1.

WHAT IS WORTH KNOWING ABOUT LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR

RADIATION
1.1. The basic information on optical radiation
Laser is known as the device generating light of specific extraordinary
properties. To our understanding light is the electromagnetic radiation which emits
both visible and invisible for the human eyes rays. Physicists consider this radiation
as a waveform or as a beam of photons. According to the first mentioned above
theory, the electromagnetic wave is characterised by its length, frequency and
amplitude. Wave amplitude is a measure of emitted power and luminous intensity.
Wave frequency is connected with so-called wave period. This relationship results in
the following equation:
f = 1 /T
A scheme of "wave" fragment with draw of amplitude A and term T is shown in Fig. 1.

A m p litu d e (A )
T im e

P e rio d (T )
Fig. 1. Basic parameters characterising the wave.
The oscillation period (T) is usually measured in seconds while oscillation
frequency in units called Hertz, abbr. Hz. The unit of frequency measure, 1 Hz means
one pulse (a single wave oscillation) emitted within 1 sec. In other words 1 Hz is an
inverse measure of wave period i.e. 1/s. Wavelength means the distance a wave
disturbance covers within one full period. A wavelength of laser radiation is very often
measured in meter derivative unit called nanometer (abbr. 1 nm).
Nanometer is a milliard part of meter. In practice other derivative units of measure of
wavelength and frequency are used. The most typical ones are presented in Table 1.

Tab. 1. The most typical units of measure used to express wavelength and
pulse repetition frequency
Wavelength

Frequency

-2

1kHz = 103Hz = 1000Hz

(1 kilohertz)
1MHz = 106Hz = 1000000Hz
(1 megahertz)
1GHz = 109Hz = 1000000000Hz
(1 gigahertz)
1THz = 1012Hz = 1000000000000Hz
(1 tetrahertz)

1cm = 10 m = 0.01m
(1 centimetre)
1mm = 10-3m = 0.001m
(1milimetr)
1m = 10-6m = 0.000001m
(1 micrometer)
1nm = 10-9m = 0.000000001m
(1 nanometer)

Some other important relationships between wave parameters are considered below.
It should be remembered that if a wave moves in a medium at speed (v), the
relationship between the wavelength and speed (v) is as follows:
=vt
or
= v 1/f
As regards the electromagnetic radiation, the above equation can be modified by
replacing the radiation speed with the speed of light, which is usually indicated by
symbol c. In case of vacuum the equation looks as follows:
c = c0 = f
It should be remembered that the speed of light in vacuum is 299792454 m/s i.e.
about 3x108 m/s. The ratio of speed of light in vacuum (c 0) to speed in material
medium (c) has been called the index of refraction of this medium (n = c 0/c).
Various types of electromagnetic radiation are known in medical practice. We can
distinguish the following ones: radio frequencies (including microwaves), infrared,
visible, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma radiation. They all form the electromagnetic
spectrum. The diagram of this spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.

 [n m ]

157 nm

G a m m a r a d ia tio n

3000 T H z

U ltra v io le t

X - ra d ia tio n

408 nm

U ltra v io le t
ra d ia tio n

500 nm

B lu e
G ree n

V is ib le ra d ia tio n
30 TH z

V io le t

In fra re d
ra d ia tio n

600 nm

300 G H z
7

10 nm

700 nm

Y e llo w
O ran g e
R ed

3 G H z
30 H z

800 nm

R a d io w a v e s

T h e w a v e le n g th o f la s e r o p e ra tio n

C o s m ic
ra d ia tio n

V is ib le lig h t

f [H z ]

