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Coordinates:485129.6N21740.2E

EiffelTower
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheEiffelTower(/afltar/EYEflTOWRFrench:Tour
EiffelFrenchpronunciation:[tufl] listen)isawroughtiron
latticetowerontheChampdeMarsinParis,France.Itisnamed
aftertheengineerGustaveEiffel,whosecompanydesignedand
builtthetower.

EiffelTower
TourEiffel

Constructedin1889astheentrancetothe1889World'sFair,it
wasinitiallycriticizedbysomeofFrance'sleadingartistsand
intellectualsforitsdesign,butithasbecomeaglobalcultural
iconofFranceandoneofthemostrecognisablestructuresinthe
world.[3]TheEiffelToweristhemostvisitedpaidmonumentin
theworld6.91millionpeopleascendeditin2015.
Thetoweris324metres(1,063ft)tall,aboutthesameheightas
an81storeybuilding,andthetalleststructureinParis.Itsbase
issquare,measuring125metres(410ft)oneachside.Duringits
construction,theEiffelTowersurpassedtheWashington
Monumenttobecomethetallestmanmadestructureinthe
world,atitleitheldfor41yearsuntiltheChryslerBuildingin
NewYorkCitywasfinishedin1930.Duetotheadditionofa
broadcastingaerialatthetopofthetowerin1957,itisnow
tallerthantheChryslerBuildingby5.2metres(17ft).Excluding
transmitters,theEiffelToweristhesecondtalleststructurein
FranceaftertheMillauViaduct.
TheEiffelTowerseenfrom
theChampdeMars

Thetowerhasthreelevelsforvisitors,withrestaurantsonthe
firstandsecondlevels.Thetoplevel'supperplatformis276m
(906ft)abovethegroundthehighestobservationdeck
accessibletothepublicintheEuropeanUnion.Ticketscanbe
purchasedtoascendbystairsorlift(elevator)tothefirstand
secondlevels.Theclimbfromgroundleveltothefirstlevelis
over300steps,asistheclimbfromthefirstleveltothesecond.
Althoughthereisastaircasetothetoplevel,itisusuallyonly
accessiblebylift.

LocationwithinParis

Contents
1 History
1.1 Origin
1.2 Theartists'protest
1.3 Construction
1.3.1 Lifts
1.4 Inaugurationandthe1889exposition
1.5 Subsequentevents
2 Design
2.1 Material
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiffel_Tower

Recordheight
Tallestintheworldfrom1889to1930[I]
Generalinformation
Type

Observationtower
Broadcastingtower

Location

7tharrondissement,Paris,
France
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2.1 Material
2.2 Windconsiderations
2.3 Accommodation
2.4 Passengerlifts
2.5 Engravednames
2.6 Aesthetics
2.7 Maintenance
3 Tourism
3.1 Transport
3.2 Popularity
3.3 Restaurants
4 Replicas
5 Communications
5.1 FMradio
5.2 Digitaltelevision
6 Illuminationcopyright
7 Inpopularculture
8 Tallerstructures
8.1 LatticetowerstallerthantheEiffelTower
8.2 StructuresinFrancetallerthantheEiffel
Tower
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 Externallinks

History
Origin

Coordinates

485129.6N21740.2E

Constructionstarted 28January1887
Completed

15March1889

Opening

31March1889

Owner

CityofParis,France

Management

Socitd'Exploitationdela
TourEiffel(SETE)
Height

Architectural

300m(984ft)[1]

Tip

324m(1,063ft)[1]

Topfloor

276m(906ft)[1]
Technicaldetails

Floorcount

3[2]

Lifts/elevators

8[2]

Designandconstruction
Architect

StephenSauvestre

Structuralengineer MauriceKoechlin
mileNouguier
Maincontractor

Compagniedes
EtablissementsEiffel
References

I.^EiffelTower(http://www.emporis.com/buildin
gs/110508)atEmporis

ThedesignoftheEiffelTowerwastheproductofMaurice
KoechlinandmileNouguier,twoseniorengineersworkingfor
theCompagniedestablissementsEiffel,afterdiscussionaboutasuitablecentrepiecefortheproposed1889
ExpositionUniverselle,aworld'sfairtocelebratethecentennialoftheFrenchRevolution.Eiffelopenly
acknowledgedthatinspirationforatowercamefromtheLattingObservatorybuiltinNewYorkCityin1853.[4]In
May1884,workingathome,Koechlinmadeasketchoftheiridea,describedbyhimas"agreatpylon,consisting
offourlatticegirdersstandingapartatthebaseandcomingtogetheratthetop,joinedtogetherbymetaltrussesat
regularintervals".[5]Eiffelinitiallyshowedlittleenthusiasm,buthedidapprovefurtherstudy,andthetwo
engineersthenaskedStephenSauvestre,theheadofcompany'sarchitecturaldepartment,tocontributetothe
design.Sauvestreaddeddecorativearchestothebaseofthetower,aglasspaviliontothefirstlevel,andother
embellishments.
ThenewversiongainedEiffel'ssupport:heboughttherightstothepatentonthedesignwhichKoechlin,Nougier,
andSauvestrehadtakenout,andthedesignwasexhibitedattheExhibitionofDecorativeArtsintheautumnof
1884underthecompanyname.On30March1885,EiffelpresentedhisplanstotheSocitdesIngnieursCivils
afterdiscussingthetechnicalproblemsandemphasisingthepracticalusesofthetower,hefinishedhistalkby
sayingthetowerwouldsymbolise,

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FirstdrawingoftheEiffel
TowerbyMauriceKoechlin
includingsizecomparison
withotherParisian
landmarkssuchasNotre
DamedeParis,theStatueof
LibertyandtheVendme
Column

