1.+composition+of+oil+and+gas Data+in+Petroleum+Geology+2

Petroleum Geology
Reinhard Sachsenhofer
Contents
(Un)conventional hydrocarbons
Composition of oil and gas
Data in Petroleum Geology
(Cuttings, cores, log, seismic)
Basin Types
Petroleum Systems
Source Rocks
(Evaluation, Depositional Environments)
Migration
Traps
Sandstone Reservoirs
Carbonate Reservoirs
Basin Modelling
Conventional HC-accumulation in structural trap
Cap rock
Reservoir
rock
Gas
Oil
Source
rock
(>1% Total
Organic Carbon;
TOC)
Water
www.aapg.org
Buoyancy keeps HCs in trap below an impermeable cap rock
Source rock for oil/gas

(Bohrung sdlich Wels)
Algen
UV Anregung
Landpflanzen
30 mio. y. old mud

Fish Shale (Schneck Fm.)
Weies Licht
Mikroscope-Foto
Oil and gas genesis

Generated Hydrocarbons
15
immature
dry.
Gas
Overmat.
wet
Gas
Depth (km)
mature
oil(-window)
Bacterial Gas, CH4

1
50
85
Oil
3
GAS
120
155
5
Reservoir rock for oil/gas

e.g. Sand-filled river channel
Westphal / Bay of Fundy
0.5 mm
Buntsandstein
(Solling, Germany)
(Foto von H. Kulke, 1983) 6
Unconventional HC-deposits
( Unconventionelle hydrocarbons)
Special techniques for production needed
Tar sand (oil sand):

Tight Gas & Tight Oil:
Shale gas & shale oil:
Coalbed Methane:
Gas-hydrate (Clathrate):
Oil shale
7
normal deposit at earths surface,

high viscous oil, produced with heat and solvents
(e.g. Athabasca oil sand)

Coalbed Methane:
Gas-hydrate (Clathrate):
http://www.wwf.de/themen-projekte/klima-energie/verkehrspolitik/schmutziges-oel-auskanada/
Oil shale
Producable reserves: 170 Mrd Barrel (27109 m3)

8
Gas and oil in low permeable reservoir rocks (<1 md).

Produktion since 1970s (Acidizing, Fraccing)
Coalbed Methane
Gas Hydrate (Clathrate):
Oil shale:
Thin section: Calcite-cement on quartz grains
( Reduction in permeability)
source: Dr. V. Hvenith, RWTH Aachen
Shale gas & shale oil: gas / (light-)oil in relative
impermeable shales
(source rocks)
Coalbed Methane:
Gas Hydrat (Clathrat):
lschiefer:
10
~7% of gas production in U.S.

Coalbed Methane:
Oil shale:
Gas adsorbed to coal substance

( dewatering, Fraccing!)
30-40 m Methane/t coal

Flzgas (Schlagende Wetter)
Fohnsdorf 6. 8. 1943: 102 killed
11
Water molecule cage

Gas molecule
(e.g. methane)
Coalbed Methane:
Gas Hydrat (Clathrat): Ice composed of gas molecules within
water cage
(stable at low temp. & high pressure)
Oil shale:
12
http://www.pet.hw.ac.uk/index.cfm
Oil shale-open pit (Fushun, CHN)

Capacity: 330.000 t shale oil/y
Oil shale-plant
Calor. power plant

Fushun
Coalbed Methane:
< 25 %TOC
Oil shale:
13
rock rich in organic matter, which yields significant amounts of oil

(shale oil) and gas during low-temperature pyrolysis.
Shale gas & Shale oil:
HCs
present in
rock
BasinCentered
Gas
Coalbed Methane:
Oil shale:
HCs produced during heating
14
References
Larter, S., Primio, R., 2005. Effects of biodegradation on oil and gas field PVT properties and the origin of oil immed gas
accumulations. Org. Geochemistry, 36, 299-310.
Milkov, A.V., 2011. Worldwide distribution and significance of secondary microbial methane formed during petroleum
biodegradation in conventional reservoirs. Org. Geochem., 42, 184-207.
Peters, K.E., Walters, C.C., Moldowan, J.M. 2005. The Biomarker Guide. 2 vol., Cambridge University Press, 1155 pp.
Sachsenhofer R.F., Gratzer R., Tschelaut W., Bechtel A. 2006. Charcterisation of non-producible oil in Eocene reservoir
sandstones (Bad Hall Nord field, Alpine Foreland Basin, Austria). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 23, 1-15.
Schoell, M. 1983. Genetic classification of natural gases, AAPG Bull., 67, 2225-2238.
Tissot, B.P., Welte, D.H. 1984. Petroleum Formation and Occurrence. 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin, 699 pp.
Welte, D.H., Horsfield, B., Baker, D.R. 1997. Petroleum and Basin Evolution. Springer, Berlin, 535 pp.
Wilhelms, A., & Larter, S.R. 1994. Origin of tar mats in petroleum reservoirs: Part II. Formation mechanisms for tar mats.
Marine and Petroleum Geology 11, 442-456.
Wilhelms, A., & Larter, S.R. 1995. Overview of the geochemistry of some tar mats from the North Sea and USA:
implications for tar-mat origin. In: Cubitt, J.M., & England, W.A. (Eds.), The Geochemistry of Reservoirs, Geological
Society Special Publ., 88, 87-101.
Typical elemental composition

of crude oil (wt.%)
in atom %: C: 1
H: 2
Crude Oil
Saturated
Hydrocarbons
Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
Heterocompounds
(NSO-Compounds)
S
Organic compounds which

consist entirely of C and H.
Composed entirely of single
bonds saturated with H
Organic compounds which

consist entirely of C and H and
contain one or more benzene
rings
Organic compounds, which consist

of one or more atoms other than H
and C (e.g. N, S, O)
Synonym: NSO-compounds, incl.
resins and asphaltenes
Note that unsaturated hydrocarbons do occur, but are very rare

Saturated HCs (alkanes, paraffins)
1. Linear chain: normal paraffin series

(n-alkanes; CnH2n+2)
gaseous
- Organic compounds which consist entirely of C and H;

- Composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen
Butane (C4)
2. Branched chain: iso-paraffin series

(iso-alkanes)
CH4
Methane
C6H14
Hexane
C2H6
Ethane
C7H16
Heptane
C3H8
Propane
C8H18
Octane
C4H10
Butane
C9H20
Nonane
C5H12
Pentane
C10H22
Decane
Methylbutane (C5)
Pristane (C19)
Phytane (C20)
3. Ring structure: naphthene series

(cyclo-alkanes; CnH2n)
Cyclopentane
(Naphthalene)
C3H6
Cyclopropane
C4H8
Cyclobutane
C5H10
Cyclopentane
C6H12
Cyclohexane
C7H14
Cycloheptane
C29 Sterane
(Biomarker)

Aromatic HCs
- Organic compounds which consist only of C and H and contain one or more
benzene rings
1.
2.
3.
Pure aromatics
Cycloalkanoaromatic (naphthenoarom.) molecules
Cyclic sulfur
Tri-aromatic Steroid
(Biomarker)

Heterocompounds
- Organic compounds which consist of one or more atoms other than H and C (e.g.
N, S, O)
- Synonym: NSO-compounds, incl. resins and asphaltenes* (the high molecular
weight polycyclic fraction of crude oils compr. N, S, O)
*Asphaltenes: Compounds, which are

insoluble in a mixture of oil with 30x heptane
at 18-28C (DIN 51595).
(= Asphaltenes precipitate in n-hexane).
Molecular mass: 1000 - 100.000 amu
Layers of condensated
aromatic components,
which are connected by
aliphatic chains.
Abundant heteroatoms
(N, S, O, Ni, V).