In fra re d
ra d ia tio n
3 4 0 m

Fig. 2. Illustration of wavelength and frequency range for known kinds of radiation
from radio waves through visible light up to cosmic radiation Definition of
radiation ranges including laser light
The Fig. 2 shows distinctly that wave frequency is inversely proportional to the
wavelength. As frequency increases the wave becomes shorter. The visible range
covers only a small part of wide field of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum
known in the nature. The light wavelengths visible to the human eye are in the range
380/400-700/760 nm. The human eye perceives a change of wavelength in this field
as the change of colour. The wavelengths exceeding 760 nm (more often 700 nm)
belong to the invisible infrared area (IR), whereas the wavelengths less than 380 nm
(rarely 400 nm) are in the invisible ultraviolet area (UV). The visible ultraviolet
radiation and the infrared radiation are known as the optical radiation.
The spectrum area with wavelengths less than ca 100 nm is sometimes called the
ionising radiation and wavelengths exceeding 100 nm belong to the spectrum of nonionising radiation. The above classification is useful for people who want to
distinguish the biological effects of various types of radiation.
However, the scientists representing various branches classify the spectrum in
different ways: physicists consider the "optical" spectrum in the range from 1 nm up
to 1 mm, while photobiologists and specialists in health protection are interested in
radiation from 180/200 nm up to 1 mm. Table 2 includes physical and photobiological
classification of the optical spectrum.

Tab. 2. Two ways of typical spectrum division

Physical
UV

Photobiological

distant ultraviolet
(1-10nm to 180nm)
middle ultraviolet
(180nm to 300nm)
near ultraviolet
(300nm to 400nm)

UV-C

VIS

visible light (380nm to 760nm)

light (380/400nm to 760/780nm)

IR

near infrared
(760nm to 4000nm)
middle infrared
(4m to 14m)

IR-A

distant infrared
(14m to 100m)
submilimetral infrared
(100m to 1mm)

IR-C

(100nm to 280nm)
UV-A
(280nm to 320nm)
UV-A
(320nm to 380/400nm)

(760/780nm to 1400nm)
IR-B
(1.4m to 3m)
(3m to 1mm)

1.2. The most important quantities characterising the optical radiation

This chapter outlines very important definitions and units of measure, which are
often used in medical practice. The optical radiation (as a beam of photons) is
characterised by specific energy contained in each photon.
The photon energy increase is proportional to the wave frequency increase.
Energy (E) is the dose measure of transmitted radiation. Energy dose is
measured in Joules (abbr. 1 J). Energy of the photon (E f) can be calculated as
follows:
Ef = h x f
Where: h = Planck's constant equal to 6.63 x 10 -34 J x s. The total energy (E) of a
beam will be equal to the sum of energy of all photons (E f).
The units derived from 1 J are as follows:
1 mJ = 0.001J = 10-3J
1 kJ = 1000J = 103J
Radiation power (P) is a physical quantity characterised by a speed of energy flow.
It is defined as the amount of energy E transmitted within a given time t:

P = E/t
The radiant power is measured and specified in watts (W). The basic units derived
from 1 W are as follows:
1 mW = 0.001W = 10-3W
1 kW = 1000W = 103W
The relationship between the radiant power and energy is therefore obvious:
1W = 1J/1s or

1J = 1W 1s

The most important task of laser therapy is to deliver adequate energy dose to the
proper tissue area.
Below there are three examples of calculating the same energy dose equal to 1 J for
three different power values of laser radiation:
1 J = 10 mW x 100 sec
1 J = 20 mW x 50 sec
1 J = 40 mW x 25 sec
The lasers most commonly used in the present therapy have the following radiation
power: 10 mW, 20 mW and 40 mW. The calculation of radiation power density (PD)
and radiation energy density (ED) are more important criteria for physicians using
lasers in their practice. Power density is defined as a power density in a laser beam
incident to a treated tissue. It can be calculated by dividing the initial power (P) by
laser radiation delivered to the surface S of volume V of the tissue.
PDs = P/S or PDv = P/V
The surface S and volume V are indicated in centimetre squared and cubic
centimetre respectively. This calculation allows fixing the values of radiation power
density in W/cm2 or in W/cm3 respectively. These quantities can be precisely
controlled by changing radiation power in the beam.
A scheme of laser beam having power of 1 mW focused in the optical system in a
form of a "spot" at diameter of 0.1 mm is shown in Fig. 3. When irradiating a given
tissue from different distances, different power densities can be obtained in the same
depth of this tissue. As an instance, with the focal narrowing of 0.1 mm shown in Fig.
3, superficial density can be calculated according to the following formula:
PDs = P/ r2
where P = laser beam power (in mW) incident on the tissue, r = radius (in cm) of
"spot" in a given point (a half of beam diameter)
On placing respective values, power density in the point of maximum beam
narrowing is calculated as follows: PDs = 1 mW:[3.14(0.005) 2] and represents a
surprisingly high value i.e. 12732 mW/cm 2. It is worth noting that if a radius r is
doubled, superficial power density will be four times as low; and if a radius is three