Notonlytheartofthemodernengineer,butalsothecenturyofIndustryandScienceinwhichweare
living,andforwhichthewaywaspreparedbythegreatscientificmovementoftheeighteenthcentury
and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's
gratitude.[6]
Littleprogresswasmadeuntil1886,whenJulesGrvywasreelectedaspresidentofFranceanddouardLockroy
wasappointedasministerfortrade.Abudgetfortheexpositionwaspassedand,on1May,Lockroyannouncedan
alterationtothetermsoftheopencompetitionbeingheldforacentrepiecetotheexposition,whicheffectively
madetheselectionofEiffel'sdesignaforegoneconclusion,asentrieshadtoincludeastudyfora300m(980ft)
foursidedmetaltowerontheChampdeMars.[6]On12May,acommissionwassetuptoexamineEiffel'sscheme
anditsrivals,which,amonthlater,decidedthatalltheproposalsexceptEiffel'swereeitherimpracticalorlacking
indetails.
Aftersomedebateabouttheexactlocationofthetower,acontractwassignedon8January1887.Thiswassigned
byEiffelactinginhisowncapacityratherthanastherepresentativeofhiscompany,andgrantedhim1.5million
francstowardtheconstructioncosts:lessthanaquarteroftheestimated6.5millionfrancs.Eiffelwastoreceiveall
incomefromthecommercialexploitationofthetowerduringtheexhibitionandforthenext20years.Helater
establishedaseparatecompanytomanagethetower,puttinguphalfthenecessarycapitalhimself.[7]

Theartists'protest
Theproposedtowerhadbeenasubjectofcontroversy,drawingcriticismfromthosewhodidnotbelieveitwas
feasibleandthosewhoobjectedonartisticgrounds.Theseobjectionswereanexpressionofalongstandingdebate
inFranceabouttherelationshipbetweenarchitectureandengineering.Itcametoaheadasworkbeganatthe
ChampdeMars:a"CommitteeofThreeHundred"(onememberforeachmetreofthetower'sheight)wasformed,
ledbytheprominentarchitectCharlesGarnierandincludingsomeofthemostimportantfiguresofthearts,such
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asAdolpheBouguereau,GuydeMaupassant,CharlesGounodandJulesMassenet.
Apetitioncalled"ArtistsagainsttheEiffelTower"wassenttotheMinisterof
WorksandCommissionerfortheExposition,CharlesAlphand,anditwas
publishedbyLeTempson14February1887:
We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of
the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength,
with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against
theerectionofthisuselessandmonstrousEiffelTowerTobring
ourargumentshome,imagineforamomentagiddy,ridiculoustower
dominatingParislikeagiganticblacksmokestack,crushingunderits
barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour SaintJacques, the Louvre, the
Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated
monumentswilldisappearinthisghastlydream.Andfortwentyyears
weshallseestretchinglikeablotofinkthehatefulshadowofthe
hatefulcolumnofboltedsheetmetal.[8]

CaricatureofGustaveEiffel
comparingtheEiffeltower
tothePyramids

GustaveEiffelrespondedtothesecriticismsby
comparinghistowertotheEgyptianpyramids:"My
towerwillbethetallestedificeevererectedby
man.Willitnotalsobegrandioseinitsway?Andwhywouldsomethingadmirable
inEgyptbecomehideousandridiculousinParis?"[9]Thesecriticismswerealso
dealtwithbydouardLockroyinaletterofsupportwrittentoAlphand,ironically
saying,[10]"Judgingbythestatelyswelloftherhythms,thebeautyofthe
metaphors,theeleganceofitsdelicateandprecisestyle,onecantellthisprotestis
theresultofcollaborationofthemostfamouswritersandpoetsofourtime",and
heexplainedthattheprotestwasirrelevantsincetheprojecthadbeendecidedupon
monthsbefore,andconstructiononthetowerwasalreadyunderway.
Indeed,GarnierwasamemberoftheTowerCommissionthathadexaminedthe
variousproposals,andhadraisednoobjection.Eiffelwassimilarlyunworried,
pointingouttoajournalistthatitwasprematuretojudgetheeffectofthetower
solelyonthebasisofthedrawings,thattheChampdeMarswasdistantenough
fromthemonumentsmentionedintheprotestfortheretobelittleriskofthetoweroverwhelmingthem,and
puttingtheaestheticargumentforthetower:"Donotthelawsofnaturalforcesalwaysconformtothesecretlaws
ofharmony?"[11]
AcalligrambyGuillaume
Apollinaire

Someoftheprotesterschangedtheirmindswhenthetowerwasbuiltothersremainedunconvinced.[12]Guyde
Maupassantsupposedlyatelunchinthetower'srestauranteverydaybecauseitwastheoneplaceinPariswhere
thetowerwasnotvisible.[13]
By1918,ithadbecomeasymbolofParisandofFranceafterGuillaumeApollinairewroteanationalistpoemin
theshapeofthetower(acalligram)toexpresshisfeelingsaboutthewaragainstGermany.[14]Today,itiswidely
consideredtobearemarkablepieceofstructuralart,andisoftenfeaturedinfilmsandliterature.