Aromatic HC
Aromatic HC
Saturated HC
NSO Compounds
(Resins+Asphaltenes)
n+iso-alkanes
(Paraffins)
Cyclo-alkanes
(Naphthenes)
Ternary diagrams showing

Gross composition of 636 crude oils:
Saturated hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Resins + Asphaltenes
Composition of hydrocarbons in 541 crude oils:

n + iso-alkanes (paraffins)
Cycloalkanes (or naphthenes)
Aromatics
(wt.% in the fraction boiling above 210C; Tissot & Welte, 1984)
Composition of oil and gas (Sulfur)

Aromatic HC
Frequency
Two populations
n+iso-alkanes
(Paraffins)
Ternary diagram showing occurrence of
high- and low-sulfur oils
(Tissot & Welte, 1984)
Cyclo-alkanes
(Naphthenes)
Sulfur content of crude oil is dependant on:

Depositional environment of source rock
(marine carbonatic > marine clastic > limnic)
Petroleum alteration
Composition of oil and gas (Specific gravity )

Specific Gravity (kg/m)
In general Specific Gravity*
ranges between 0.73 and 1.0 [kg/m]
1.1
Density
API** value = 141.5 131.5
0.9
0.8
0.7
* @ 15.6C (60F)
**API: American Petroleum Institute
0.6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
API
Gas-condenste: >45
light:
30-45
heavy:
10-22
medium: 22-30
extra-heavy: <10
Light Texas Crude

Palo Pinto Field
N Texas
Gas-condenste:
vapor phase in the reservoir, condenses as
reservoir pressure is reduced or product brought
to surface
Heavy Texas Crude

Humble Field
SW Texas)
Composition of oil and gas (viscosity )

Dynamic Viscosity
Unit: millipascal-second = centipois

(1 mPa.s = 1 cP = viscosity of water @ 20C)
Viscosity is strongly correlated with specific
gravity (r = 0.823)
Natural Tar: HCs with viscosities > 10 000 mPa s
R+A:
resins +asphaltenes
Relationship between specific gravity / API density

and viscosity of some heavy oils.
Kinematic viscosity ( = /)
Unit: 1 mm.s-1 = centiStoke
(1 cSt = viscosity of water @ 20C)

Paraffinic oils:
Common (19%). Some are fluid; high-wax oils have a high pour-point.
Viscosity of high-wax oil is high @ room temp. (rich in n-alkanes >C20).
At slightly elevated temperatures (35-50C) viscosity is normal.
Specific gravity usually <0.85 (>35 API)
Low to very low sulfur
Often generated from non-marine source rocks.
Aromatic HC
Paraffinic-naphthenic oils:
Most common (40%). Moderate density and viscosity,

low sulfur content. Often generated from marine sources.
Naphthenic oils:
Rare (4%).
Some immature oils, often biodegraded oil.
Low sulfur.
Aromatic-intermediate oils:
Common (23%).
Specific gravity usually >0.85 (<35 API)
High sulfur.
Often generated from marine source rocks
deposited in a reducing environment.
n+iso-alkanes
(Paraffins)
Aromatic asphaltic + Aromatic naphthenic oils:
Ternary diagram showing

composition of six classes of
crude oils
Less common (14%).

Strongly altered crude oils (reduction of paraffins + naphthenes, and oxydation).
Heavy, viscous oils.
Low to high sulfur
Cyclo-alkanes
(Naphthenes)

Principle of a gas chromatograph
Saturated HCs
Aromatic HCs
Composition of oil and gas (Alteration of petroleum)

Biodegradation
Bacterial alteration of crude oil. Effective up to 70(80?)C.

Aerobic: Fast, frequently in foreland basins, where oxygenated meteoric water
enters the carrier bed/reservoir in the uplifted thrust belt.
Anaerobic: Relatively slow (x-xx my). End product may be methane (secondary
bacterial gas).
Biodegradation starts at the oil-water contact tar mats.
Water washing
Often accompanies biodegradation. HC undersaturated meteoric waters dissolve

light HCs from reservoired petroleum (density increases). Is not restricted to the
temperature interval <70C.
Deasphalting
Precipitation of heavy asphaltene compounds as a result of injection of light (C1-C6)

HCs. (e.g. later gas charge in oil reservoir as the source kitchen becomes highly
mature).
Thermal alteration
E.g. Oil cracking.
Nonbiodegraded
93C; 36.1API; 0.38 cp
Pr/Ph = 1.52, Pr/nC17 = 0.63
MCH
Comp. of oil and gas

(Biodegradation)
10
Crude oils undergo

systematic changes
during biodegradation:
15
17 PrPh
20
25
Slight biodegradation
67.7C; 30.8API; 1.68 cp
Pr/Ph = 1.29, Pr/nC17 = 1.29
15
Pr
17 Ph
20
n-C17
Pristane (C19)
Moderate biodegradation
74C; 26.5API; 2.02 cp
Pr/Ph = 1.32, Pr/nC17 = 4.97
Phytane (C20)
Pr
Ph
Heavy biodegradation
47.4C; 21.4API; 7.5 cp
Peters et al. (2005)
Pr/Ph = not present
Comp. of oil and gas (Alteration of petroleum: Biodegradation)
Extent of Destruction of Compound Class
Peters and Moldowan (1993)
C26-C29 Aromatics
7
Very Heavy
8
9
Severe
10
Diasteranes
(6)
Hopanes
1
2
3
Moderate
4
5
Heavy
6
n-Alkanes
Steranes
Biodegradation Rank
Light
Isoprenoids
Crude oils undergo systematic changes during biodegradation:

Reduction of n-alkanes
Relative enrichment of
branched alkanes (e.g.
pristane, phytane)
No (minor) changes in
biomarker ratios (e.g.
steranes, hopanes)
Ladwein (1988)
Aromatic HCs +
NSO compounds
Biodegradation is exemplified by the

alteration of the paraffinic oils from the
L.-Cretaceous of W Africa.
A more complete degradation
(+oxidation) is shown for the aromatic
intermediate oils from the
Mississippian and L.-Cretaceous
oils of W Canada.
The extreme end of degradation is
reached for the Athabasca heavy oils
and tars.
n+iso-alkanes
(Paraffins)
Cyclo-alkanes
(Naphthenes)
Ternary diagram showing the main trends of alteration and thermal maturation of crude oils.
Comp. of oil and gas (Alteration of petroleum: Deasphalting)
Sachsenhofer et al. (2006)
Comp. of oil and gas

(Alteration of petroleum:
Deasphalting)
W. Tschelaut
Oil
Oil?
Sachsenhofer et al. (2006)
High kalonite content in

Cerithinan Beds (Reservoir)
No reduction of n-alkanes
No biodegradation

Situation in the
BH-N Feld
Gravitative Segregation from
free oil column
Biodegradation-induced
asphalten preciptiation
In-reservoir-maturation-induced
Pressure-reduction(uplift)induced asphalten preciptiation
Adsorption onto Kaolinite
Gas Injections-induced
Migration-controlled
asphalten preciptiation &
accumulation
Causes for Asphaltene

Precipitation (AP)
(Wilhelms & Larter, 1995)
Composition of gas (C1-C4)

Relatively few parameters can be determined.
Composition
Depth
Sampling
date
1900
16.5.1990
Lab
Wetness: C1/(C2+C3)
C1/Cn
H2S
CO2
N2
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
i-C4Hx
n-C4H10
i-C5Hx
n-C5H12
C6+
--
0.03
0.75
98.56
0.37
0.16
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.04
Dry gas: <5 % Ethane

Wet gas: >5 % Ethane
Sour gas* contains significant amounts of H2S (typ. in carbonate (+sulfate) reservoirs)
They are often also high in N2 and CO2.
H2, He, Ar.
*Acid gas: significant amount of CO2 and H2S
Origin of H2S:
(Bacterial or) thermal sulfate reduction (SO4- from dissolved anhydrate/gypsum)

H2S in contact with Fe forms pyrite
Carbonate reservoir: Fe is a limiting factor H2S present
Siliciclastic reservoir: pyrite is formed, no H2S

Calorific Value, Density, Critical Pressure, Critical Temperature
Isotopy
Stable isotopes (13C, 2H)

- carbon (C1, C2, C3),
- hydrogen (C1)
Isotopically light gas: d13C1 < -55 %

Isotopically heavy gas: d13C1 > -55 %
Origin of hydrocarbon gas

Bacterial (microbial, biogenic) versus thermogenic gas

Origin of hydrocarbon gas
Bacterial (microbial, biogenic) gas
produced by bacteria from organic matter in sediments (incl. coal) or liquids at low
temperatures (<80C)
Primary bacterial gas: produced by bacteria from organic matter in sediments
(incl. coal)
Isotopically light (13C1 < -55 to -90; D < -180)
Extremely dry
C1/(C2+C3) >300
Secondary bacterial gas: produced by anaerobic bacteria from liquid petroleum
Isotopic and molecular composition depending on degree of anaerobic
(methanogenic) biodegradation
Thermogenic gas
produced by thermal processes from organic matter in sediments (incl. coal) or liquid
petroleum
Associated gas (petroleum gas) is associated with oil.
Non-associated gas formed at temp. where liquid petroleum is no longer stable
Wettness and isotopic composition depend on the temperature of gas formation
(thermal maturity)
Wettness decreases with thermal maturity C1/(C2+C3) ratio increases
Isotopic ratios increases with thermal maturity (and are always less negative than in
bacterial gas!)
C1
C2+C3
bacterial
Coal bed methane (CBM)
Bacterial or thermogenic in origin
Coal has very high adsorption
capacity for methane
Clathrate / Gas Hydrate
(methane, ethane or butane
entrapped in water molecules).
thermal
petroleum (associated) gas
13C PDB (per mill)
Stable at high pressure, low temp.

near sea floor
permafrost regions
in pipelines
C1/C2+C3 d13C1
Dry (bacterial) gas >300 -90 to -55
Wet (assoc.) gas
<100 -55 to -30
Dry (thermal) gas >100 -40 to -20
dD
< -180
< -140
-150 to -130

Primary bacterial gas generation
pT-conditions during deposition of Puchkirchen
Fm. (black circle), in stability diagram for gas
hydrates.
a - low gethermal gradient
b - high geothermal gradient
Gas hydrates were stable at the sea floor during

deposition of Puchkirchen and Hall formations
Temperature increase during burial results in the
decomposition of gas hydrates
Free gas
Reduction of salinity of pore fluid
Schulz et al. (2009a,b)
Data in Petroleum Geology
References
Ethridge, F.G. 1999. Laboratory Methods. In: Morton-Thompson, D., Woods, A.M. (eds.)
Development Geology Reference Manual, AAPG Methods in Exploration, 10, 195-257.
Jennings, J.J. 1987. Capillary pressure techniques: application to exploration and
development geology. AAPG Bulletin, 71, 1196-1209.
North, F.K. Petroleum Geology. Allen & Unwin, Boston, 607 pp.
Woods, A.M., Reed, B., Morton-Thompson, D. 1999. Wellsite Methods. In: MortonThompson, D., Woods, A.M. (eds.) Development Geology Reference Manual, AAPG
Methods in Exploration, 10, 57-139.
Data sources in
Petroleum Geology
Wireline log
Boreholes
Cuttings
Cores
Geophysical Data
Wireline logs
Seismics
------------------------------------- Gravimetry
Magnetics
Outcrop-gamma-ray-log
Outcrop Analogs
http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/geo/gpi/ag-aigner/seminar/carbclast_rueb.html
Boreholes
Cuttings
Drill cuttings are small pieces of rock generated by
the crushing action of the drill bit. Typically they are
sand-sized or finer.
Cuttings are often taken in 2, 5, or 10 m intervals
Riddle screen /
Cuttings shaker
Cuttings
Sample preparation:
Once drill cuttings are retrieved from
the mud system, it is typically split
into a
bulk, unwashed wet-cut sample
cloth bags
washed and sieved dry-cut sample
paper bags
The dry-cut sample is examined wet
under the binocular
Basic Sample Analysis:
HC shows (oil stains, gas, odor,

fluorescence, oil cut*)
Rock type / lithology (%)
Color
Hardness
Grain Size
Grain Shape
Sorting
Luster
Cementation or Matrix
Sedimentary Structures
Porosity
Fossils (depo. environm.; biostrat.)
* Method to determine oil: Sample is ground

and put into canister with organic solvent
(trichlorethane). The oil dissolves in the
solvent, and commonly the solvent will then
fluoresce.
Cuttings
Cuttings
Benefits:
Cuttings are the only continuous

visual record.
Cuttings are used for
Evaluation of HC shows
Reservoir and lithological
descriptions
Geological correlation and
formation identification
Verification of wireline log
response
Design of strip logs (lithology vs.
depth).
Strip log of well Aderklaa 82