10

times as long, power density will be nine times as low etc. Some of these exemplary
values are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Exemplary diameters of laser beam and respective values of power
density
LASER BEAM DIAMETER (cm)
POWER DENSITY (mW/cm2)

B e a m d ia m e te r [ c m ]

0.01

0.5

12,732

5.1

1.27

0.32

0.14

0.08

0 .0 1

0 .5

1 .0

2 .0

3 .0

1 m W - pow er
la s e r b e a m

O p tic a l le n s

F o c a l c o n tr a c tio n

Fig. 3. Laser beam diameter in relation to the distance between the Ins and tissue
surface
The literature on laser therapy indicates to the other physical quantity used in
measuring a remedial radiation dose. This is volumetric density of radiation power
(PDv). The method of its calculation involves application of particular optical system
in treatment probe. This system determines a shape of laser beam. There are two
typical shapes of laser beam:
a) cylindrical shape in the case of parallel beam
b) conical shape in the case of disfocalized or focalised beam
The above types of beam shapes are presented in Fig. 4.

11

a)

b)

Fig. 4. Typical laser beam shapes

a) collateral
b) divergent (focused or defocused)
However, the most often used quantity in therapeutic practice is energy density (ED)
which is characterised by easily controlled irradiation parameters: radiation power,
procedure duration and irradiated surface or volume.
EDs = P x t/S EDv = P x t/V
The calculation of proper radiation dose involves many factors such as a patient's
reaction to laser radiation, irradiation technique, depth of penetration of light wave of
particular length and power dependent upon a given disease location, extension and
type.
Laser radiation employed in laser therapy can be generated continuously or in form
of repeated pulses (Fig. 5). The beam of laser radiation is defined as the continuous
one (Fig. 5a) when the initial power measured in watts or milliwatts remains constant
over the period of time for which the unit is activated. Fig. 5a illustrates once more a
definition of 1 J energy dose. The dose of 1 J is determined for radiation power of 20
mW emitted within 50 sec. It should be remembered from the general definition of
light energy expressed in joules that:
1 J = 1 W x 1 sec or
1 J = 10 mW x 100 sec or
12

1 J = 1 mW x 1000 sec or
1 J = 20 mW x 50 sec.
The calculation of pulse radiation dose emitted in pulses requires fixing so called
average power (Pa) which is equal to the continuous power of radiation.
In this case the energy dose is calculated by multiplying power P a by radiation time.
However, in order to calculate Pa, three radiation parameters should be known:
- the pulse power (Pi)
- the pulse width (ti)
- a number of single pulses emitted within 1 sec called pulse repetition frequency (f rep)
The average power (Pa) is the product of the following factors:
Pa = Pi x ti x frep
The most frequent values of Pi, ti, frep are as follows:
Pi = 1,5,10,20,30,50, rarely 75 and 100 W
ti = 50,150 or 200 ns
frep = 1 - 4000 Hz and to 10000 in case of advanced
devices
Below there are examples of calculating the average power (P a) pulse with (ti) and
repetition frequency (frep) values.
Assuming that Pi = 20 W, ti = 200 ns and frep = 2000 Hz, the average power P a is
calculated as follows:
Pa = 20 W x 200 ns x 2000 Hz = 8 mW
In the case of 10000 Hz frequency this operation looks as follows:
Pa = 20 W x 200 ns x 10000 Hz = 40 mW
Now, the energy dose of 1 J is calculated as below:
1 J = 8 mW x 125 sec or
1 J = 40 mW x 25 sec
If pulse power 20 W is replaced with 50 W, the operation will look similarly:
Pa = 50 W x 200 ns x 2000 Hz = 20 mW or
Pa = 50 W x 200 ns x 10000 Hz = 100 mW
and then

