Radio Communication Jto Lice Study Material Sample

LICE-JTO
Radio Communication Systems
LICE-JTO
Limited Internal Competitive Examination
STUDY MATERIAL
Principles of Radio Communication, A.M., F.M. Radio, Phase Modulation. Signal

conditioning and Transmission Study of special chips, output interfacing, output
instruments-indicators, recorders, data acquisition systems data loggers, servo
mechanism, electronic process control instrumentation. Wave propagation,
Microwave devices & components, microwave measurements, antenna
fundamental & their characteristic. Audio Engineering, sound transducers, sound
recording & reproduction, sound transmission, radio transmission, radio
reception.
2016ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA .All Rights Reserved LICE / JTO / SSC : Classroom , POSTAL, All India TEST Series
28-B/7, Jia Sarai, Near IIT, HauzKhas, New Delhi-110016. Ph. 011-26514888. www.engineersinstitute.com
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CONTENTS
Basics of Radio Communication 3- 6
Modulation 7-17
AM /FM Radio System 17-20
Microwave Engineering 20-63
ANTENNAS 63-75
Microwave measurements 76-86
Data acquisition system and data loggers 87-89
Audio Engineering 90-94
Sample Questions 94-107
IMPORTANT TERMS - MEMORY 108-114
SYLLABUS: Radio Communication Systems

Principles of Radio Communication, A.M., F.M. Radio, Phase Modulation. Signal conditioning and
Transmission Study of special chips, output interfacing, output instruments-indicators, recorders,
data acquisition systems data loggers, servo mechanism, electronic process control instrumentation.
Wave propagation, Microwave devices & components, microwave measurements, antenna
fundamental & their characteristic. Audio Engineering, sound transducers, sound recording &
reproduction, sound transmission, radio transmission, radio reception.
LICE-JTO
Basics of Radio Communication

Radio or radio communication means any transmission, emission, or reception of signs, signals,
writing, images, sounds or intelligence of any nature by means of electromagnetic waves of
frequencies lower than three thousand gigacycles per second (3000 GHz) propagated in space
without artificial guide.
Examples of radio communication systems:
Radio broadcasting.
TV broadcasting.
Satellite communication.
Mobile Cellular Telephony.
Wireless LAN.
Multimedia communication & Mobile Internet
Classification of radio spectrum
-10
km
Term
ELF
VLF
30-300
kHz
3003000
KHz
3-30
MHz
30-300
MHz
3003000
MHz
3-30
GHz
30-300
GHz
10
1000
100
10
100
10
10
-1 km
-100 m
-10 m
-1 m
-10 cm
-1 cm
-1 mm
LF
MF
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF
Radio Communication has three main problems:
Frequency assignments up 60 GHz
-100
km
Fixed services, Fixed satellite services, Mobile

services, Remote sensing
Wavelength
Broadcasting TV, satellites, Personal telephone

systems, radar systems, fixed and mobile satellite
services
100
Broadcasting, TV, FM, Mobile services for

maritime, aeronautical and land, Wireless
microphones, Meteor burst communication
1000
Fixed point to point communication, Mobile

maritime aeronautical, land services, military
communication, amateur radio and broadcasting
3-30
kHz
AM broadcasting, navigation, radio beacons, and

distress frequencies.
3003000
Hz
Frequency
Long distance communication (fixed and marine),

Broadcasting, Navigation, Radio beacons
Time and Frequency Normal, Navigation,

Underwater Communication, Remote sensing
underground, Maritime telegraphy
Application
The path loss
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Noise
Sharing the radio spectrum
In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is very weak when it reaches the
receiver, particularly when it has traveled over a long distance.
The signal has also picked up noise of various kinds.
Receivers must provide the sensitivity and selectivity that permit full recovery of the original
signal.
The radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the super heterodyne receiver.
Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower frequency, known as the
intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers is used to provide a fixed
level of sensitivity and selectivity.
Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers.
The key circuit is the mixer, which acts like a simple amplitude modulator to produce sum
and difference frequencies.
The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal.
Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.

