or manmade, nonengineered fill.
ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT
Unless specified otherwise as exceptions in this subchapter, the elastic seismic response
coefficient, Csm, for the mth mode of vibration shall be taken as:
Csm
1.2 AS
2.5 A
Tm 2 / 3
Figure 2-6 Seismic Response Coefficients, Csm for Various Soil Profiles,
Normalized with Respect to Acceleration Coefficient "A" (Csm on the left
axis)
Exceptions to the application of Equation for Csm are as follows:
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For bridges on soil profiles III or IV, Csm need not exceed 2.0*A.
For soil profiles III and IV, and for modes other than the fundamental mode, that have
periods less than 0.3 s, Csm shall be taken as:
Csm = A (0.8 + 4.0*Tm)
If the period of vibration for any mode exceeds 4.0 s, the value of C sm for that mode
shall be taken as:
Csm = 3AS
Tm4/3
RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS
Except as noted herein, seismic design force effects for substructures and the connections
between parts of structures shall be determined by dividing the force effects resulting
from elastic analysis by the appropriate response modification factor, R, as specified in
Tables 2-12 and 2-13, respectively.
Substructure
Wall-type piers larger dimension
Reinforced concrete pile bents
Vertical piles only
With battered piles
Single columns
Steel or composite steel and concrete pile bents
Vertical pile only
With battered piles
Importance Category
Critical Essential
Other
1.5
1.5
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
1.5
3.5
5.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
Multiple column bents
1.5
3.5
5.0
Table 2-12 Response Modification R-Factors for Substructures
Connection
Superstructure to abutment
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
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Single-Span
Bridges
1-3
4
No Seismic Analysis
Seismic Analysis
Multispan Bridges
Other Bridges
Essential Bridges
Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
*
*
*
*
*
*
SM/UL
SM
SM/UL
MM
MM
MM
where:
i= load modifier (a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational
importance)
Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
i = load factors
Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the
margin of safety of bridges. Whereas the first two directly relate to physical strength, the
last concerns the consequences of the bridge being out of service.
DUCTILITY
The response of structural components or connections beyond the elastic limit can be
characterized by either brittle or ductile behavior. Under repeated seismic loading, large
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reversed cycles of inelastic deformation dissipate energy and have a beneficial effect on
structural survival.
If, by means of confinement or other measures, a structural component or connection
made of brittle materials can sustain inelastic deformations without significant loss of
load-carrying capacity, this component can be considered ductile. Such ductile
performance shall be verified by testing.
The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme
event limit states prior to failure.
For the strength limit state, the ductility factor
D 1.05 for non-ductile components and connections
D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these
Specifications
D 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductilityenhancing measures have been specified beyond those required by these
Specifications
For all other limit states:
D = 1.00
REDUNDANCY
Main elements and components whose failure is expected to cause the collapse of the
bridge shall be designated as failure-critical and the associated structural system as nonredundant. Alternatively, failure-critical members in tension shall be designated fracturecritical.
Those elements and components whose failure is not expected to cause collapse of the
bridge shall be designated as non-failure-critical and the associated structural system as
redundant.
For the strength limit state:
R
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Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.
STRENGTH II
Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified special design or
permit vehicles, without wind.
STRENGTH III
Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 km/h.
STRENGTH IV
Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect ratios.
STRENGTH V
Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 90 km/h
(25 m/s) velocity
EXTREME
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EVENT
SERVICE I
SERVICE II
Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with a 90 km/h
(25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to deflection
control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to
control crack width in reinforced concrete structures. This load combination should also
be used for the investigation of slope stability.
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this load
combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in prestressed concrete
components.
Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slipcritical connections due to vehicular live load.
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures, and it
is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view of load level, this
combination is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and Strength I
Limit States.
SERVICE III
Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures with the
objective of crack control.
FATIGUE
Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational vehicular live
load and dynamic responses under a single design truck having a constant axle spacing
of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found to be
representative of the truck population with respect to a large number of return cycles of
stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements, components, and connections.
The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as
specified in the following table. All relevant subsets of the load combinations shall be
investigated. For each load combination, every load that is indicated to be taken into
account and that is germane to the component being designed, including all significant
effects due to distortion, shall be multiplied by the appropriate load factor and multiple
presence factor, if applicable. The products shall be summed as specified in Equation 3.4
and multiplied by the load modifiers.
The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each
load combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.
In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value
shall be applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the
load factor that produces the more critical combination shall be selected from the
following table. Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying
capacity of a component or bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for that
permanent load shall also be investigated.
The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU),
Creep (CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for deformations and the smaller values
for all other effects.
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In the application of permanent loads, force effects for each of the specified six load
types should be computed separately. It is unnecessary to assume that one type of load
varies by span, length, or component within a bridge.
Load
Combination
Limit State
STRENGTH 1
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH II
STRENGTH III
STRENGTH IV
EH, EV, ES, DW
DC ONLY
STRENGTH V
EXTREME
EVENT
SERVICE I
SERVICE II
SERVICE III
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE
ONLY
DC
DD
DW
EH
EV
ES
WA
WS
WL
FR
TU
CR
SH
TG
SE
LL
IM
CE
BR
PL
LS
EL
1.75
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
TG
SE
p
p
1.35
-
1.00
1.00
1.40
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
0.50/1.20
TG
TG
-
SE
SE
-
p
1.5
p
p
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
1.35
EQ
1.00
1.00
0.50
-
1.0
-
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
-
TG
-
SE
-
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.30
0.80
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.30
-
1.0
-
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00/1.20
1.00/1.20
1.00/1.20
TG
TG
0.75
Use one of
these at a
time
EQ
-
CT
-
SE
SE
1.0
0
-
FR = friction
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure
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Strength I Limit State where the permanent load reaction is positive and live load can
cause a negative reaction, the load combination would be:
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)
If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).
Type of Load
0.90
0.90
1.0
N/A
1.00
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.75
For each force effect, both extreme combinations may need to be investigated by
applying either the high or the low load factor as appropriate. The algebraic sums of these
products are the total force effects for which the bridge and its components should be
designed.
LOAD FACTORS FOR CONSTRUCTION LOADS
Load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances shall not be taken to be
less than 1.25.
Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the load factor for construction loads, for equipment
and for dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The load factor for wind shall not be
less than 1.25. All other load factors shall be taken as 1.0.
The load factors presented here should not relieve the contractor of responsibility for
safety and damage control during construction.
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