13

1 J = 20 mW x 5 sec or
1 J = 100 mW x 10 sec
O u tp u t p o w e r
[m W ]

a)

M o m e n t o f s w itc h in g o ff th e la s e r

20
10

1 J o u le

1 J = 20 m W x 50 s

50

25

P u l s e w i d t h [ t i]

O u tp u t p o w e r
[W ]

b)

T im e [s ]

20

P o w e r i n p u l s e [ P i]

A v e r a g e p o w e r [ P a]

50

25

T im e [ s ]

Fig. 5. Two options of laser operation

a) continuos wave laser operation
b) pulse wave laser operation
The above most typical indications and formulas are used in therapeutic practice to
calculate data of laser radiation. They make application of both cw and pulsed lasers
easier. However, in therapeutic practice the recommendations as to the application of
laser of definite type are most often presented in tabular form, which enables to
select proper laser light parameters respectively to the particular type of pathology.
1.3. Laser Physics
Albert Einstein, the well know physicist, was the first scientist who in 1917
described conditions of generating laser radiation. He indicated to a few primary laws
of physics, which could determine a specific character of generated light radiation,
which later on was called laser radiation. In a further part of this chapter we will try to
follow his chain of reasoning and simultaneously find the derivation of this word
LASER.
It is known that each atom has electrons orbiting around its nucleus. The
14

negatively charged electrons are attracted by the positively charged protons in the
atom nucleus. Only respective, precisely defined energy can keep some distance
between these particles. The spacing between electrons and nucleus is defined by
their so-called energy state. Atoms and molecules can be in different energy states or
levels. The level with minimal energy values is called the ground state. The levels
with higher energy values are called excited states.
There is multiplicity of energy levels in atoms and molecules and infinite number
of transfers between them. The transfer from the higher level, for instance E n to the
lower level En-1 means the loss of energy equal to En - En-1.
The quantum of energy (photon) has already been defined above:
Ef = h x f = En - En-1 = h x c/
As appears from the above the radiation wavelength which can be generated as a
result of such energetic process of atomic (molecular) transit is as follows:
= h c / En - En-1
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above relationship:
1. The wavelength of radiation generated from the atomic system depends on
the difference between the energy En and En-1 only (because h x c is the
constant quantity).
2. If there is considerable spacing between energy levels En and En-1
(considerable energy difference) the wavelength of generated radiation will
be shorter.
3. If the energy levels are near each other, the generated wavelength will be
longer.
A. Einstein noticed that the atom system conditions enabling only "clear"
transits between the two particular energy levels would create an impression of
single radiation colour (light) and this radiation would be monochromatic. Radiation
generators (radiation sources) known before laser invention produced the sum of
many "colours" as a result of a lot of energy transits between a considerable number
of atom or molecule levels.
How then to cause (stimulate) transits between the two specific energy levels in
a given material medium? That was the other problem A. Einstein decided to
investigate in 1917. He knew that the atom or molecule could emit radiation only
when they were transited to the higher energy level i.e. they had to be excited.
Radiation absorption from the external source is one of the methods of exciting. The

15

process of atom exciting with radiation quantum of energy (h x f) from the external
source is shown in Fig. 6.
a)

E n e rg y s ta te -

b)