RF Amplifier
The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the RF amplifier, also
called a low-noise amplifier (LNA).
RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and selectivity and are sometimes called preselectors.
Tuned circuits help select the frequency range in which the signal resides.
RF amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation.
Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF amplifiers.
Mixers and Local Oscillators
The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer.
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The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator or frequency synthesizer.
The mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator signal, and the sum and
difference frequencies of these signals.
A tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference frequency, or
intermediate frequency (IF).
The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can be adjusted over a
relatively wide range.
IF Amplifiers
The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same modulation that
appeared on the input RF signal.
The signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages, and most of the gain is
obtained in these stages.
Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity.
Since the intermediate frequency is usually lower than the input frequency, IF
amplifiers are easier to design and good selectivity is easier to obtain.
Demodulators
The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the demodulator, which recovers
the original modulating information.
The demodulator may be a diode detector (for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM),
or a product detector (for SSB).
The output of the demodulator is then usually fed to an audio amplifier.
Automatic Gain Control
The output of a demodulator is usually the original modulating signal, the amplitude
of which is directly proportional to the amplitude of the received signal.
The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by
a circuit known as the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit.
This dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifiers, and sometimes the RF amplifier, to
control receiver gain.
AGC circuits help maintain a constant output level over a wide range of RF input
signal levels.
Automatic Gain Control
The amplitude of the RF signal at the antenna of a receiver can range from a fraction
of a microvolt to thousands of microvolts; this wide signal range is known as the
dynamic range.
Typically, receivers are designed with very high gain so that weak signals can be
reliably received.
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However, applying a very high-amplitude signal to a receiver causes the circuits to

be overdriven, producing distortion and reducing intelligibility.
With AGC, the overall gain of the receiver is automatically adjusted depending on
the input signal level.
Frequency conversion
Frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal to a higher or lower

frequency while retaining all the originally transmitted information.
In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are converted to a lower, intermediate frequency.

This is called down conversion.
In satellite communications, the original signal is generated at a lower frequency and then
converted to a higher frequency. This is called up conversion.
Mixing Principles
Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation carried out by a mixer circuit or

converter.
The function performed by the mixer is called heterodyning.
Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be translated to another frequency is applied to one
input, and the sine wave from a local oscillator is applied to the other input.
Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer essentially performs a mathematical multiplication of

its two input signals.
The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be translated is the modulating signal.
The output contains not only the carrier signal but also sidebands formed when the local
oscillator and input signal are mixed.
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless communication (Important for LICE)

Advantages:
mobility
a wireless communication network is a solution in areas where cables are impossible
to install (e.g. hazardous areas, long distances etc.)
easier to maintain
Disadvantages:
has security vulnerabilities
high costs for setting the infrastructure
unlike wired comm., wireless comm. is influenced by physical obstructions, climatic
conditions, interference from other wireless devices
Frequency Carries/Channels
The information from sender to receiver is carrier over a well-defined frequency band.
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This is called a channel

Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in KHz) and Capacity (bit-rate)
Different frequency bands (channels) can be used to transmit information in parallel and
independently.
Example
Assume a spectrum of 90KHz is allocated over a base frequency b for communication

between stations A and B
Assume each channel occupies 30KHz.
There are 3 channels
Each channel is simplex (Transmission occurs in one way)
For full duplex communication:
Use two different channels (front and reverse channels)
Use time division in a channel
Radio waves generation

when a high-frequency alternating current (AC) passes through a copper conductor it
generates radio waves which are propagated into the air using an antenna
radio waves have frequencies between:

3 Hz 300 KHz - low frequency
300 KHz 30 MHz high frequency
30 MHz 300 MHz very high frequency
300 MHz 300 GHz ultra high frequency
radio waves are generated by an antenna and they propagate in all directions as a straight
line
radio waves travel at a velocity of 186.000 miles per second
radio waves become weaker as they travel a long distance
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Modulation
Modulation = adding information (e.g. voice) to a carrier electromagnetic (radio) signal
Digital modulation techniques
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Frequency Modulation (FM) / Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Radio frequency interference
Radio signal attenuation (path loss)

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10
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation is the simplest and earliest form of transmitters
AM applications include broadcasting in medium- and high-frequency applications, CB radio,

and aircraft communications.
Transmit information bearing (message) or baseband signal (voice music) through a

communication channel
Baseband = is a range of frequency signal to be transmitted. eg: Audio (0 - 4 kHz), Video (0

- 6 MHz).
Communication channel:
Transmission without frequency shifting.
Transmission through twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber optic cable.
Significant power for whole range of frequencies.
Not suitable for radio/microwave and satellite communication.
Carrier communication
Use technique of modulation to shift the frequency.
Change the carrier signal characteristics (amplitude, frequency and phase) following
the modulating signal amplitude.
Suitable for radio/microwave and satellite communication.
The instantaneous amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the

instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. Main advantages of AM are small
bandwidth and simple transmitter and receiver designs. Amplitude modulation is
implemented by mixing the carrier wave in a nonlinear device with the modulating signal.
This produces upper and lower sidebands, which are the sum and difference frequencies of
the carrier wave and modulating signal.
The carrier signal is represented byc(t) = A cos(wct)
The modulating signal is represented bym(t) = B sin(wmt)
Then the final modulated signal is