Construction

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Workonthefoundationsstartedon28January1887.[15]Thosefortheeast
andsouthlegswerestraightforward,witheachlegrestingonfour2m
(6.6ft)concreteslabs,oneforeachoftheprincipalgirdersofeachleg.The
westandnorthlegs,beingclosertotheriverSeine,weremorecomplicated:
eachslabneededtwopilesinstalledbyusingcompressedaircaissons15m
(49ft)longand6m(20ft)indiameterdriventoadepthof22m(72ft)[16]
tosupporttheconcreteslabs,whichwere6m(20ft)thick.Eachofthese
slabssupportedablockoflimestonewithaninclinedtoptobeara
supportingshoefortheironwork.
FoundationsoftheEiffelTower

Eachshoewasanchoredtothestoneworkbyapairofbolts10cm(4in)in
diameterand7.5m(25ft)long.Thefoundationswerecompletedon30
June,andtheerectionoftheironworkbegan.Thevisibleworkonsitewascomplementedbytheenormousamount
ofexactingpreparatoryworkthattookplacebehindthescenes:thedrawingofficeproduced1,700general
drawingsand3,629detaileddrawingsofthe18,038differentpartsneeded.[17]Thetaskofdrawingthecomponents
wascomplicatedbythecomplexanglesinvolvedinthedesignandthedegreeofprecisionrequired:thepositionof
rivetholeswasspecifiedtowithin0.1mm(0.0039in)andanglesworkedouttoonesecondofarc.Thefinished
components,somealreadyrivetedtogetherintosubassemblies,arrivedonhorsedrawncartsfromafactoryinthe
nearbyParisiansuburbofLevalloisPerretandwerefirstboltedtogether,withtheboltsbeingreplacedwithrivets
asconstructionprogressed.Nodrillingorshapingwasdoneonsite:ifanypartdidnotfit,itwassentbacktothe
factoryforalteration.Inall,18,038pieceswerejoinedtogetherusing2.5millionrivets.[15]
Atfirstthelegswereconstructedascantilevers,butabouthalfwaytothefirstlevel,constructionwaspausedin
ordertocreateasubstantialtimberscaffold.Thisrenewedconcernsaboutthestructuralintegrityofthetower,and
sensationalheadlinessuchas"EiffelSuicide!"and"GustaveEiffelHasGoneMad:HeHasBeenConfinedinan
Asylum"appearedinthetabloidpress.[18]Atthisstage,asmall"creeper"cranedesignedtomoveupthetowerwas
installedineachleg.Theymadeuseoftheguidesfortheliftswhichweretobefittedinthefourlegs.Thecritical
stageofjoiningthelegsatthefirstlevelwascompletedbytheendofMarch1888.[15]Althoughthemetalworkhad
beenpreparedwiththeutmostattentiontodetail,provisionhadbeenmadetocarryoutsmalladjustmentsinorder
topreciselyalignthelegshydraulicjackswerefittedtotheshoesatthebaseofeachleg,capableofexertinga
forceof800tonnes,andthelegswereintentionallyconstructedataslightlysteeperanglethannecessary,being
supportedbysandboxesonthescaffold.Althoughconstructioninvolved300onsiteemployees,[15]onlyone
persondiedthankstoEiffel'sstringentsafetyprecautionsandtheuseofmovablegangways,guardrailsand
screens.

Thestartoftheerection
ofthemetalwork.

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7December1887:
Constructionofthelegs
withscaffolding.

20March1888:
Completionofthefirst
level.

15May1888:Startof
constructiononthe
secondstage.

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21August
26December
15March
1888:
1888:
1889:
Completionof Constructionof Construction
thesecond
theupperstage. ofthecupola.
level.

Lifts
Equippingthetowerwithadequateandsafepassengerliftswasamajor
concernofthegovernmentcommissionoverseeingtheExposition.
Althoughsomevisitorscouldbeexpectedtoclimbtothefirstlevel,oreven
thesecond,liftsclearlyhadtobethemainmeansofascent.[19]
Constructingliftstoreachthefirstlevelwasrelativelystraightforward:the
legswerewideenoughatthebottomandsonearlystraightthattheycould
containastraighttrack,andacontractwasgiventotheFrenchcompany
Roux,Combaluzier&Lepapefortwoliftstobefittedintheeastandwest
legs.[20]Roux,Combaluzier&Lepapeusedapairofendlesschainswith
rigid,articulatedlinkstowhichthecarwasattached.Leadweightsonsome
linksoftheupperorreturnsectionsofthechainscounterbalancedmostof
thecar'sweight.Thecarwaspushedupfrombelow,notpulledupfrom
above:topreventthechainbuckling,itwasenclosedinaconduit.Atthe
bottomoftherun,thechainspassedaround3.9m(12ft10in)diameter
sprockets.Smallersprocketsatthetopguidedthechains.[20]

TheRoux,Combaluzier&Lepape
liftsduringconstruction.Notethe
drivesprocketsandchaininthe
foreground

Installingliftstothesecondlevelwasmoreofachallengebecauseastraighttrack
wasimpossible.NoFrenchcompanywantedtoundertakethework.TheEuropean
branchofOtisBrothers&Companysubmittedaproposalbutthiswasrejected:the
fair'scharterruledouttheuseofanyforeignmaterialintheconstructionofthe
tower.ThedeadlineforbidswasextendedbutstillnoFrenchcompaniesput
themselvesforward,andeventuallythecontractwasgiventoOtisinJuly1887.[21]
Otiswereconfidenttheywouldeventuallybegiventhecontractandhadalready
startedcreatingdesigns.

TheOtisliftsoriginally
fittedinthenorthandsouth
legs

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Thecarwasdividedintotwosuperimposedcompartments,eachholding25
passengers,withtheliftoperatoroccupyinganexteriorplatformonthefirstlevel.
Motivepowerwasprovidedbyaninclinedhydraulicram12.67m(41ft7in)long
and96.5cm(38.0in)indiameterinthetowerlegwithastrokeof10.83m(35ft
6in):thismovedacarriagecarryingsixsheaves.Fivefixedsheavesweremounted
higheruptheleg,producinganarrangementsimilartoablockandtacklebutacting
inreverse,multiplyingthestrokeofthepistonratherthantheforcegenerated.The
hydraulicpressureinthedrivingcylinderwasproducedbyalargeopenreservoir
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onthesecondlevel.Afterbeingexhaustedfromthecylinder,thewaterwaspumpedbackuptothereservoirby
twopumpsinthemachineryroomatthebaseofthesouthleg.Thisreservoiralsoprovidedpowertotheliftstothe
firstlevel.
TheoriginalliftsforthejourneybetweenthesecondandthirdlevelsweresuppliedbyLonEdoux.Apairof81m
(266ft)hydraulicramsweremountedonthesecondlevel,reachingnearlyhalfwayuptothethirdlevel.Onelift
carwasmountedontopoftheserams:cablesranfromthetopofthiscaruptosheavesonthethirdlevelandback
downtoasecondcar.Eachcaronlytravelledhalfthedistancebetweenthesecondandthirdlevelsandpassengers
wererequiredtochangeliftshalfwaybymeansofashortgangway.The10toncarseachheld65passengers.[22]

Inaugurationandthe1889exposition
ThemainstructuralworkwascompletedattheendofMarch1889and,on
31March,Eiffelcelebratedbyleadingagroupofgovernmentofficials,
accompaniedbyrepresentativesofthepress,tothetopofthetower.[12]
Becausetheliftswerenotyetinoperation,theascentwasmadebyfoot,
andtookoveranhour,withEiffelstoppingfrequentlytoexplainvarious
features.Mostofthepartychosetostopatthelowerlevels,butafew,
includingthestructuralengineer,mileNouguier,theheadofconstruction,
JeanCompagnon,thePresidentoftheCityCouncil,andreportersfromLe
FigaroandLeMondeIllustr,completedtheascent.At2:35pm,Eiffel
hoistedalargeTricolourtotheaccompanimentofa25gunsalutefiredat
thefirstlevel.[23]

GeneralviewoftheExposition
Universelle

Therewasstillworktobedone,particularlyontheliftsandfacilities,andthetowerwasnotopenedtothepublic
untilninedaysaftertheopeningoftheexpositionon6Mayeventhen,theliftshadnotbeencompleted.The
towerwasaninstantsuccesswiththepublic,andnearly30,000visitorsmadethe1,710stepclimbtothetop
beforetheliftsenteredserviceon26May.[24]Ticketscost2francsforthefirstlevel,3forthesecond,and5forthe
top,withhalfpriceadmissiononSundays,[25]andbytheendoftheexhibitiontherehadbeen1,896,987visitors.[3]
Afterdark,thetowerwaslitbyhundredsofgaslamps,andabeaconsentoutthreebeamsofred,whiteandblue
light.Twosearchlightsmountedonacircularrailwereusedtoilluminatevariousbuildingsoftheexposition.The
dailyopeningandclosingoftheexpositionwereannouncedbyacannonatthetop.
Onthesecondlevel,theFrenchnewspaperLeFigarohadanofficeandaprintingpress,whereaspecialsouvenir
edition,LeFigarodelaTour,wasmade.Therewasalsoaptisserie.
Atthetop,therewasapostofficewherevisitorscouldsendlettersandpostcardsasamementooftheirvisit.
Graffitistswerealsocateredfor:sheetsofpaperweremountedonthewallseachdayforvisitorstorecordtheir
impressionsofthetower.GustaveEiffeldescribedsomeoftheresponsesasvraimentcurieuse("trulycurious").[26]
FamousvisitorstothetowerincludedthePrinceofWales,SarahBernhardt,"BuffaloBill"Cody(hisWildWest
showwasanattractionattheexposition)andThomasEdison.[24]EiffelinvitedEdisontohisprivateapartmentat
thetopofthetower,whereEdisonpresentedhimwithoneofhisphonographs,anewinventionandoneofthe
manyhighlightsoftheexposition.[27]Edisonsignedtheguestbookwiththismessage:
To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern
Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the
GreatEngineertheBonDieu,ThomasEdison.
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Eiffelhadapermitforthetowertostandfor20years.Itwastobedismantledin
1909,whenitsownershipwouldreverttotheCityofParis.TheCityhadplanned
totearitdown(partoftheoriginalcontestrulesfordesigningatowerwasthatit
shouldbeeasytodismantle)butasthetowerprovedtobevaluablefor
communicationpurposes,itwasallowedtoremainaftertheexpiryofthepermit.
Eiffelmadeuseofhisapartmentatthetopofthetowertocarryoutmeteorological
observations,andalsousedthetowertoperformexperimentsontheactionofair
resistanceonfallingbodies.[28]

Subsequentevents
Forthe1900ExpositionUniverselle,the
liftsintheeastandwestlegswerereplaced
byliftsrunningasfarasthesecondlevel
Illuminationofthetowerat
constructedbytheFrenchfirmFivesLille.
nightduringtheexposition
Thesehadacompensatingmechanismto
keepthefloorlevelastheangleofascent
changedatthefirstlevel,andweredrivenbyasimilarhydraulic
mechanismtotheOtislifts,althoughthiswassituatedatthebaseofthe
tower.Hydraulicpressurewasprovidedbypressurisedaccumulators
locatednearthismechanism.[21]Atthesametimetheliftinthenorthpillar
wasremovedandreplacedbyastaircasetothefirstlevel.Thelayoutof
bothfirstandsecondlevelswasmodified,withthespaceavailablefor
visitorsonthesecondlevel.Theoriginalliftinthesouthpillarwas
removed13yearslater.

Panoramicviewduringascentofthe
EiffelTowerbytheLumire
brothers,1898

On19October1901,AlbertoSantosDumont,flyinghisNo.6airship,won
a100,000francprizeofferedbyHenriDeutschdelaMeurtheforthefirst
persontomakeaflightfromSt.CloudtotheEiffelTowerandbackinless
thanhalfanhour.[29]
ManyinnovationstookplaceattheEiffelTowerintheearly20thcentury.
In1910,FatherTheodorWulfmeasuredradiantenergyatthetopand
bottomofthetower.Hefoundmoreatthetopthanexpected,incidentally
FranzReichelt'spreparationsand
discoveringwhatareknowntodayascosmicrays.[30]Justtwoyearslater,
jumpfromtheEiffelTower
on4February1912,AustriantailorFranzReicheltdiedafterjumpingfrom
thefirstlevelofthetower(aheightof57metres)todemonstratehis
parachutedesign.[31]In1914,attheoutbreakofWorldWarI,aradiotransmitterlocatedinthetowerjammed
Germanradiocommunications,seriouslyhinderingtheiradvanceonParisandcontributingtotheAlliedvictoryat
theFirstBattleoftheMarne.[32]From1925to1934,illuminatedsignsforCitronadornedthreeofthetower's
sides,makingitthetallestadvertisingspaceintheworldatthetime.InApril1935,thetowerwasusedtomake
experimentallowresolutiontelevisiontransmissions,usingashortwavetransmitterof200wattspower.On17
November,animproved180linetransmitterwasinstalled.[33]
Ontwoseparatebutrelatedoccasionsin1925,theconartistVictorLustig"sold"thetowerforscrapmetal.[34]A
yearlater,inFebruary1926,pilotLeonColletwaskilledtryingtoflyunderthetower.Hisaircraftbecame
entangledinanaerialbelongingtoawirelessstation.[35]On2May1929,abustofGustaveEiffelbyAntoine

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Bourdellewasunveiledatthebaseofthenorthleg.[36]In1930,thetowerlostthetitleoftheworld'stallest
structurewhentheChryslerBuildinginNewYorkCitywascompleted.[37]In1938,thedecorativearcadearound
thefirstlevelwasremoved.[38]

Americansoldierswatchthe
Frenchflagflyingonthe
EiffelTower,c.25August
1944

UpontheGermanoccupationofParisin1940,theliftcableswerecutbythe
French.Thetowerwasclosedtothepublicduringtheoccupationandtheliftswere
notrepaireduntil1946.[39]In1940,Germansoldiershadtoclimbthetowertohoist
theswastika,buttheflagwassolargeitblewawayjustafewhourslater,andwas
replacedbyasmallerone.WhenvisitingParis,Hitlerchosetostayontheground.
InAugust1944,whentheAllieswerenearingParis,HitlerorderedGeneral
DietrichvonCholtitz,themilitarygovernorofParis,todemolishthetoweralong
withtherestofthecity.VonCholtitzdisobeyedtheorder.[40]On25June,before
theGermanshadbeendrivenoutofParis,theNaziflagwasreplacedwitha
TricolourbytwomenfromtheFrenchNavalMuseum,whonarrowlybeatthree
menledbyLucienSarniguet,whohadloweredtheTricolouron13June1940
whenParisfelltotheGermans.[39]

On3January1956,afirestartedinthetelevisiontransmitter,damagingthetopof
thetower.Repairstookayear,andin1957,thepresentradioaerialwasaddedto
thetop.[41]In1964,theEiffelTowerwasofficiallydeclaredtobeahistorical
monumentbytheMinisterofCulturalAffairs,AndrMalraux.[42]Ayearlater,due
toincreasingvisitornumbers,anadditionalliftsystemwasinstalledinthenorthpillar.
Accordingtointerviews,in1967,MontrealMayorJeanDrapeaunegotiatedasecretagreementwithCharlesde
GaulleforthetowertobedismantledandtemporarilyrelocatedtoMontrealtoserveasalandmarkandtourist
attractionduringExpo67.Theplanwasallegedlyvetoedbythecompanyoperatingthetoweroutoffearthatthe
Frenchgovernmentcouldrefusepermissionforthetowertoberestoredinitsoriginallocation.[43]
In1982,theoriginalliftsbetweenthesecondandthirdlevelswerereplaced
after97yearsinservice.Thesehadbeenclosedtothepublicbetween
NovemberandMarchbecausethewaterinthehydraulicdrivetendedto
freeze.Thenewcarsoperateinpairs,withonecounterbalancingtheother,
andperformthejourneyinonestage,reducingthejourneytimefromeight
minutestolessthantwominutes.Atthesametime,twonewemergency
staircaseswereinstalled,replacingtheoriginalspiralstaircases.In1983,
thesouthpillarwasfittedwithanelectricallydrivenOtislifttoservethe
JulesVernerestaurant.TheFivesLilleliftsintheeastandwestlegs,fitted
in1899,wereextensivelyrefurbishedin1986.Thecarswerereplaced,and
BaseoftheEiffelTower
acomputersystemwasinstalledtocompletelyautomatethelifts.The
motivepowerwasmovedfromthewaterhydraulicsystemtoanew
electricallydrivenoilfilledhydraulicsystem,andtheoriginalwaterhydraulicswereretainedsolelyasa
counterbalancesystem.[44]Aserviceliftwasaddedtothesouthpillarformovingsmallloadsandmaintenance
personnelthreeyearslater.
On31March1984,RobertMoriartyflewaBeechcraftBonanzaunderthetower.[45]In1987,A.J.Hackettmade
oneofhisfirstbungeejumpsfromthetopoftheEiffelTower,usingaspecialcordhehadhelpeddevelop.Hackett
wasarrestedbythepolice.[46]On27October1991,ThierryDevaux,alongwithmountainguideHervCalvayrac,

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performedaseriesofacrobaticfigureswhilebungeejumpingfromthesecondfloorofthetower.[47]Facingthe
ChampdeMars,Devauxusedanelectricwinchbetweenfigurestogobackuptothesecondfloor.Whenfiremen
arrived,hestoppedafterthesixthjump.
On31December1999,forits"CountdowntotheYear2000"celebration,
flashinglightsandhighpoweredsearchlightswereinstalledonthetower.
Fireworksweresetoffalloverit.Anexhibitionaboveacafeteriaonthe
firstfloorcommemoratesthisevent.Thesearchlightsontopofthetower
madeitabeaconinParis'snightsky,and20,000flashingbulbsgavethe
towerasparklyappearanceforfiveminuteseveryhouronthehour.[48]

ThetoweristhefocalpointofNew
Year'sEvecelebrationsinParis.

On31December2000,thelightssparkledblueforseveralnightstoherald
thenewmillennium.Thesparklylightingcontinuedfor18monthsuntil
July2001.Thesparklinglightswereturnedonagainon21June2003,and
thedisplaywasplannedtolastfor10yearsbeforetheyneeded
replacing.[49]

Thetowerreceivedits200,000,000thgueston28November2002.[50]Thetowerhasoperatedatitsmaximum
capacityofabout7millionvisitorssince2003.[51]In2004,theEiffelTowerbeganhostingaseasonalicerinkon
thefirstlevel.[52]Aglassfloorwasinstalledonthefirstlevelduringthe2014refurbishment.[53]

Design
Material
Thepuddlediron(wroughtiron)oftheEiffelTowerweighs7,300tons,[54]
andtheadditionoflifts,shopsandantennaehavebroughtthetotalweight
toapproximately10,100tons.[55]Asademonstrationoftheeconomyof
design,ifthe7,300tonsofmetalinthestructureweremelteddown,it
wouldfillthesquarebase,125metres(410ft)oneachside,toadepthof
only6.25cm(2.46in)assumingthedensityofthemetaltobe7.8tonsper
cubicmetre.[56]Additionally,acubicboxsurroundingthetower(324mx
125mx125m)wouldcontain6,200tonsofair,weighingalmostasmuch
astheironitself.Dependingontheambienttemperature,thetopofthe
towermayshiftawayfromthesunbyupto18cm(7in)duetothermal
expansionofthemetalonthesidefacingthesun.[57]

TheEiffelTowerfrombelow

Windconsiderations
Whenitwasbuilt,manywereshockedbythetower'sdaringform.Eiffelwasaccusedoftryingtocreatesomething
artisticwithnoregardtotheprinciplesofengineering.However,Eiffelandhisteamexperiencedbridgebuilders
understoodtheimportanceofwindforces,andknewthatiftheyweregoingtobuildthetalleststructureinthe
world,theyhadtobesureitcouldwithstandthem.InaninterviewwiththenewspaperLeTempspublishedon14
February1887,Eiffelsaid:
Isitnottruethattheveryconditionswhichgivestrengthalsoconformtothehiddenrulesofharmony?
NowtowhatphenomenondidIhavetogiveprimaryconcernindesigningtheTower?Itwaswind
resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as
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mathematicalcalculationdictateditshouldbewillgiveagreatimpressionofstrengthandbeauty,
foritwillrevealtotheeyesoftheobservertheboldnessofthedesignasawhole.[58]
Heusedgraphicalmethodstodeterminethestrengthofthetowerandempiricalevidencetoaccountfortheeffects
ofwind,ratherthanamathematicalformula.Closeexaminationofthetowerrevealsabasicallyexponential
shape.[59]Allpartsofthetowerwereoverdesignedtoensuremaximumresistancetowindforces.Thetophalf
wasevenassumedtohavenogapsinthelatticework.[60]Intheyearssinceitwascompleted,engineershaveput
forwardvariousmathematicalhypothesesinanattempttoexplainthesuccessofthedesign.Themostrecent,
devisedin2004afterletterssentbyEiffeltotheFrenchSocietyofCivilEngineersin1885weretranslatedinto
English,isdescribedasanonlinearintegralequationbasedoncounteractingthewindpressureonanypointofthe
towerwiththetensionbetweentheconstructionelementsatthatpoint.[59]
TheEiffelTowerswaysbyupto9centimetres(3.5in)inthewind.[61]

Accommodation
Whenoriginallybuilt,thefirstlevelcontainedthreerestaurantsone
French,oneRussianandoneFlemishandan"AngloAmericanBar".
Aftertheexpositionclosed,theFlemishrestaurantwasconvertedtoa250
seattheatre.Apromenade2.6metre(8ft6in)wideranaroundtheoutside
ofthefirstlevel.Atthetop,therewerelaboratoriesforvarious
experiments,andasmallapartmentreservedforGustaveEiffeltoentertain
guests,whichisnowopentothepublic,completewithperioddecorations
andlifelikemannequinsofEiffelandsomeofhisnotableguests.[62]
GustaveEiffel'sapartment

InMay2016,anapartmentwascreatedonthefirstleveltoaccommodate
fourcompetitionwinnersduringtheUEFAEuro2016footballtournament
inParisinJune.Theapartmenthasakitchen,twobedrooms,alounge,andviewsofParislandmarksincludingthe
Seine,theSacreCoeur,andtheArcdeTriomphe.[63]

Passengerlifts
Thearrangementoftheliftshasbeenchangedseveraltimesduringthetower'shistory.Giventheelasticityofthe
cablesandthetimetakentoalignthecarswiththelandings,eachlift,innormalservice,takesanaverageof8
minutesand50secondstodotheroundtrip,spendinganaverageof1minuteand15secondsateachlevel.The
averagejourneytimebetweenlevelsis1minute.Theoriginalhydraulicmechanismisonpublicdisplayinasmall
museumatthebaseoftheeastandwestlegs.Becausethemechanismrequiresfrequentlubricationand
maintenance,publicaccessisoftenrestricted.Theropemechanismofthenorthtowercanbeseenasvisitorsexit
thelift.