E le c tro n

P h o to n o f e n e rg y
h f

E le c tro n

E n e rg y s ta te -

Fig. 6. Illustration of atom exciting process by absorption of photon (a) and electron
transfer (b) from state E1 to E2
Atom absorbing the photon is excited by electron transit from the E1 state to E2
state. Electrons in energy states higher than the normal atom state, "stay" there for a
short time making their way for their resting level. Spontaneous return to the resting
level is the result of process called spontaneous emission.
This process is shown in Fig. 7. Light emitted as a result of spontaneous emission is
the sum of many photons produced as a result of transits from various energy levels.
Such light is the beam of photons representing different energy values and thus
different wavelengths. Sources of this light are well known i.e. bulbs, fluorescent
lamps and other non-laser sources. Spontaneous radiation is generated
simultaneously in all directions possible.
a)

b)

Fig. 7. Illustration of spontaneous emission process of radiation quantum

Einstein took into consideration the other possibility of quantum emission. He
wanted to create such conditions, which could enable emission of great number of
photons representing the same energy value emitted in the precisely determined
16

direction. He noticed that if the earlier excited atom system were lighted with photons
representing the energy corresponding with the respective energy transit, for
instance E2-->E1, the emission of photons representing just that energy value would
be "favoured" to some extent. So, he had in mind the process of stimulated emission
of radiation of directed and monoenergetic photons. A scheme of such a stimulated
emission process (two level system) is shown in Fig. 8. This Fig. 8 also shows light
amplification process; viz. one stimulating photon releases two photons emitted in
the same direction. In practice one stimulating photon activates emission of great
number of photons representing the same energy value.
a)

b)

P h o to n o f e n e rg y
E = E 2- E 1

2 p h o to n s o f e n e rg y
E = E 2- E 1

Fig. 8. Illustration of simulated emission process. Atom in excited state E 2, excited by

quantum of energy E=E2-E1 emits two quantum of the same energy E=E2-E1
Einstein's way of thinking presented above as well as practical application (1960) of
this radiation source allow to explain the meaning of this word LASER. LASER is an
acronym for
Light
Amplification by
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation.
Stimulated Emission of Radiation and Energy Amplification are factors, which
determine the extraordinary and valuable properties of laser radiation among which
the primary ones can be mentioned, viz. monochromacity, coherence, directivity and
high power density.
However, it appears that cascade laser transits are impossible to be obtained
directly and in order to activate laser, population inversion is indispensable and this
can be achieved through the lasing medium exciting ("pumping"). Population
inversion occurs when a number of atoms in one of the higher energy levels exceed
17

a number of atoms in other lower energy level. This is the process, which consists in
supplying the atom system (medium molecules) with energy.
There are various methods, which allow obtaining population inversion
(pumping) in various types of lasers. Most laser operation methods involve three or
four energy levels in atoms or molecules, which are subject to electric, light, chemical
and other energy effects. Unstable and stable levels also play an important role in
laser operation activation. The energy states in which electrons "stay" for a long time
are called the metastable states. The levels in which electrons "stay" for a
considerable shorter time (even thousand times) are called the unstable levels. Fig. 9
shows a simplified scheme of three level atom system demonstrating the process of
laser radiation stimulation and emission.
If the levels between which laser is to operate are marked E1 (the lower level)
and E2 (the higher level), a pumping role will be to transit atoms (molecules) to the
higher level, for instance E3. This level must be the unstable one and the level
marked E2 must be the stable one. Atoms are transited from the basic level to the
highest one, which is marked E3 in different ways dependent upon the laser type. As
this is the unstable level, the electrons on their exciting drop quickly to the energy
state E2. Owing to the long lifetime of the metastable level (E2), a number of atoms
in this level increase and when it exceeds a number of atoms in the basic state,
population inversion occurs in the level E1. Under these conditions there is
generated a great number of photons in a form of a monochromatic beam of laser
radiation.