[1 + m(t)] c(t)= A [1 + m(t)] cos(wct)= A [1 + B sin(wmt)] cos(wct)
LICE-JTO

= A cos(wct) + A m/2 (cos((wc+wm)t)) + A m/2 (cos((wc-wm)t))
The information signal varies the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier
AM Characteristics
AM is a nonlinear process
Sum and difference frequencies are

created that carry the information.
Modulation Index - The ratio between the amplitudes between the amplitudes of the
modulating signal and carrier, expressed by the equation:
m=
Em
Ec
When the modulation index is greater than 1, over modulation is present
Modulation Index for Multiple Modulating Frequencies

Two or more sine waves of different, uncorrelated frequencies modulating a single carrier is
calculated by the equation m m12 m22
Bandwidth
11
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12
Signal bandwidth is an important characteristic of any modulation scheme

In general, a narrow bandwidth is desirable
Bandwidth is calculated by:
B 2Fm
Power Relationships
Power in a transmitter is important, but the most important power measurement is that of
the portion that transmits the information
AM carriers remain unchanged with modulation and therefore are wasteful
Power in an AM transmitter is calculated according to the formula at the right
m2
Pt Pc1
2
Quadrature AM and AM Stereo

Two carriers generated at the same frequency but 90 out of phase with each other allow
transmission of two separate signals
This approach is known as Quadrature AM (QUAM or QAM)
Recovery of the two signals is accomplished by synchronous detection by two balanced
modulators
Suppressed-Carrier AM
Full-carrier AM is simple but not efficient
Removing the carrier before power amplification allows full transmitter power to be applied
to the sidebands
Removing the carrier from a fully modulated AM systems results in a double-sideband
suppressed-carrier transmission
Single-Sideband AM
The two sidebands of an AM signal are mirror images of one another
As a result, one of the sidebands is redundant
Using single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission results in reduced bandwidth and
therefore twice as many signals may be transmitted in the same spectrum allotment
Typically, a 3dB improvement in signal-to-noise ratio is achieved as a result of SSBSC
Power in Suppressed-Carrier Signals
Carrier power is useless as a measure of power in a DSBSC or SSBSC signal
Instead, the peak envelope power is used
The peak power envelope is simply the power at modulation peaks, calculated thus:
PEP
Vp
2 RL
Frequency Modulation.
FM is widely used for a variety of radio communications applications. FM broadcasts on the VHF
bands still provide exceptionally high quality audio, and FM is also used for a variety of forms of two
way radio communications, and it is especially useful for mobile radio communications, being used
in taxis, and many other forms of vehicle.
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13
In Frequency Modulation (FM) the instantaneous value of the information signal controls the
frequency of the carrier wave. This is illustrated in the following diagrams.
Notice that as the amplitude of the information signal increases above 0 volts, the frequency of the
carrier increases, and as the amplitude of the information signal decreases below 0 volts, the
frequency of the carrier decreases.
The frequency fi of the information signal controls the rate at which the carrier frequency increases
and decreases. As with AM, fi must be less than fc. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant
throughout this process.
When the information voltage reaches its maximum value then the change in frequency of the
carrier will have also reached its maximum deviation above the nominal value. Similarly when the
information reaches a minimum the carrier will be at its lowest frequency below the nominal carrier
frequency value. When the information signal is zero, then no deviation of the carrier will occur.
The maximum change in frequency that can occur to the carrier from its base value fc is called the
frequency deviation, and is given the symbol fc. This sets the dynamic range (i.e. voltage range) of
the transmission.
The dynamic range is the ratio of the largest and smallest analogue information signals that can be
transmitted.
Modulation Index
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14
All FM transmissions are governed by a modulation index, , which controls the dynamic range of
the information being carried in the transmission. The modulation index, , is the ratio of the
frequency deviation, fc , to the maximum information frequency, fi , as shown below:
f c
fi
Theoretically, an FM spectrum has an infinite number of sidebands, spaced at multiples of fi above

and below the carrier frequencyfc . However the size and significance of these sidebands is very
dependent on the modulation index, . (As a general rule, any sidebands below 1% of the carrier can
be ignored.)
Determination of Bandwidth for FM Radio