Engravednames
GustaveEiffelengravedonthetowerthenamesof72Frenchscientists,engineersandmathematiciansin
recognitionoftheircontributionstothebuildingofthetower.Eiffelchosethis"invocationofscience"becauseof
hisconcernovertheartists'protest.Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,theengravingswerepaintedover,but
theywererestoredin198687bytheSocitNouvelled'exploitationdelaTourEiffel,acompanyoperatingthe
tower.

Aesthetics
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Thetowerispaintedinthreeshades:lighteratthetop,gettingprogressively
darkertowardsthebottomtoperfectlycomplementtheParisiansky.[64]It
wasoriginallyreddishbrownthischangedin1968toabronzecolour
knownas"EiffelTowerBrown".[65]
Theonlynonstructuralelementsarethefourdecorativegrillworkarches,
addedinSauvestre'ssketches,whichservedtomakethetowerlookmore
substantialandtomakeamoreimpressiveentrancetotheexposition.[66]
OneofthegreatHollywoodmovieclichsisthattheviewfromaParisian
windowalwaysincludesthetower.Inreality,sincezoningrestrictionslimit
theheightofmostbuildingsinParistosevenstoreys,onlyasmallnumber
oftallbuildingshaveaclearviewofthetower.

Namesengravedonthetower

Maintenance
Maintenanceofthetowerincludesapplying60tonsofpainteverysevenyearstopreventitfromrusting.The
towerhasbeencompletelyrepaintedatleast19timessinceitwasbuilt.Leadpaintwasstillbeingusedasrecently
as2001whenthepracticewasstoppedoutofconcernfortheenvironment.[49]

PanoramaofParisanditssuburbsfromthetopoftheEiffelTower

Tourism
Transport
ThenearestParisMtrostationisBirHakeimandthenearestRERstationisChampdeMarsTourEiffel.[67]The
toweritselfislocatedattheintersectionofthequaiBranlyandthePontd'Ina.

Popularity

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Morethan250millionpeoplehavevisitedthetowersinceitwascompleted
in1889.[3]In2015,therewere6.91millionvisitors.[68]Thetoweristhe
mostvisitedpaidmonumentintheworld.[69]Anaverageof25,000people
ascendthetowereverydaywhichcanresultinlongqueues.[70]Ticketscan
bepurchasedonlinetoavoidthelongqueues.

Restaurants

Numberofvisitorsperyearbetween
1889and2004

Thetowerhastworestaurants:Le58TourEiffelonthefirstlevel,andLe
JulesVerne,agourmetrestaurantwithitsownliftonthesecondlevel.ThisrestauranthasonestarintheMichelin
RedGuide.ItisrunbythemultiMichelinstarchefAlainDucasse[71]andowesitsnametothefamousscience
fictionwriterJulesVerne.

Replicas
Asoneofthemosticoniclandmarksintheworld,theEiffelTowerhas
beentheinspirationforthecreationofmanyreplicasandsimilartowers.
AnearlyexampleisBlackpoolTowerinEngland.ThemayorofBlackpool,
SirJohnBickerstaffe,wassoimpressedonseeingtheEiffelToweratthe
1889expositionthathecommissionedasimilartowertobebuiltinhis
town.Itopenedin1894andis158metres(518ft)tall.[72]TokyoTowerin
Japan,builtasacommunicationstowerin1958,wasalsoinspiredbythe
EiffelTower.[73]
TherearevariousscalemodelsofthetowerintheUnitedStates,including
ReplicaattheParisLasVegasHotel,
ahalfscaleversionattheParisLasVegas,Nevada,oneinParis,Texas
Nevada,UnitedStates
builtin1993,andtwo1:3scalemodelsatKingsIsland,Ohio,andKings
Dominion,Virginia,amusementparksopenedin1972and1975
respectively.Two1:3scalemodelscanbefoundinChina,oneinDurango,Mexicothatwasdonatedbythelocal
Frenchcommunity,andseveralacrossEurope.[74]
In2011,theTVshowPricingthePricelessontheNationalGeographicChannelspeculatedthatafullsizereplica
ofthetowerwouldcostapproximatelyUS$480milliontobuild.[75]

Communications
Thetowerhasbeenusedformakingradiotransmissionssincethe
beginningofthe20thcentury.Untilthe1950s,setsofaerialwiresranfrom
thecupolatoanchorsontheAvenuedeSuffrenandChampdeMars.These
wereconnectedtolongwavetransmittersinsmallbunkers.In1909,a
permanentundergroundradiocentrewasbuiltnearthesouthpillar,which
stillexiststoday.On20November1913,theParisObservatory,usingthe
EiffelTowerasanaerial,exchangedwirelesssignalswiththeUnitedStates
NavalObservatory,whichusedanaerialinArlington,Virginia.Theobject
ofthetransmissionswastomeasurethedifferenceinlongitudebetween
ParisandWashington,D.C.[76]Today,radioanddigitaltelevisionsignals
aretransmittedfromtheEiffelTower.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiffel_Tower

TheEiffelTowerseenfromtherue
deMonttessuy
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FMradio
Frequency

kW

Service

87.8MHz

10

FranceInter

89.0MHz

10

RFIParis

89.9MHz

TSFJazz

90.4MHz

10

Nostalgie

90.9MHz

ChanteFrance

Digitaltelevision
Atelevisionantennawasfirstinstalledonthetowerin1957,increasingitsheightby18.7m(61.4ft).Workcarried
outin2000addedafurther5.3m(17.4ft),givingthecurrentheightof324m(1,063ft).[49]Analoguetelevision
signalsfromtheEiffelTowerceasedon8March2011.
Frequency

VHF

UHF

kW

Service

182.25MHz

100

Canal+

479.25MHz

22

500

France2

503.25MHz

25

500

TF1

527.25MHz

28

500

France3

543.25MHz

30

100

France5

567.25MHz

33

100

M6

Illuminationcopyright
Thetoweranditsimagehavelongbeeninthepublicdomain.[77]InJune
1990,however,aFrenchcourtruledthataspeciallightingdisplayonthe
towerin1989tomarkthetower's100thanniversarywasan"originalvisual
creation"protectedbycopyright.TheCourtofCassation,France'sjudicial
courtoflastresort,upheldtherulinginMarch1992.[78]TheSocit
d'ExploitationdelaTourEiffel(SETE)nowconsidersanyilluminationof
thetowertobeaseparateworkofartthatfallsundercopyright.[79]Asa
result,itisillegaltopublishcontemporaryphotographsofthelittowerat
nightwithoutpermissioninFranceandsomeothercountries.[80]

TheEiffelTowerilluminatedinthe
coloursoftheFrenchflagin2015

Theimpositionofcopyrighthasbeencontroversial.TheDirectorof
DocumentationforwhatwasthencalledtheSocitNouvelled'exploitationdelaTourEiffel(SNTE),Stphane
Dieu,commentedin2005:"Itisreallyjustawaytomanagecommercialuseoftheimage,sothatitisn'tusedin
ways[ofwhich]wedon'tapprove".[81]SNTEmadeover1millionfromcopyrightfeesin2002.[82]However,it
couldalsobeusedtoprohibitthepublicationoftouristphotographsofthetoweratnight,aswellashinderingnon
profitandsemicommercialpublicationofimagesofthetower.[77]
Frenchdoctrineandjurisprudenceallowspicturesincorporatingacopyrightedworkaslongastheirpresenceis
incidentaloraccessorytothesubjectbeingrepresented,[83]areasoningakintothedeminimisrule.Therefore,
SETEmaybeunabletoclaimcopyrightonphotographsofPariswhichhappentoincludethelittower.
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Inpopularculture
Asagloballandmark,theEiffelTowerisfeaturedinfilms,videogamesandTVshows.
Inacommitmentceremonyin2007,ErikaEiffel,anAmericanwoman,"married"theEiffelTowerher
relationshipwiththetowerhasbeenthesubjectofextensiveglobalpublicity.[84]

Tallerstructures
Althoughitwastheworld'stalleststructurewhencompletedin1889,theEiffelTowerhaslostitsstandingbothas
thetallestlatticetowerandasthetalleststructureinFrance.

LatticetowerstallerthantheEiffelTower
Name

Pinnacle
Year Country
height

Town

Remarks

TokyoSkytree

634m
(2,080ft)

2011 Japan

Tokyo

KievTVTower

385m
(1,263ft)

1973 Ukraine

Kiev

TashkentTower

375m
(1,230ft)

1985 Uzbekistan Tashkent

PylonsofZhoushanIsland
OverheadPowerlineTie

370m
(1,210ft)

2009 China

Jiangyin

Twotowerstallestelectricity
pylonsintheworld

PylonsofYangtzeRiverCrossing

347m
(1,138ft)

2003 China

Jiangyin

Twotowers

DragonTower

336m
(1,102ft)

2000 China

Harbin

TokyoTower

333m
(1,093ft)

1958 Japan

Tokyo

WITITVTower

329m
(1,079ft)

1962 U.S.

Shorewood,
Wisconsin

WSBTVTower

328m
(1,076ft)

1957 U.S.

Atlanta,
Georgia

StructuresinFrancetallerthantheEiffelTower

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Name

Pinnacle
height

Longwavetransmitter 350m
Allouis
(1,150ft)

Year

Structure
type

1974

Guyed
mast

Allouis

Town

Remarks

HWUtransmitter

350m
(1,150ft)

Guyed
mast

Rosnay

ViaducdeMillau

343m
(1,125ft)

2004

Bridge
pillar

Millau

TVMastNiort
Maisonnay

330m
(1,080ft)

1978

Guyed
mast

Niort

TransmitterLeMans 342m
Mayet
(1,122ft)

1993

Guyed
mast

Mayet

LaReginetransmitter

330m
(1,080ft)

1973

Guyed
mast

Saissac

MilitaryVLFtransmitter

Transmitter
Roumoules

330m
(1,080ft)

1974

Guyed
mast

Roumoules

Sparetransmissionmastforlongwave
insulatedagainstground

MilitaryVLFtransmittermultiplemasts

Seealso
ListoftallestbuildingsandstructuresintheParisregion
Listoftallestbuildingsandstructuresintheworld
Listoftallestfreestandingstructuresintheworld
Listoftallesttowersintheworld

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Externallinks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiffel_Tower

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7/3/2016

EiffelTowerWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Officialwebsite(http://www.toureiffel.paris/)oftheEiffelTower
EiffelTower(http://structurae.net/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s000
WikimediaCommonshas
0021)atStructurae
mediarelatedtoEiffel
Sketchesandplansofthetower'sconstruction(http://www.dailymail.
Tower.
co.uk/news/article2033956/IntricatesketchesEnglishstudentParis
showingbuildingEiffelTowerdisplayedtime.html)atMailOnline
Wikisourcehasthetextof
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the1911Encyclopdia
5/eiffeltowersfirstfloorrefurbushmentagencemoattiriviere/548a
BritannicaarticleEiffel
41e5e58ece0d79000052portada_mr_eiffel_0914_79jpg)at
Tower.
ArchDaily
HistoryoftransmittersattheEiffelTower(http://dspt.club.fr/tour_eiffel.htm)byPierreDessapt(French)
Records
Precededby
WashingtonMonument

World'stalleststructure
18891931
300.24m

Succeededby
ChryslerBuilding

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