Fig. 9. Scheme of three-level atom system, illustrating the principle of lasing material
pumping and laser radiation generation

18

1.4. General outline of laser design

A. Einstein's ideas, though they seemed to be clear, remained unfeasible in
practice for 40 years. Scientists were seeking ways of effective stimulation, which
would enable the higher state (E2) to produce more electrons in comparison with the
normal state (E1). They also tried to stimulate the directive emission and effective
amplification of radiation quantum. Quantums of "stimulating" radiation were found
spontaneously in the stimulated atom system.
Einstein's ideas could be realised only in the second half of 1950. It was then
the scientists investigated the systems generating microwave radiation in resonators
called the waveguides. Their works resulted in obtaining the radiation amplification as
well as its monochromacity and directivity. Microwave generators representing the
properties Einstein expected were called the masers (MASER - M icrowave A
mplification by S timulated E mission of R adiation). This advanced stage of research
works made it possible to obtain the radiation properties in the optical system
(Microwave ---> Light). In simple words it looked as follows: a microwave resonator in
the maser system was replaced with an optical resonator: a waveguide was replaced
with a set of two special optical mirrors parallel to each other, known earlier as FabryParrot resonator. The first ruby laser was started by T.Maman in USA in 1960.
In order to produce laser radiation, the laser device must consist of the following
essential components: a) lasing medium, b) energy source, c) optical resonator. This
system can also be provided with lenses, mirrors, shutters and absorbers as well as
with other additional elements enabling to increase power, shorten pulses or to obtain
a beam of special shapes, but only the above three principal components (a,b,c)
determine the laser operation. Fig. 10 shows a design scheme of each out of 7000
different laser types.
E n e rg y s o u rc e
L aser
ra d ia tio n

L a s in g
m e d iu m

E n e rg y s o u rc e
O p tic a l c a v ity

Fig. 10. Simplified scheme of laser radiation generator

19

Two parallel mirrors forming the optical resonator are responsible for directivity
of radiation emission. The left mirror has the reflection properties only and makes
photons, which reached it, travel back to the lasing medium. The right mirror is
partially transmittable for a given photon energy (the wavelength). As a result of
successive mirror reflections, radiation from the lasing medium closed between such
mirrors moves in it in the determined direction; in consequence a number of photons
grows dramatically and the effect is amplificated. Furthermore, the system of parallel
mirrors stimulates a greater part of radiant transits.
Pumping (exciting) systems in lasers are necessary to transfer the electrons to
the higher energy levels. These systems pump energy to the lasing medium
increasing a number of atoms or molecules being in the metastable energy level till
sufficient population inversion occurs which determines the laser action.
There are available various pumping systems including optical effects, electron
collisions and chemical reactions. In the optical pumping system there is applied a
strong light source such as xenon flash lamp or other laser.
"Pumping" on the electron collision principle is accompanied by passage of
electric current through the lasing medium (usually of gaseous or semiconductor
type).
Chemical pumping consists in the release of energy as a result of forming and
disrupting chemical bonds, for instance HF or DF pumping.
Lasing materials can be gaseous, liquid or solid crystal and in consequence the
shapes of laser medium are different. In the case of gas, glass, ceramic or metal
cylinders filled with one or few gases are used. A similar shape is used with liquid,
though the cubicoid, glass or quartz trays are often applied.
Lasers using solid crystal as the lasing material are in a form of cylindrical or cubicoid
rod made of special synthetic crystal, e.i. ruby, alexandrite, garnet or glass doped
with respective elements, i.e. neodymium, erbium, holmium etc.
Semiconductors are the other lasing medium belonging to the solid state. Recently,
thanks to the great progress in technology of semiconductor lasers, they are often
demonstrated as an independent advanced group of lasers.
1.5. Laser classification
Here, lasers are classified into four groups according to the type of lasing
material, power supply method, wavelength and radiation power.
The lasing material enables to classify lasers as follows:
1. Solid state lasers: glass or crystalline lasing material
2. Gassy lasers: lasing medium consists of gas or gas mixture; this kind of
lasers covers also lasers including metal vapours
20

