Public Participation, a definition

The collective efforts of the beneficiaries of development (ordinary people) to organise

themselves and pool their social capital to attain set grassroots objectives through
influencing, directing and eventually owning the development process (Rahman 1993:150
and the International Association for Public Participation)
Forms of public participation
Pretty et al (1995), participation comes in different forms which they prefer to call typologies
and these are:
Passive participation
Participation in information giving
Participation by consultation
Participation for material incentives
Functional participation
Interactive participation
Self mobilization

Levels of participation
Arnstein (1969:218) public participation differs in scope and depth forming eight levels of
participation as follows:
1. Public control
The public has the degree of power necessary to govern a project without outside influence
2 Delegated power
The public acquires the dominant decision-making authority over a particular project
3. Partnership
Power becomes distributed through negotiations between the public and those in power
4 Placation
A few handpicked members are appointed to committees while tokenism is still the main
motivation for the powerful

5 Consultation
The public free to offer opinions
There is no assurance that these opinions will be considered
6 Informing
Flow of information is one-way and top-down
The public is informed of their rights, responsibilities and options
7 Therapy
Focus is on shaping the publics attitudes in order for them to conform to those in power
rather than focus on the programme or project
8 Manipulation
The public is part of powerless committees and the notion of public participation is a
public relations vehicle for the powerful

Strategies to increase participation

(Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism South
Africa (DEAT) 2002:14)
DEAT (2002: 24) suggests three levels of strategy which
cover about thirty (30) options;
Level 1: Informing Participants
1. Legal notices
2. Advertisements
3. Magazines, news articles and press releases
4. Background information material
5. Exhibits and displays
6. Technical reports
7. Websites
8. Field trips

9. Press conferences
10. Radio and TV talk shows
11. Expert panels and educational meetings
Level 2: Consulting Participants
12. Public meetings
13. Public hearings
14. Open days open houses
15. Briefings
16. Central information contact
17. Field offices or information centres
18. Comments and response sheets
19. Surveys and polls
20. Interviews or focus group discussions
21. Telephone hotlines or complaints register
22. Electronic democracy

Level 3: Empowering participants

23. Workshops, focus groups and stakeholder
meetings
24. Advisory committees and panels
25. Task force
26. Citizen juries
27. Charettes and consensus conference
28. Imbizo: interactive governance aimed at
partnership between planners and stakeholders
29. Indaba: forum for open and frequent dialogue
between stakeholders to identify and address

issues of common concern

30. Participatory appraisal/participatory learning
& action
Appropriate people and issue centred
research methodology through which the
concerned people conduct their own research
in partnership with the researcher or official
(Theron & Wetmore 2008: 202-219)

Key Informant interviews allows individual to speak freely and helps in the identification of
various interest groups though a trusted interviewer is required for success.

Focus groups allows citizens of similar interests to express their opinions, interaction allows
formulation and creation of ideas and strategies but require a skilled leader to meet with the
groups several times to notice any trends
Nominal groups allow expression of all ideas in a non-debate format resulting in priotisation
of needs and concerns.