FM radio uses a modulation index, > 1, and this is called wideband FM. As its name suggests the
bandwidth is much larger than AM.
In national radio broadcasts using FM, the frequency deviation of the carrier fc , is chosen to be
75kHz, and the information baseband is the high fidelity range 20Hz to 15kHz.
Thus the modulation index, is 5 and such broadcast requires an FM signal bandwidth given by:
BandwidthFM
Radio
2(f c f i (max) )
2(75 15)
180kHz
Points to remember.
An FM transmission is a constant power wave, regardless of the information signal or modulation
index, , because it is operated at a constant amplitude with symmetrical changes in frequency.
As increases, the relative amplitude of the carrier component decreases and may become much
smaller than the amplitudes of the individual sidebands. The effect of this is that a much greater
proportion of the transmitted power is in the sidebands (rather than in the carrier), which is more
efficient than AM.
Signal Conditioning
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15
PC-based Data Acquisition System
In the last few years, industrial PC I/O interface products have becomeincreasingly reliable,
accurate and affordable. PC-baseddata acquisition and control systems are widely used in
industrial andlaboratory applications like monitoring, control, data acquisition
andautomated testing.
Selecting and building a DA&C (Data Acquisition and Control) systemthat actually does what
you want it to do requires some knowledge ofelectrical and computer engineering.
Transducers and actuators
Signal conditioning
Data acquisition and control hardware
Computer systems software
A data acquisition system consists of many components that are integrated to:
Sense physical variables (use of transducers)
Condition the electrical signal to make it readable by an A/D board
Convert the signal into a digital format acceptable by a computer
Process, analyze, store, and display the acquired data with the help of software
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16
Radio Transmission and Reception

For the propagation and interception of radio waves, a transmitter and receiver are
employed.
A radio wave acts as a carrier of information-bearing signals; the information may
be encoded directly on the wave by periodically interrupting its transmission (as in dotand-dash telegraphy) or impressed on it by a process called modulation.
The actual information in a modulated signal is contained in its sidebands, or
frequencies added to the carrier wave, rather than in the carrier wave itself.
The two most common types of modulation used in radio are amplitude modulation
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM). Frequency modulation minimizes noise and
provides greater fidelity than amplitude modulation, which is the older method
of broadcasting. Both AM and FM are analog transmission systems, that is, they
process sounds into continuously varying patterns of electrical signals which resemble
sound waves.
Digital radio uses a transmission system in which the signals propagate as discrete
voltage pulses, that is, as patterns of numbers; before transmission, an analog audio
signal is converted into a digital signal, which may be transmitted in the AM or FM
frequency range. A digital radio broadcast offers compact-disc-quality reception and
reproduction on the FM band and FM-quality reception and reproduction on the AM
band.
In its most common form, radio is used for the transmission of sounds (voice and
music) and pictures (television). The sounds and images are converted into electrical
signals by a microphone (sounds) or video camera (images), amplified, and used to
modulate a carrier wave that has been generated by an oscillator circuit in a transmitter.
The modulated carrier is also amplified, and then applied to an antenna that converts
the electrical signals to electromagnetic waves for radiation into space. Such waves
radiate at the speed of light and are transmitted not only by line of sight but also by
deflection from the ionosphere.
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LICE-JTO

Radio Communication Systems

Principles of Radio Communication, A.M., F.M. Radio, Phase Modulation. Signal

Radio Communication Systems

SYLLABUS: Radio Communication Systems

Radio Communication Systems

Basics of Radio Communication

Classification of radio spectrum

Radio Communication has three main problems:

Frequency assignments up 60 GHz

Fixed services, Fixed satellite services, Mobile

Broadcasting TV, satellites, Personal telephone

Broadcasting, TV, FM, Mobile services for

Fixed point to point communication, Mobile

AM broadcasting, navigation, radio beacons, and

Long distance communication (fixed and marine),

Time and Frequency Normal, Navigation,

The path loss

Radio Communication Systems

Sharing the radio spectrum

The signal has also picked up noise of various kinds.

Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers.

The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal.

Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.

RF amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation.

Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF amplifiers.

Mixers and Local Oscillators

The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer.

Radio Communication Systems

Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity.

The output of the demodulator is then usually fed to an audio amplifier.

Automatic Gain Control

Automatic Gain Control

Radio Communication Systems

However, applying a very high-amplitude signal to a receiver causes the circuits to

Frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal to a higher or lower

In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are converted to a lower, intermediate frequency.

Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation carried out by a mixer circuit or

The function performed by the mixer is called heterodyning.

Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer essentially performs a mathematical multiplication of

Advantages and disadvantages of wireless communication (Important for LICE)

Radio Communication Systems

This is called a channel

Assume a spectrum of 90KHz is allocated over a base frequency b for communication

Radio waves generation

radio waves have frequencies between:

Radio Communication Systems

Digital modulation techniques

Radio Communication Systems

Frequency Modulation (FM) / Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Radio frequency interference

Radio signal attenuation (path loss)

Radio Communication Systems

Amplitude Modulation is the simplest and earliest form of transmitters

AM applications include broadcasting in medium- and high-frequency applications, CB radio,

Transmit information bearing (message) or baseband signal (voice music) through a

Baseband = is a range of frequency signal to be transmitted. eg: Audio (0 - 4 kHz), Video (0

Suitable for radio/microwave and satellite communication.

The instantaneous amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the

The carrier signal is represented byc(t) = A cos(wct)

The modulating signal is represented bym(t) = B sin(wmt)

Then the final modulated signal is

Radio Communication Systems

The information signal varies the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier