Power Technology and Engineering

Vol. 45, No. 4, November, 2011

THERMAL TESTS OF THE 45 MW SGT-800 GAS-TURBINE EQUIPMENT

G. G. Olkhovskii,1 O. Yu. Tretyakova,1 N. E. Tuz,1
V. A. Kharchenko,1 V. V. Esipov,2 and V. Kh. Saifutdinov2
Translated from lektricheskie Stantsii, No. 6, June 2011, pp. 26 33.
The results of thermal tests on three similar 45 MW gas turbine installations in the Kolomenskoe gas turbine
electric power plant, operating using the heat of gases leaving the turbine, to heat the water supply, are presented. The parameters and characteristics of these gas turbine installations are determined over a wide range
of operating conditions as regards the electric loads and the temperatures of the external air. The operating
conditions and characteristics of the compressors, the combustion chamber, the turbines and the water boilers-recoverers are also found.
Keywords: gases, fuel, gas-turbine equipment, electric power, thermal load, efficiency, compressor, combustion chamber, boiler-recoverer, temperature, pressure, flow rate.

and 10-th stages using antisurge valves, which are open

when the rotor begins to turn and closes when the revolutions
reach the nominal values. The disks of the compressor rotor
(Fig. 2) are connected along the periphery by electron-beam
welding. The longitudinal joint of the body of the compressor is positioned in a vertical plane.
Fuel (natural gas) of the required parameters and quality
is fed into the combustion chamber after compression.
The combustion chamber is of the ring type, and has 30
DLE 3rd-generation burners with dry suppression of harmful
overshoots. Its internal surface has a thermal-barrier coating.
When the natural gas is burning, the calculated concentra-

The Kolomenskoe GTEPP, which is installed to generate

electric and thermal power, is situated in the industrial zone
of the Southern Administrative District of Moscow.
The basic thermal arrangement of the gas turbine units of
the Kolomenskoe power plant, designed on the block principle, is shown in Fig. 1. Each of the three power units contains the following: a Siemens SGP-800 gas turbine with a
nominal power of 45 MW, a KUV-60/150 boiler-recoverer
with an output of 57 Gcal/h, made by the Podolsk Machine
Construction Factory, a chimney stack 66 m high with an internal diameter of the opening of 3.1 m, two (one standby)
S-1250-140-11 pumps with a capacity of 1250 m3/h and a
pressure head of 140 m, and one TR-100-820 recirculation
pump which can handle from 45 m3/h to 225 m3/h with a
pressure head of 50 m with a frequency-regulated drive to
ensure accurate regulation.
The electrical installed power of the plant is 135 MW
and the thermal power is 171 Gcal/h.
The SGT-8 gas-turbine equipment (previously the
GTX-100) has been operating since 1998 [1]. It works on a
simple open cycle. Atmospheric air passes through a complex air-intake unit (AIU) with a built-in noise silencer and
the heat exchangers of an anti-ice-over system, where it is
cleaned from moisture and dust using rough and fine filters,
and then enters a 15-stage axial compressor with a theoretical compression factor of 19. The first three series of directing vanes of the compressor are rotatable. To minimize leakage, abrasion packings are used on the peripheral vanes at the
4 15-th stages. The air for cooling the hot components of
the turbine is removed from the 3, 5, 8, 10 and 15-th stages of
the compressor. On the pipelines air is sampled from the 5-th
1
2

15

10

11
12

17
15

3
1
2

13

16
18

4
5

16

14

Fig. 1. Sketch of the gas-turbine power unit: 1, the gas-turbine unit;

2, the compressor (C); 3, the combustion chamber (CC); 4, the turbine (T); 5, the boiler-recoverer (BR); 6, the electric generator;
7, a reducer; 8, the air-intake unit (AIU); 9, the outlet to the chimney
stack; 10, the gas preparation unit; 11, a gas compressor; 12, a measuring unit; 13, a recirculation pump; 14, air from the atmosphere;
15, natural gas; 16, the combustion products; 17, the forward water
pipeline; 18, the reverse water pipeline.

JSC All-Russia Thermal Technology Institute, Moscow, Russia.

Kolomenskoe Gas Turbine Electric Power Plant (GTEPP), Moscow,
Russia.

285
1570-145X/11/4504-0285 2011 Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.

286

G. G. Olkhovskii et al.

8
5
6

tions of NOx for loads of from 50 to 100% amount to 15 million1 (15% O2).
In the three-stage gas turbine, the vanes of stage I are
provided with film cooling, stage II is provided with convective cooling, and stage III is uncooled. The rotor disks of the
turbine are connected with bolts and are connected to the
compressor rotor through a hollow drum, forming a single
shaft of the turbine group, resting on two segmented slider
bearings.
The exhaust gases from the gas turbine are fed to the
boiler-recoverer (BR), where the heat of the gases is used to
heat the water supply. The electric generator is driven from
the compressor side through a reduction gear with chevron-shaped teeth, which reduces the rotation frequency of the
shaft of the turbine group (6600 rpm) to 1500 rpm on the
electric generator shaft.
The gas turbine equipment is started by a start-up electric
motor of variable speed, connected to a step-down reducing
gear. The start-up duration is ~14 min, to which one must
add the time for ventilating the exhaust system.
The pilot gas-turbine equipment was installed in 1999 in
Helsingborg (Sweden) and comprehensively investigated,
which enabled high and stable characteristics for this series
of gas turbine systems to be achieved.
Three gas turbine units were tested in the Kolomenskoe
power plant under different atmospheric conditions: summer
(+15 < tex < +33C), spring fall (2 < tex < +3C), and winter (10 < tex < 23C) under standard turbine operating conditions. Data on the life of the gas-turbine equipment are
given below:

Life, h:
before the start of test
before the last series

GTU-1

GTU-2

GTU-3

2082
6729

2353
6499

2548
6760

Characteristics of the gas-turbine units. The values of

the heat flow rate, supplied from the fuel to the combustion
chamber at different external temperatures, QCC and the
efficiency of the gas turbines GTU, obtained for different
external temperatures, are shown in Fig. 3 as a function of
the electric load Nel. The values of QCC lie on a straight line
with a spread of not more than 2.5 MW (3% for a load of
20 MW and 2% for a load of 40 45 MW).

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of the gas-turbine

equipment: 1, the input nozzle; 2, the compressor; 3,
the combustion chamber; 4, the turbine; 5, the output
diffusor; 6, the thrust bearing; 7, the journal-thrust
bearing; 8, the shaft for delivering the power to the
redactor.

For a nominal load of 45 MW, the efficiency of the turbine is 36.9 37.7%, and on half-load it is approximately
50
nom
29% ( hGTU
= 0.785hGTU
); the relative heat flow rate of the
fuel on open circuit Qoc = 0.26Qnom.
Since the spread of the points on the line QCC = f (Nel)
does not go beyond the limits of the error in determining
these quantities in the test, we can apply this graph of the
heat flow rate against the load to all the gas-turbine units.
However, a more exact analysis shows that for large
loads the values of QCC differ and, for Nel = 45 MW, for example, amount to 122 MW for GTU-1, 119.5 MW for
GTU-2, and 121 MW for GTU-3.
This difference is not noticed (Fig. 3) for loads of about
10 MW.
A difference may also be found in the value of QCC
connected with the effect of the external temperature: for
changes in this temperature from +30C to 20C the values
of QCC for the same power increase by 2 3 MW. Similar
changes, but somewhat greater (up to 5 MW), are also found
in calculations by the company.
Changes in the other characteristics of the parameters of
the SGT-800 equipment for partial loads are shown in Figs. 3
and 4.
The loading of the gas-turbine units from open circuit begins in the open position of the rotatable input guiding apparatus (IGA) of the compressor by increasing the fuel flow
rate, and is continued until the temperature of the gases behind a turbine reaches 600C. Depending on the external
temperature, this corresponds to a load of approximately
from 16 MW (in summer when tex > +25C) to 22 MW (in
winter when tex < 10C). Because of the low gas flow rates
and the degrees of expansion t, the temperature drop in the
turbine and the temperature of the gases at the entrance to it
t1t in these modes of operation are considerably less than the
nominal values. When the load is increased further and the
flow rate of the fuel is increased the temperature of the gases
after the turbine t2t is maintained constant. To do this the IGA
of the compressor is gradually opened, thereby increasing the
flow of air G1C and the degree of compression C (Figs. 3
and 4). The temperature of the gases before the turbine then
increases to the nominal level of 1170 1180C for a load of
about 27 MW. The start of the opening of the IGA can be followed in Fig. 4 from the changes in the air flow rate and the

Position of the IGA

100

38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12

287

1
150

GTU-1
GTU-2
GTU-3
2

100

3
50

QCC, Q2T, MW

GTU, %

Thermal Tests of the 45 MW SGT-800 Gas-Turbine Equipment

50

6
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

45 Nel, MW

40

Fig. 3. Graphs of the heat flow rates, the efficiency of the gas-turbine units and the position of the input guiding apparatus (IGA) against the
electric load: 1, the turbine efficiency; 2, the heat flow rate from the fuel to the combustion chamber; 3, the enthalpy of the gases used up in the
turbine; 4, 5, and 6, the displacements of the indicator of the position of the input guiding apparatus for a temperature of the external air of
20 30C, 0C and 20C, respectively.

degree of compression, which begin earlier than the deflection of the indicator of the position of the IGA in Fig. 3.
The loading of the turbine to the nominal value is continued until the IGA is completely open at a constant temperature of the gases in front of the turbine. In the summer when
the IGA is completely open, the turbine operates with a load
of 41 44 MW; in winter for loads up to 48 MW, complete
opening of the IGA is not achieved (Fig. 3). The temperature
of the gases behind the turbine when the IGA is open fell to
535 540C due to the increase in the degree of expansion
and the temperature drop in the turbine.
Hence, complex regulation programs and changes in the
operating parameters (the temperature of the gases before
and after the turbine, the air flow rates and the degrees of
compression in the compressor) for different loads are characteristic features, and are not the same for different temperatures of the surrounding air. Despite this, the graphs of the
heat (fuel) flow rate in the combustion chamber and the
enthalpy (heat) of the gases used up in the turbine Q2T are
strictly linear and each one is described by a single line irrespective of the external conditions. The spread of the points
about these lines does not exceed (1.5 2.5) MW.
This is confirmed by the following:
the fairly high accuracy of the power measurements
and the heat flow rate, the calculated errors of which N
0.6% and QCC 1.5%;
the small changes in the state of the gas-turbine unit
(or generally no changes at all) over a long period, when the
tests are being carried out;

the possibility of the direct use of these relations to

plan the operation and to estimate the efficiency of the
turbine.
The thermally fixed characteristics of the turbines are illustrated in Fig. 5. Close to the nominal electric load the turbines produce QTF = QBR = 62 66 MW (53 57 Gcal/h) of
heat; the production of electric power per heat consumption
Nel/QTF is then 800 850 kW h/Gcal. In the Kolomenskoe
power plant the thermal loads of the turbines are tied to
the electrical loads and cannot be changed independently.
When the turbines are unloaded they are not reduced equally:
for Nel = 10 MW the thermal load is 34 37 MW (29
32 Gcal/h), while when electrical energy is being generated
the heat consumption is reduced to 330 kW h/Gcal.
A characteristic feature of the turbines is the very high
thermal utilization factor of the fuel:
h fh =

N el + QTF
Qf

= 89 - 94%.

Here the lesser value corresponds to winter conditions

for an external temperature of about 20C, while the larger
value corresponds to summer conditions with temperatures
of 25 30C.
The specific consumptions of conventional fuel, determined using known methods, for a nominal electric load and
an external temperature of 5C are as follows: by the physical method for electric power 162 g/(kW h), and for heat

288

G. G. Olkhovskii et al.

t, C

Nel/QTF,
kW h/Gcal

fh, %
100

1150

1100
1050

90

16

900

14

850

12

800

10

750

1
130

1000

QTF,
MW
70 80

GTU-1
GTU-2
GTU-3

120

tex = 20C

110

G1c, kg/sec

950

te
2 x=
10 0 0C 25C
C C

18

1000

tex = 20C

60

90

700

tex = 20C

500

100

tex

k
20

50

80

650

tex = 20C

70

600

40

550
500

10
QBR/t, MW/C
0.16

20

30

40

Nel

te

350

te
20 x =
25
C
0
C
1 C
0
C

400

30

450

0.14

300
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Nel, MW

Fig. 4. Graphs of the parameters of GTU-1 for different temperatures of the external air against the electric load: 1, the degree of
compression; 2, the air flow rate; 3, the temperature of the gases at
the entrance to the turbine, 4, the temperature of the gases after the
turbine.

0.12
0.10
0.08
b

0.06
60

146 kg/Gcal; using the proportional method for electric

power 212 g/(kW h) and for heat 104.2 kg/Gcal.
The thermal utilization factors of the fuel change very
little over a range of electric loads from 18 22 to 42
48 MW. This can be explained by the increase in the temperature of the gases after the turbine (at the input to the
boiler-recoverer) and the temperature difference in the boiler
t = t2T tr.w when the electric load of the turbine is reduced
(Fig. 4). For electric loads of less than 15 MW in the summer
and 22 MW in the winter, the values of fh begin to fall and
decline for a load of 10 MW in the summer to 90% and in the
winter to 85%.
The increase in the generation of heat and of the thermal
utilization factor of the fuel when the temperature of the external air increases is due to the reduction in the temperature
of the return water tr. w by 15 25C and, as a result of this,
the deeper cooling of the gases in the boiler-recoverer. In
tests we also obtained the characteristics of the main components of the gas turbines: the compressor, the turbines, the
combustion chambers and the boiler-recoverer.
The compressor. The angles at which the first three
guiding systems of the cyclic air compressor of the turbines

70

80

90

100

110

120

130 G2T, kg/sec

Fig. 5. Heat characteristics of the gas-turbine units: a, graphs of the

characteristics against the electric load; b, the specific thermal productivity of the boiler-recoverer; 1, the fuel thermal utilization factor; 2, the production of electric power per heat consumption; 3, the
thermal load; the straight line, for a temperature of the external air of
25 30C; dash-dot line, for 20C.

are set are as follows: the input and first and second stages,
which produce the rotations, change due to the action of the
automatic control system of the turbine from the position
Input guiding system completely open (+1.2 degrees, 80
divisions on the indicator) for the nominal load to the
Open position (40 degrees, 20 divisions on the position
indicator) for loads of from 17 to 26 MW. According to calculations by the supplier, these loads correspond to external
temperatures from 40 to 40C.
Some of the characteristics of the compressors obtained
in tests are shown in Figs. 6 8.
In Fig. 6a we show graphs of the relative normalized
flow rates of the compressor GC with completely open guiding apparatus against the normalized rotation frequency hC .

Thermal Tests of the 45 MW SGT-800 Gas-Turbine Equipment

289

1.04

90

tex = 25C

1.00

80

0.98

0.96

C, %

1.05

1.1

C, %

GC

1.08
20C
0C
10C

0C
t ex = 2

70

nC

90

60

85

50
10
1.0

20

30

40
50
60
Position of the IGA

70

80

b
1.05

1.1

nC

Fig 6. Graph of the compressor characteristics against the normalized rotation frequency for the open input guiding apparatus: a, the
normalized flow rates; b, the efficiency.

When hC > 1.05 the calculated normalized flow rates increase only slightly: by less than 1% to hC = 1.115.
It was not possible to obtain experimental values of the
normalized flow rate of the compressor for hC > 1.03, since
the greatest practical loads of the turbine at low external temperatures did not exceed 47 48 MW and were achieved
with considerable covering of the input guiding apparatus.
For 0.99 < hC < 1.03 the actual normalized flow rates of the
compressor were 3 3.5% lower than the calculated values.
This may be partially a consequence of the insufficient opening of the input guiding apparatus, the position of which did
not exceed 79.3 divisions on the indicator in experiments.
In Fig. 6b we show a graph of the efficiency of the compressor hC with completely open input guiding apparatus
against the normalized rotation frequency. The values of the
efficiency for hC > 1.03 were obtained by interpolation (see
Fig. 7a).
As the normalized rotations and the number M increased
at the input of the compressor, its efficiency fell rapidly from
90% for n 0.99 to almost 84% for n = 1.065.
In Fig. 7a we show experimental curves of the efficiency
of the GTU-1 compressor against the position of the IGA for
different temperatures of the external air. Similar curves
were constructed for the GTU-2 and GTU-3 compressors.
They were used to construct generalized graphs of the
relative changes in the normalized flow rate (Fig. 7b) and efficiency (Fig. 7c) of the compressors when the positions of
the guiding apparatus were regulated. To construct them, the
values of GC and C, obtained for different load conditions,
were related to the values of GCO and CO, corresponding to
the same load conditions, when the IGA was completely
open, shown in Fig. 6.
Closure of the guiding apparatus leads to a reduction in
the flow rate of the compressor by approximately 40%
(down to GC GCO = 0.6 0.62) and a reduction in the efficiency by approximately 10% (to C/CO 0.89).

0.9

GC

0.8

GTU-1
GTU-2
GTU-3

0.7

0.6
20

30

40
50
60
Position of the IGA

70

80

30

40
50
60
Position of the IGA

70

80

c
1.0

80

0.9

0.8

20

Fig. 7. Graph of the characteristics of the turbine compressor

against the position of the input guiding apparatus (IGA): a, the efficiency of the GTU-1 compressor for different external temperatures of the air; b, the relative normalized flow rate; c, the relative
efficiency.

Sections of the characteristics of the compressor with

completely closed IGA for the summer and winter conditions
are shown in Fig. 8. The degree of compression after the IGA
was closed is reduced to 11 and 12, while the efficiency is reduced to 81 82 and 76%, respectively for the summer
(nC 0.985) and winter (nC = 1.047).
The turbine. Graphs of the efficiency and expansion ratio against the characteristic ratio (u/C0), and also of the
throughput, or the relative normalized flow rate
GT =

G1T T1T P1T

G2T T2T P2T

of the turbine against the expansion ratio are shown in Fig. 9.

290

G. G. Olkhovskii et al.

The efficiency of the turbine is given by the formula

The fact that the ratio (u/C0) is not the only parameter
that defines the efficiency affects the form of the relation
T = f (u/C0). The expansion ratio in the turbine also affects
it considerably. When it is reduced from 19 to 10 (characteristic for the modes of operation of the SGT-800 gas-turbine
equipment) the efficiency for values of (u/C0) close to
the calculated values may be reduced by 2 3%. In Fig. 9a
the reduction in the expansion ratio occurs mainly when
0.56 < (u/C0) < 0.61, where an observed drop in the efficiency also occurs. Extrapolation of the points obtained for
(u/C0) > 0.61, corresponding to an expansion ratio T
11 0.5, to the nominal values (u/C0) 0.56 gives an approximately 2% lower efficiency.
The throughput of the turbine hardly changes over the
whole range of operation. The spread in the points (Fig. 9b)
around the average value does not exceed (2 2.5)% and is
explained by measurement errors. A more systematic increase in GT for small loads (T < 11) may be a consequence
of underburning of the fuel, not taken into account when calculating the gas flow rate.
The combustion chamber. The operating conditions of
the combustion chamber are characterized by the relations
shown in Fig. 10. For a total load, the temperature of the medium in it is increased by tCC 750C: from 430C (the air
at the input) to 1180C (the conventional value according to
the ISO standard). The air excess factor CC is about 3.3, and
the pressure losses in the compressor turbine channel
p/p 4%. There is no fuel underburn and the emissions of
nitrogen oxides NOx do not exceed 20 25 million1.
When the load is reduced, in the zone of high gas temperatures before the turbine (up to Nel = 25 MW) the temper-

T = NiT/NsT,
where NiT = Nel + NiC + Nmech + Nel.g and NsT = G1ThsT,
and the available isoentropic drop hsT = f (T1T, T).
In the expression for (u/C0) the circumferential velocity
is calculated from the mean diameter of the circulating part
while the heat drop is distributed uniformly over the stages.
85

C, %

1
80
2
75
0.6
13

0.61

0.62

0.63

GC

12

2
1

11

10
0.6

0.61

0.62

0.63

GC

Fig. 8. Characteristics of the compressor (parts) with closed IGA:

a, the compressor efficiency; b, the degree of compression;
1, nC = 0.985; 2, nC = 1.047.
T, %
90
88
86
84
82
80
78
76
74
72
70
0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59

a
1

T
20

0.6

0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69

GT

0.7

10
(u/C0)
b

1.05
1.00
0.95

GTU-1
GTU-2
GTU-3

0.90
0.85
0.80
9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Fig. 9. Turbine characteristics: a,

graphs of the efficiency (1 ) and expansion ratio (2 ) against the ratio
(u/C0); the dash-dot line, for T =
= 1.1; b, the normalized flow rate
against the expansion ratio.