3. Semiconductor lasers: lasing medium includes semiconductors of n and p

types
4. Liquid lasers: lasing material generally consists of organic dye in solution
or in suspension.
The type of lasing materials determines the wavelength of generated radiation.
Owing to doping lasing materials with various chemical elements, nowadays more
than 7000 types of lasers are known. They generate radiation from the range of so
called vacuous ultravioted through the visible range to a wide range of far infrared
radiation.
Today the LASER conception, reserved after all for light, is more often used in
relation to the other spectrum fields. This happens because radiation having the laser
properties is obtained "outside laser" field. For instance, the definition: "X-ray "Laser"
is used in the case of wavelengths shorter than those of ultraviolet radiation and in
relation to wavelengths longer than those of infrared radiation the definition:
"MICROWAVE LASER" or "MILLIMETRE LASER" is used. Fig. 11 illustrates the most
popular types or groups of lasers classified according to the wavelengths. This
illustration is supplemented with statement in Table 4.
Further in this chapter there are described the most useful and popular types of
lasers for medical applications. A special attention is paid to the lasers recommended
for low-energy therapy. He-Ne (helium-neon) and CO2 lasers are undoubtedly the
oldest ones. They both are applied in laser therapy, though that second one since a
short time. Argon lasers have also found more applications. In low energy therapy,
argon and Nd:YAG lasers are used in irradiation with disfocalized beam. However,
semiconductor lasers prevail over other types in the modern laser therapy. At present
there are known above 200 types of semiconductor material used in laser production.
In medical practice it is sufficient to know that there are various semiconductor lasers
using variety of materials. The GaAs laser is one of the semiconductor lasers
generally applied in laser therapy. It is worthy to add that one type of semiconductor
material produces one colour of laser light.
Lasers can also be classified according to the operation modes. Some of them
operate in the continuous wave mode (c.w.) In these laser types radiation power or
radiation beam intensity are constant over the whole time of laser operation. Pulsed
lasers generate radiation in pulses. In low energy therapy the typical pulse width is
200 ns. Laser pulse repetition frequency means a number of pulses a given laser
device generates in a time unit. The typical pulse frequency applied in laser therapy
is in range 1-4000 Hz. However, frequency in range up to 10000 Hz and even up to
20000 Hz is more often used.

21

100 nm

400 nm

800 nm

2000

4000

10000

Fig. 11. Scheme diagram showing the placement of main laser groups and types of
the wavelength scale
Therapy lasers can be divided into groups from the point of view of radiation power,
viz.:
1) low power lasers in the range from 1 up to 6 mW
2) average power lasers in the range from 7 up to 500 mW
3) high power lasers >500 mW
Low power lasers are often called the soft lasers. Average power lasers are
defined as the mid lasers and those of high power - the hard lasers.
The soft and mid lasers belong to the group of biostimulating lasers. This definition is
connected with radiation interaction with biological tissue, which is described in short
in chapter 2. Below there are indicated primary laser radiation properties and
features determining the effective and safe laser application.

22

Tab. 4. Summary presentation of laser types and groups

Laser type

Density state

CO2
Gas
Er:YAG
Solid state
Er:YSGG
Ho:YAG
Nd:YAG
Semiconductor laser Solid
state
(semiconductor)
Ruby
Solid state
He:Ne
liquid
Dye laser
Gas
Based on metal
vapour
i.e. gold
copper
Argon
Excimer laser
ArF*
KrF*
XeCl*
XeF*

Wave length (nm)

Colour of radiation

106000
2940
2790
2140
1064/1320
635-950

IR
IR
IR
IR
IR
visible-infrared

694
540
350-950 (tuneable)

dark red
green
UV-IR

628.3
511/578
488/514

red
green/yellow
glue/green

193
249
308
351

UV
UV
UV
UV

Gas

Gas
Gas

1.6. Basic properties of laser light

Four out of many unique laser properties are of real importance in medical
practice. These are as follows:
* Monochromacity or monoenergecity (monochromatic radiation)
* High intensity referred to the width unit of radiation spectrum
* Coherence
* Beam parallelism or angle of divergence
What is a practical meaning of these properties?

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Monochromacity
As a matter of fact white light consists of all visible and often invisible (IR UV)
wavelengths. A prism allows separating the individual colours white light consists of.
Each colour leaves a prism at different angle. It is said that the refracted white light is
splitted to the continuous spectrum of colours. The human eye can distinguish the
spectrum of colours from the dark red at the one end to the dark violet at the other
end. Colours in the entire spectrum range overlap progressively. Fig. 12 shows
splitting of white light by means of prism.
)
e
W h it

lig h t

b)
R ed
Y e llo w
G re e n
B lu e
V io le t

r
L ase

lig h t

Fig. 12. Beam transmission through the prism

a) multicolour white light
b) monochromatic laser light
The right part of this illustration shows homogeneous penetration of the
monochromatic laser light beam. As shown the prism does not split laser light.
Fig. 12a shows the visible wavelengths of white light only. In reality a source of white
light radiates also in the invisible range. Therefore, the classic radiation power of light
source is spread out in the wide spectrum field. When such a light affects a biological
tissue, a great part of it heats the tissue intensively provoking a number of
undesirable thermal effects including its vaporisation. Monochromatic light generated
by laser source penetrates selectively into a small, precisely defined local tissue area
without its heating. Very high power densities of such radiation focused in the optical
system to a very small size can be effective and precise scalpels. Light of an ordinary
lamp is impossible to be focused to a small size and can not be the effective scalpel.
Properties of monochromacity and high intensity of laser radiation in the narrow
spectrum line are shown in Fig. 13. This figure also shows a part of wide spectrum of
simple lamp generation. In order to make such lamp produce power of 1 mW in one
clear colour in the visible range, it would have the total power of ca 1 million watts.
This example explains why light therapy using polychromatic radiation sources of
hundreds of watts power is unsatisfactory and thus seldom applied. Instead, overall
dimensions of semiconductor laser producing the power of 1 mW can be limited to
those of typical pen or ball-pen.

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R e la tiv e in te n s ity [ % ]

Laser radiation coherence is presented in Fig. 14. Laser light coherence means
the same phase of waves over the long distances. In other simple words it can be
said that crests and troughs of individual waves are arranged in one line.

100

L a s e r w a v e le n g th
F rag m en t o f n o rm a l
b u lb s p e c tru m

50

400

500

600

700

800

W a v e le n g th [n m ]

Fig. 13. Illustration of radiation spectrum for average bulb light and laser light

a)

b)
LA SER

Fig. 14. Examples of radiation waves schemes

a) incoherent for a bulb light
b) coherent for a laser light
Precise directivity of the laser radiation beam generation means that the
radiation beam can be emitted to distant surfaces without considerable change of its
size. It is often said that laser light is characterised by small angular divergence.
Typical divergence of laser light is milliradian, abbr. 1 mrad. Radian is a unit of
measure of angle which is equal to the ratio of circle sector arc length to circle radius.
Fig. 15 shows schemes of angular radiation emission by an ordinary lamp and laser
source.

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LA SER

R
R

A n g le

c)

b)

Fig. 15. Angular characteristics of generated radiation

a) average bulb
b) laser source
c)
radian definition as a measure of radiation divergence
Small angles of beam divergences of laser source also signify the great ability
to focus this radiation in the optical systems. In accordance with the known in optics
relationship:
d=fx
a size of spot (d) in object lens at focal distance (f) depends upon the angle of beam
divergence. It is obvious that only a low value of angle can guarantee a small size of
spot (d). The above property is apparently of great importance in laser therapy
because on one hand it makes the laser serve as an effective surgical scalpel and
enables supplying the respective tissues with precise radiation energy dose in
biostimulation procedure and laser acupuncture on the other hand.
Dependent upon the laser class, the intensively focused radiation beam can provoke
actions, which can be harmful to the patient's eyes and skin.
The aspects of safe laser therapy are presented in chapter 5.

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