(Brix & Schultz, 1980)
Cuttings
GR MWD
Problems:
Excess weight on bit powder

Insufficient mud viscosity
cuttings are not transported to
surface (deviated wells!)
Improper mud chemistry high
% cavings, loss of soluable
minerals, contamination
Are cuttings representative (hard
material may survive?)
Contamination by cavings.
Exact depth assignment (lag
time).
2m
ROP
Well Yemen
% Cuttings
Cores
Very expensive, but provide the
geologist / engineer with the
only detailed view of the
reservoir (e.g. permeability
barriers).
The only physical contact with the

reservoir everything else (logs, seismic
etc.) is a form of remote sensing
Allows direct measurement of physical
properties such as porosity & permeability
Allows direct observation of grain size,
sorting and sedimentary structures, which
in turn lead to interpretation of the
depositional environment
Depositional environment is used as a
key guide to assigning geometry and
architecture in reservoir models
Reservoir
Geology
Consultants
Reservoir
Geology
Consultants
Allows calibration to logs, thus enabling

direct interpretation from logs in other
wells in the reservoir
Cores
Typically cores are taken during drilling using

Conventional coring systems.
Sidewall coring systems have been developed
to obtain core samples after drilling and logging.
Core (diamond) bit
Percussion sidewall
coring system
(Whiteby, 1992)
Cores
Core Handling:
Cores from the hole should be wiped clean

with a rag to localize oil bleeding from the
core.
It is critically that cores and core boxes are

labelled immediately (depths, tops, bottoms).
Two different colored lines are used in such a

way that one color is always on the right side,
when the core is orientated right side up.
Core alteration (dehydration, salt precipitation,

oxidation, redistribution of fluids, bacterial
growth,) has to be minimized.
Cores usually are stored in stout boxes

properly labelled, preferably to allow display of
1 or 3 m of core in each box.
Cores
Large scale photographs should be taken from all
cores
provide permanent record of core plug sites,
depths, etc.
reveal features which may later be rendered
invisible by subsequent drying or deterioration.
Slabbing is essential for

adequate reservoir
description.
Cores
Examples of poor core storage
Cores
Description of Cores:
Rock type / lithology
Color (wet, Rock Color Chart, GSA)
Texture (incl. grain size, roundness, sorting)
Cement and/or matrix material
Fossils and accessories (chert, pyrite,
glauconite, plant material)
Bedding type (e.g. thin vs. thick beds,
lamination)
Sedimentary Structures (cross-bedding,
bioturbation)
Porosity type (intergranular, intragranular,
moldic, microporosity, fracture)
HC shows
Anything else striking or important (e.g. odor)
Oil cut*
Fractures (it can be difficult to distinguish
natural from drilling induced fractures)
Well name
xym
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Spectral Core Gamma Log
Cores
Plugging and Sampling
Plugs are taken for the determination of porosity and permeability.
Plugs may be taken parallel and perpendicular to the bedding planes.
Sometimes whole core samples are used (maily in inhomogenous,
thin-bedded lithologies).
Examples of core
plug sampling bias
Cores
Routine Core
Analysis
Lithologic Description
Fluid Saturation
Porosity
Permeability
Grain Density
Core Gamma Log
Special Core
Analysis (SCAL)
Electrical Properties
Acoustic Properties
Compressibility
Wettability
Capillary Pressure
Routine Core Analysis

Porosity () is defined as the amount of void space in a
sample, expressed as a fraction or a percentage.
is is the amount of space capable of holding fluids
=
pore volume Vp
bulk volume Vb
Strictly, the above definition relates to

total porosity, and the term effective
porosity is commonly used to
denote porosity that is available for
fluid flow.
Matzen Field: 11th TH Horizon; Por: 32.8%; k=6064 mD
Intergranular porosity is common in

clastic rocks.
0.32 mm

Porosity is dependant on:
Packing
Packing
Sorting
Grain size
Grain shape (sphericity)
Roundness
Sorting
Degree of cementation
Growth of clay minerals
Leaching
Grain size
Cubic
=47.5%
Orthorhombic
=39.5%
Rhombohedral
=26%
Tetragonal
=30.2%
Porosity in unconsolidated sediments is

strongly dependant upon sorting but less
dependant on grain size.

Packing
Sorting
Grain size
Grain shape (sphericity)
Roundness
Dissolution (K-fs)
Degree of cementation
Leaching
Cementation
Porosity is dependant on:
Por: 14.5%, Perm: 273 md
Por: 13.0%, Perm: 228 md
Moderately consolidated sand reservoirs may exhibit 1030% porosity; well cemented sandstones may have
porosities ranging from 0-30%.
Porosity predictions in carbonates are much more difficult
due to the wide variation in the nature and shape of
particles.
Porosity in chalk can be up to 40 %.
Porosity due to solution and fracturing (dual porosity:
matrix and fracture poros.) may play a significant role.

Measurement of Porosity ()
Visual estimation:
megascopic (difficult)
microscopic (point counter)
16th TH Horizon (Matzen Sdst)

(transgressive, fining upward)
0.14 mm
Por=27.9% (22-26%); k=3017 mD
However, porosity is routinely measured in the lab (using different methods).

Attention: some minerals containing water (some clays, gypsum) are not stable
at high temperatures (drying).
Accuracy: +/- 0.5 % (experience shows that higher differences occur). If possible,
a single lab should carry out all measurements from a particular field (but some
samples should be submitted to different labs for calibration).
Whole core analysis: Large samples should be used for heterogeneous
formations.

Permeability (k)
Quantitative measure for the ease with which a rock will permit the passage of a fluid
under a potential gradient.
k controls the rate at which a fluid can be produced. It bears directly on the number of
wells necessary to drain a reservoir economically!
Darcy Law (~1850)
Darcys law states that the rate of flow Q

across a rock sample is equal to a constant
(k) times:
The cross-sectional area of the sample
The pressure drop (P)
The reciprocal of the fluid viscosity ()

k is expressed in Darcies (D, mD)
Q = Flow rate (cm/sec)

A = Cross sectional area
of sample (cm)
P = Pressure difference
across sample (atm)
= Viscosity (centipoise)
L = Lenght of sample (m)
k = Permeability (Darcy)
Darcys law assumes the following
Laminar flow
concept not applicable for shales
One phase present at 100% pore

space saturation
No reaction between fluid and rock.

Controls on permeability
Permeability is a function of
size, shape and distribution of the pore channels in the rock.
In idealised packing arrangements of spheres relationships which relate
these parameters have been proposed.
Generally, coarse sands have large pores and high permeability.
Sorting
However, the situation is much more

complex in the case of carbonates,
in which a combination of
low matrix permeability with
high fracture permeability can
exist
(dual porosity, dual permeability).
Grain size

Measurement of permeability
Permeability is measured in the lab by flowing a fluid (usually air) of known viscosity
through a cylindrical sample of known length and cross-sectional area.
P2
P1
Upstream Pressure Downstream Pressure
Sample Holder
Schematic Flow diagram

(Core Laboratories)
Air is used because there is little reaction with the rock sample (air permeabilities may
be converted to equivalent liquid permeabilities).
Measurements are performed perpendicular and parallel to bedding planes.
Problems with unconsolidated rocks.
Accuracy: Service companies quote an accuracy of +/-5%. (This is very optimistic).

Permeability (k)
Whole core analysis
Whole core porosities of vuggy or fractured lithologies are frequently higher than those
obtained from conventional core plugs (and more representative).
Image analysis applied to

quantify vuggy porosity in
limestone

Measurement of porosity and permeability (k) under confining pressure
Unconsolidated or poorly consolidated rocks expand when released from its natural confining
pressure. Measurement under confining pressures close to in-situ stress may give the most
realistic results.
Porosity
Permeability
1
Permeability: Fraction Of Original
Porosity: Fraction Of Original
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Net Overburden Pressure: PSI
Net Overburden Pressure: PSI

Test Well #:
Porosity,
Permeability,
Density Log

(Spektral)
Core Gamma Log
Core to Log Shift:

Core Depth is often different from log depth. Usually all depths are correlated to log depth!
Exercise: Use Core Gamma and Downhole Gamma Logs to determine the difference between log depth and
core depth. Why is the difference in core 2 different for the upper and lower part? Discuss why core gamma
log is strange at the top and the bottom of the core?
Xx90
GAPI
150
Core 1
Core to Log Shift
Core 2 (upper part)
Core to Log Shift
Core 2 (lower part)
Core to Log Shift
+/-
+/-
+/-
Xx95
Xx 97.55
Xx05
Xx05
Xx 08
Xx10
Xx15
Xx20
Xx25
Xx30
Xx10
Core 2
Downhole
Gamma
Log
Core 1
Xx00
Core 1
Xx00
Core 2
Xx15
Xx20
Xx25
Scale: 1:200
Core
Gamma
Log
Cores
Routine Core
Analysis
Lithologic Description
Fluid Saturation
Porosity
Permeability
Grain Density
Core Gamma Log
Special Core
Analysis (SCAL)
Electrical Properties
Acoustic Properties
Compressibility
Wettability
Capillary Pressure
Special Core Analysis (SCAL)

Wettability
defined as the contact angle between a droplet of liquid and a horizontal surface
determined by the relationship between adhesive and cohesive forces of a
fluid/fluid/solid system
Adhesive forces: between a liquid and a solid (raindrop on glass)
Cohesive forces: molecules attract each other within the liquid
Oil-wet
Water-wet
Wetting fluid:
adhesive forces > cohesive forces

contact angle : 0-90
Non-wetting fluid: adhesive forces < cohesive forces
contact angle : 90-180

Capillary Pressure
h = 2 cos /r g (w-o)
Pc = 2 cos /r
: interfacial tension
between fluids
: contact angle
Why determine Wettabilty/Capillary Pressure

Data on fluid/fluid and fluid/rock interactions are needed to understand the
static fluid distribution as well as dynamic flow performance.
Capillary pressure curves help to understand the geometry of the pore
space.

Mercury injection into capillaries
Injection Pressure for three Capillaries (Pores)
Piston
Large
P0
Medium
Small
Volume S Pores
PcS
Mercury
Large
Medium
Piston
PcM
2cos
Volume M Pores
rS
PL
Small
2cos
rM
PcL
Volume L Pores
2cos
rL
Volume injected

Irreducible Saturation, %
2000
20
40
60
80
100
0.05
Irreducible
Saturation,
Swi
Irreducible
0.10
Water
Saturation, Pd
1000
0.50
1.0
100
Displacement
Pd
Displacement
Pressure,
Pressure, Pd
3.0
Plate
au
5.0
10
10
Entry
20
Entry
Pressure, Pe
Pressure, Pe
2
100
80
60
40
20
Radius of Pore Throats, microns
0.25
40
Mercury Saturation, %
Typical capillary pressure curve plotted on a semilog graph. The

curve also represents a pore-throat size profile (Jennings, 1987).
Capillary pressure apparatus for obtaining mercury

injection-capillary pressure data (Jennings, 1987).

Pore Throat Sorting (1-8)
Reservoir Grade
PTS=
3rd Quartile Pressure

st
1 Quartile Pressure
Percentage of linear area below

capillary pressure curve
Data sources in
Petroleum Geology
Wireline log
Boreholes
Cuttings
Cores
Geophysical Data
Wireline logs
Seismics
------------------------------------- Gravimetry
Magnetics
Outcrop Analogs
References
Asquith, G., Krygowski, D. 2004. Basic Well Log Analysis, 2nd ed., AAPG Methods in
Exploration, 16, 244 pp.
Alberty, M.W. 1999. Wireline Methods. In: Morton-Thompson, D., Woods, A.M. (eds.)
Development Geology Reference Manual, AAPG Methods in Exploration, 10, 141-194.
Lovell M., Parkinson N. 2002. Geological applications of well logs. AAPG Methods in
Exploration Series 13, 292 p.
Schlumberger: Log interpretation charts/manuals
Geophysical Well Logs

Correlation logs
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
Gamma Ray
Resistivity logs
Porosity logs
Sonic Log
Density Log
Neutron Log
Cased hole logs
Dipmeter
Caliper Log
has 2-6 arms and measures borehole

diameter.
Borehole condition
Formation properties (mud cake
permeable zone, fractures zones)
Borehole volume cementation
Quantification
(often measured together with Microlog (both
need contact to borehole wall)
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
.measures the natural battery effect that

occurs at the interface where foreign ions
(drilling fluid) enter into porous zones and
are juxtaposed against normal fluids in
non-porous zones.
No battery effect
If salinity of drilling fluid and formation
water is equal
Across boundaries of different, but
impermeable lithologies
Shown often together with GR on left side
of log. Values increase towards the right
(Shale Line)
Resolution: 2-3 m
SSP = -(61+0,13T[F])*log
SSP static SP (max. deflection)
Vsh =
SPsh-SP
SPsh-SPcl
Rmfe
Rwe
SPcl: SP clean sand
North, 1985
Gamma Ray (GR)

Measures natural radioactivity (U, Th, 40K).
Shales are hot, sands and lime cold. SP
and GR scales are choosen in a way that
sand and lime kick to the left.
Mica sands (heavy minerals) high GR

Resolution: 0.5 m
IGR (~Vsh) =
GR - GRcl
GRsh-GRcl
Gamma Ray (GR)

Typical responses of -ray and
neutron curves of various types of
formation penetrated in wells
(North, 1985)
Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR)
Energy levels of incoming gamma rays are

counted in energy windows.
High Th values,
increase in terrigenous clays (smectite, kaolinite)
heavy minerals
High U values
increased organic carbon source rocks (hot shale)
natural fractures U-peaks
hot dolomite (why?)
High K values
glauconite
Correlation logs
Resistivity logs
Porosity logs
Sonic Log
Density Log
Neutron Log
Resistivity logs
are used to:

(1) determine HC vs. water-bearing zones,
(2) indicate permeable zones,
(3) determine resistivity porosity.
Cased hole logs

Dipmeter
Resistivity Logs: Basics 1

Poor conductors
* Most dry rocks (Exceptions: some sulfides, graphite, chlorite)
* Oil + Gas
Electrical conductivity of rocks is mainly controlled by water:
Amount of water
Salinity
Resistivity Logs: Basics 2

Invasion: fluids from the wellbore enter into permeable formations
Resistivity of the zone
Resistivity of water in the zone
Water Saturation in the zone
Short-spaced devices
gather data from very near
the wellbore.
Long-spaced devices gather
data from deep in the
formation.
Information on resistivities of
drilling mud (Rm),
mud filtrate (Rmf)
mud cake (Rmc)
are given on the header of
the log and are used in
calculations.
Classification of Resistivity Logs

Induction Logs (measures conductivity; non-conductive mud, air)
Electrode Logs (measures resistivity)
Acc. to arrangement of electrodes:
Normal logs
Lateral Log
Laterologs
Spherically Focused Log (SFL)
Microlaterolog (MLL)
Microlog (ML)
Proximity Log (PL)
Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL)
Acc. to depth of investigation

Flushed Zone (Rx0)
Microlog (ML)
Microlaterolog (MLL)
Proximity Log (PL)
Microspherically Focused Log
Invaded Zone (Ri)
Short Normal
Laterolog-8
Spherically Focused Log (SFL)
Medium Induction Log
Shallow Laterolog
Uninvaded Zone (Rt)
Long Normal
Lateral Log
Deep Induction Log
Deep Laterolog
Laterolog-3
Laterolog-7
Induction Log 6FF40
Comparison allows statements on the depth of penetration ( permeability).
deep
shallow
Separation indicates
permeable zone
impermeable
Archie Equation and Water Saturation
Two additional eqauations are
Where:
Laudon, 1996: Principles of Petroleum Development

Geology, Prentice Hall, 267 pp.
Shorthand Archie Equation
Assumptions
Ideal situation for

use of shorthand
Archie Equation
Shorthand Archie Equation

Usually acceptable
situation for use of
shorthand Archie
Equation. This situation
is not acceptable if or
water salinity is different
in the two sanstones
Shorthand Archie
Equation is not valid
where different or
water salinities are
encountered in different
sands. It is particularily
not valid if Sand A
contains freshwater

Exercise:
Indicate position of sandstones (yellow).
Localize oil-water contact
Use shorthand Archie Equation
Sw=(Ro/Rt)1/2
to determine water and oil saturation
Correlation logs
Resistivity logs
Porosity logs
Sonic Log
Density Log
Neutron Log
Dipmeter
Cased hole logs
Sonic (Acoustic) Log

Often run in combination with SP and resistivity
Sonic log measures interval transit time (t DT)
of acoustic waves over discrete distances. t is a
function of lithology and .
If lithology is known, is easily deduced.
Problems: bad holes (Caliper!), gas zone.
Important for reflection seismic interpretation
(synthetic seismograms)
Resolution: 0.6 m
Shale --------------------------- Limestone
Porosity Evaluation
Sonic Log (t) SPHI
: porosity
ma: matrix
f: fluid
Different lithologies have

different t and Sonic
velocity values
Sonic (Acoustic) Log
Most sonic logs are calibrated to specific

reservoir rock types (here: dolomite) and
can be directly read from the log.
0%
Correlation logs
Resistivity logs
Porosity logs
Sonic Log
Density Log
Neutron Log
Dipmeter
Cased hole logs
Porosity Evaluation Density Log () DPHI
Matrix densities of common
lithologies
ma (g/cc)
Sandstone
2.648
Limestone
2.710
Dolomite
2.876
Anhydrite
2.977
Salt
2.032
Density Log
Emits medium-energy electrons and measures

returning gamma rays. Gamma rays are
generated through Compton scattering as a result
of collisions with electrons in the formation.
Electron density is a function of rock matrix,
porosity, and density of fluids.
Important for reflection seismic interpretation
(synthetic seismograms)
Correlation logs
Resistivity logs
Porosity logs
Sonic Log
Density Log
Neutron Log
Dipmeter
Cased hole logs
Neutron Log
Emits high-energy neutrons and measures some

sort of returning radiation that is a function of
hydrogen.
Because hydrogen is concentrated in the fluidfilled pores, radiation is a function of porosity.
When pores are filled with gas rather than oil or
water, neutron porosity will be lowered
Gas effect
Compensated Neutron Logs (CNL) have one
transmitter and two detectors and are less
affected by borehole irregularities.
Neutron Log response also depends on lithology.
Therefore, they can be operated in apparent
limestone, sandstone, or dolomite porosity units.
Can be run inside cased holes!
Density-Neutron combination
All porosity logs are designed to measure porosity in the presence of water and over-react
in the presence of gas (and to a smaller degree in the presence of oil). This can be used
to distinguish between gas and oil.
Porositygas zone = [(d + n)/2]1/2
Gas:
NPHI too low

DPHI too high
Dipmeter
At least three microresistivity devices devices

mounted on pads. Data from (four) different
arms are cross-correlated and the best
correlations are used to determine the dip of
the bed. All data are recorded digital.
Therefore, corrections for the orientation of the
tool, hole asymmetry, etc. can be made.
Data presentation: Tadpole plots
Laudon, 1996
Distance of body of tadpole from

vertical base line indicates dip
angle; tail shows dip direction.
Schlumberger:
Red: upward decrease in dip
Blue: upward increase in dip
North, 1985
Borehole Imaging Devices

Borehole imagig devices are high resolution wireline tools
that produce maps of physical measurements of the rocks
exposed on the borehole wall.
Three main imaging techniques are used
Ultrasonic reflection
Electron scanning (resistivity)
(Optical scanning)
Formation MicroImager
Formation MicroViewer
Borehole Imaging Devices

Borehole images ar normally displayed in a depth
azimuth reference system, which corresponds to the
projection of the cylinrical surface of a drill core onto a
plane that is split by tradition along magnetic north.
In this projection an inclined surfaces shows up as a
sinusoid.
The trough points in the direction of the dip azimuth,
while the amplitude (divided by the borehole diamter)
indicates the dip angle.
Exercise
Exercise:
Draw a geological S-N sketch (not too scale)

Answering the following questions will help:
Which structural elements are faults, which are
bedding planes?
Which structural element is steeper (fault or
bedding plane?
What is the dip direction of faults and planes?
Why is the fault a reverse fault?
0
Orientation North
90
180 270
360
Cased Hole Logs

Look through casing. Important for the search of undrained (bypassed)
hydrocarbon zones
Gamma ray (for correlation with old logs)
Neutron Log
Pulsed Neutron Log (e.g. Thermal Decay Time - TDT)
Pulsed Neutron Log: Emits pulses of high energy (14Mev) neutrons.
These are slowed down and captured by atomic nuclei. The newly formed
isotopes emit -rays, which are measured as a function of time.
Cl has a high capture cross-section
HC (and freshwater) a small one
Samll (HC)
http://www.bakerhughes.com/Bakeratlas/resources/Indepth/
High (Cl)
Cased Hole Logs

Sw from TDT log
(cased hole)
Sw from Resistivity log

(open hole)
Sw for different times
Mahdavi et al., 1989. Oilfiled

Review, 1, 43-49
Log Facies (Log Patterns)

Cylinder Shape:
Relatively constant energy level
* Eolian Dunes,
* Low sinuosity distributary channel,
* Beaches, ....
Bell Shape:
Waning current sequences
* Alluvial point bars,

* Deltaic Distributaries,
* Deep Sea Fan Channels, ....
Funnel Shape:
Upward-increasing energy
* Distributary Mouth Bars,
* Delta Lobe Fringes,
* Deep Sea Fans, ....
Sequence Stratigraphy
Study of rock relationships, within a chronostratigraphic
framework of repetitive packages of strata bounded by
unconformities and/or conformities and which are genetically
interrelated as products within a particular episode in a
basins infill history.
The basic unit is the stratigraphic sequence
Basin margin
concepts
Sea level
fluctuations
Tectonic subsidence
Regression:
Basinward shift of shore line
Transgression:
Landward shift of shoreline
Progradation:
Advancing sedimentation
Retrogradation:
Backstepping sedimentation

Lowstand Systems Tract
Transgressive Systems Tract
Lowstand Systems Tract
Highstand Systems Tract
Sequence boundaries
Type I
Sea level falls below offlap break,

major subaerial erosion
Type II
sea level stays above offlap

break, minor subaerial erosion
Posamentier et al., 1988

Highstand Systems Tract
Sea level remains constant at a relatively high position

Delta systems prograde into the basin causing a
coarsening upward sequence
Coarseing upward
Delta sands
Prodelta shales
Funnel shaped
log pattern
Note, style of
showing
lithologies!
100 m
Log pattern?
MHM (Matzen Hauptmarker) = MFS 80 (max. flooding surface)
Recognizable in seismics and logs!
Data sources in
Petroleum Geology
Wireline log
Boreholes
Cuttings
Cores
Geophysical Data
Wireline logs
Seismics
------------------------------------- Gravimetry
Magnetics
Outcrop Analogs
Reflection Seismics
Reflection Coefficient =
2v2 - 1v1
2v2 + 1v1
= v
nvn = Zn = Seismic Impedance

1 = density of rock overlying the interface
2 = density of rock underlying the interface
v1 = sonic velocity through the rock overlying the interface
v2 = sonic velocity through the rock underlying the interface
Reflection Coefficient controls reflection energy (amplitude)
Seismic Trace
Variable Density Display
Closeup of seismic reflections or 'amplitudes' generated at the interface of stratal boundaries.

Each vertical line is called a seismic trace. In this case, the further the amplitude peak occurs
away from the vertical base line, the stronger the reflection energy (the higher the amplitude)
was of that stratal boundary.
Depth scale in TWT (two-way travel time) information on interval velocities is used to
convert TWT into depth.
In former days seismic information was mainly used to define (trap) geometry. Today (3D)
seismic data sets yield information on
lithology,
fluid type,
porosity.
Data acquisition along lines

2D Seismics
SP: Shotpoint
G:
Geophone
green: refracted wave

black: reflected wave
Data acquisition over a surface

3D Seismics
The data is processed into
a cube, subdivided into
bins formed by inlines and
crosslines.
3D migration results in a
significantly higher precision!
Synthetic pictures of bedding
planes (seiscrop maps).
Image cube showing meandering

River channel
Seismic 3-D image cube

showing a horizontal XY slice
of a meandering river channel
at a depth of more than 6 km.
The color variations correspond
to variations in reflectivity.
This picture might look similar
to an airplane view of the
ground if you flew over the
Mississippi River at a 6 km
elevation (modified from Dave
Lumley's homepage)!
Meandering Channel
Gulf of Thailand
http://sepwww.stanford.edu/oldsep/david/
Deep marine Puchkirchen Channel

main reservoir for gas in Molasse Basin
A. Bernhardt (2011)
Hydrocarbon Indicator: Bright spot, Flat spot, AVO

Bright Spot: Amplitude anomaly caused by a
large gas reservoir.
Up to a depth of ~3 km, the addition of gas in
a sandstone results in a decrease in velocity
and density
increase in velocity and density contrast
high amplitude
Problems:
Limestone cement + very low amounts
of free gas (2%) also give very strong
reflections.
Distinction is often difficult (Gas
deposit should conform to a particular
struture)
Gas-water contact may cause Flat Spot.
Schematic to show amplitude increase (bright spot) through

gas-bearing part of the sandstone and flat spot caused by the
gas-water contact (Laudon, 1996).
Seismic map showing amplitude anomaly that

conforms to structure. That is, the apparent gaswater contact is consistent on both sides of the
reservoir (Schramm et al., 1977; Laudon, 1996).
Hydrocarbon Indicator:
Bright spot
Works best in young, shallow

reservoirs. At higher depth (> 3km) gas
may cause a reduction in amplitude
(dim spot)!
Gas-filled channel
Vertical axis is in seconds, 1 sec. indicates a depth of

~ 5,000 feet.
North, 1985
Hydrocarbon Indicator: Amplitude-versus-Offset (AVO)

Variation in seismic amplitude with change in distance beteen shotpoint and receiver
0 sec
Pre-Stack Time Migration
Intercept x Gradient
AVO attributes: Intercept, gradient
4D Seismics
Because a change in fluid type changes seismic impedance and, hence,
seismic amplitude, repeat 3D seismic surveys (time-lapse 3D surveys)
allow fluid and rock changes to be monitored during field production
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/4d4/business/index.html
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/4d4/4d-software.html
3D seismic data acquired at different times over the same area to assess changes in a producing
hydrocarbon reservoir with time.
Changes may be observed in fluid location and saturation, pressure and temperature.
4D seismic data is one of several forms of time-lapse seismic data. Such data can be acquired on the
surface or in a borehole.
1985
1995
A
B
Oil
Water
Non-reservoir
A
B
These maps of an oil reservoir were made from 3D seismic data acquired at different times over
the same area to assess changes in fluid saturation with time. In 1985 (left), the areas within red
outlines A and B were predominantly oil-saturated. After ten years of oil production (1995, right),
both areas show an increase in water saturation.
Seismic Stratigraphic Analysis

Input: 2D or 3D Seismic Data
Define key stratigraphic Units
(Seismic Sequence Analysis)
Determine the rock types within each interval
(Seismic Facies Analysis)
Product: Prediction of Rock Types

Interpretation of EOD
Sand within reservoir intervals
Shale in overlying seal intervals & source intervals
Seismic reflection parameters used in Seismic Stratigraphy

Seismic Facies Parameters
Geological Interpretation
Reflection Configuration
+ Bedding patterns
+ Depositional processes
+ Erosion and Paleotopography
+ Fluid contacts
Reflection Continuity
+ Lateral stratal continuity

+ Depositional processes
Reflection Amplitude
+ Velocity-Density contrast
+ Bed spacing / Tuning
+ Fluid content
Reflection Frequency
+ Bed thickness
+ Fluid content
Interval Velocity
+ Estimation of lithology
+ Estimation of porosity
+ Fluid content
External Form & Areal Association

of Seismic Facies Units
+ Gross depositional environment

+ Sediment source
+ Geological setting
Reletionships of strata to
depositional sequence
boundaries
Definitions
(after Mitchum et al., 1977)
Truncation surface: Seismically defined lapout of strata along an unconformity supposed to have
been formed by post-depositional erosion or tectonic processes.
Toplap surface: Seismically defined lapout of initially inclined strata upwards to an overlying
surface representing non-deposition, sediment bypassing or minor erosion.
Conformity: A surface that separates younger strata from older rocks, but along which there is no
physical evidence of erosion or non-deposition, and no significant hiatus.
Onlap surface: Seismically defined base-discordant lapout of initially horizontal strata that
terminates progressively against an initially inclined surface, or in which initially inclined strata
terminate progressively updip against a surface of greater initial inclination.
Downlap surface: Seismically defined base-discordant lapout of initially inclined

strata downdip against an initially horizontal or inclined surface.
Internal seismic
reflection configuration
Progradational
Fill
Chaotic
Posting Geometric Observation
Tr = Truncation
Tp = Toplap
C = Concordant
p = parallel
sub = subparallel
div = divergent
On = Onlap
Dn = Downlap
C = Concordant
A - B
C
m = mounded
w = wavy
rf = reflection free
ob = oblique progradation
sig = sigmoid progradation
sh = shingled
A = Termination Pattern @ Upper Sequence Boundary

B = Termination Pattern @ Lower Sequence Boundary
C = Internal Reflection Pattern
(Exxon)
External geometry of some seismic facies

Mounded types
Fill types
Mitchum et al., 1977
Reflection Terminations
Toplap
Downlap
Erosional Truncation
Onlap
Concordance
Concordance
Internal Seismic Configuraton

Mounded onlap fill
parallel
Relative sea level fall caused incision of valleys 60 m deep
Progradational
oblique
Progradational
Kosi, 2002
Sequence Boundary (SB)

Sequences are enveloped by SBs
Product of sea level drop
Significant erosional unconformities
and their correlative conformities
Maximum Flooding Surface

Surface that separates maximum
transgressive (landward stepping) strata
from regressive (seaward stepping) strata
Downlap Surface
Continuous Reflector
Max. Gamma Ray Response
Fine-grained rocks
+ little detrital influence
+ organic matter rich
+ condensed beds
Sequence Boundary
Mnzengraben Bed = Mfs

bersbach 1
Maximum Flooding Surface (Mfs)
Clastic Sediments
Carbonate/Evaporite
LST
TST
HST
Miall, 1997
Specialities of sequence stratigraphie

in carbonate successions:
Steep slopes (early diagenesis of reactive carbonate minerals)

Karst (dissolution of carbonate rocks at surface exposure)
Active growth of reefs, separation of lagoon
Height of platform:
800-900 m
Dolomites (Italy)
Progradation: 2700 m /my

F. Maurer, 2000

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Petroleum Geology

Conventional HC-accumulation in structural trap

Buoyancy keeps HCs in trap below an impermeable cap rock

Source rock for oil/gas

30 mio. y. old mud

Oil and gas genesis

Bacterial Gas, CH4

Reservoir rock for oil/gas

(Foto von H. Kulke, 1983) 6

Tar sand (oil sand):

normal deposit at earths surface,

Shale gas & shale oil:

Producable reserves: 170 Mrd Barrel (27109 m3)

Gas and oil in low permeable reservoir rocks (<1 md).

source: Dr. V. Hvenith, RWTH Aachen

Tar sand (oil sand):

Gas adsorbed to coal substance

30-40 m Methane/t coal

Tar sand (oil sand):

Oil shale-open pit (Fushun, CHN)

Calor. power plant

Shale gas & shale oil:

rock rich in organic matter, which yields significant amounts of oil

HCs produced during heating

Composition of oil and gas

Typical elemental composition

Composition of oil and gas

Organic compounds which

Organic compounds which

Organic compounds, which consist

Note that unsaturated hydrocarbons do occur, but are very rare

Composition of oil and gas

1. Linear chain: normal paraffin series

- Organic compounds which consist entirely of C and H;

2. Branched chain: iso-paraffin series

3. Ring structure: naphthene series

Composition of oil and gas

Composition of oil and gas

*Asphaltenes: Compounds, which are

Composition of oil and gas

Ternary diagrams showing

Composition of hydrocarbons in 541 crude oils:

Composition of oil and gas (Sulfur)

(Tissot & Welte, 1984)

Sulfur content of crude oil is dependant on:

Composition of oil and gas (Specific gravity )

API** value = 141.5 131.5

Light Texas Crude

Heavy Texas Crude

Composition of oil and gas (viscosity )

Unit: millipascal-second = centipois

Relationship between specific gravity / API density

(Tissot & Welte, 1984)

Composition of oil and gas

Most common (40%). Moderate density and viscosity,

Aromatic asphaltic + Aromatic naphthenic oils:

Ternary diagram showing

Less common (14%).

(Tissot & Welte, 1984)

Composition of oil and gas

Composition of oil and gas (Alteration of petroleum)

Bacterial alteration of crude oil. Effective up to 70(80?)C.