Thermal Tests of the 45 MW SGT-800 Gas-Turbine Equipment

800

a 7

700

600

500

CC

tCC, C

tCC

CC
3

400
0

10

20

30

40

Nel, MW

50

500

40

NO

400

30

300

20

200

NOx, million 1

CO, million 1

ature drop in the combustion chamber increases to approximately 790C (the temperature of the air at the input to it
falls to t2C 380C), and the overall air excess coefficient is
reduced to approximately 3.2 for 28 < Nel < 40 MW. In this
range of operations there is also no underburning of the fuel
and a trend to a reduction of NOx emissions is observed.
When there is a further reduction in the load, the temperature level in the combustion chamber (t2C, t1T, and tCC)
falls, and the general excess air coefficient increases and, to
preserve the high completeness with which the fuel is burnt,
the combustion chamber regulation mode is changed so that
the emissions of NOx when Nel < 25 MW increase rapidly,
reaching 60 70 million1 when Nel 15 MW.
One more change in the operating conditions of the combustion chamber occurs at even lower loads. As a result of
this, the emissions of NOx are reduced while those of CO increase, reaching 500 1000 million1 in the region of the
open-circuit mode of operation.
Some increase (by 2 3% when T < 11) in the normalized gas flow rate through the turbine indicates that there is a
considerable underburning of the fuel at low loads (Fig. 9b),
calculated from the energy balance of the turbine with respect to the complete flow rate of the fuel, while part of the
unburnt fuel was present, which was not taken into account
in the balance. Pressure losses in the combustion chamber in
the region of open-circuit operation are reduced to 3.6%.
The boiler-recoverer. The water boiler-recoverer (BR),
set up behind the turbine, is a convective heat-exchange
apparatus. The relations which connect its characteristics
with the modes of operation of the turbine were investigated
in [2].
The specific heat productivity of the boiler-recoverer,
which is the ratio of the quantity of heat transferred to the
water QBR to the maximum temperature difference of the
heat carriers (t2T tr.w), is a function of the water equivalents
of the water and the gases, the heat-exchange surface and the
heat transfer coefficient. Analysis shows that under operating
conditions, the flow rate of the gases (the heat carrier with
the lowest water equivalent) and the heat transfer coefficient
with the gaseous side have the greatest effect on the specific
thermal efficiency, which depends mainly on the mass flow
rate of the gases, and nevertheless is considerably less than
from the water side.
The relation QBR/(t2T tr.w) = f (G2T), constructed on
this basis, is shown in Fig. 5b. The spread of the points in
this figure at high (greater than 100 kg/sec) air flow rates is
small and is explained by the errors in measuring the temperature of the water. These errors amount to (1 1.5)C and
relate to comparatively small differences (50 70C) in the
temperature of the incoming and outgoing water.
In this graph, we have plotted the calculated values of the
specific thermal productivity, determined at high gas flow
rates from the data of the supplier. They are practically identical with the experimental relation.

291

CO
10

100
0

10

20

30

40

Nel, MW

Fig. 10. Operating conditions of the combustion chamber.

CONCLUSIONS
1. The gas-turbine equipment of the Kolomenskoe electric power plant has high cycle parameters: the conventional
temperature of the gases before the turbine (by the ISO standard) is 1180C, the pressure-increase factor is 19 and it is
highly economical: the electrical efficiency is 37.5%, the
thermal utilization factor of the fuel is 89 94%, and the
ratio of the electrical and thermal powers (the production
of electric power per heat consumption) is 800
850 kW h/Gcal; high thermal power is preserved for working (50 100% nominal) electric loads.
2. The characteristics of the gas-turbine equipment remained stable for more than 4000 h, when thermal tests were
carried out on it.
3. The results obtained in the tests provide a reliable basis for formulating the power characteristics of the gas-turbine equipment, planning their operation and organizing the
monitoring of their features.
REFERENCES
1. A. Gushchin and A. Dudko, The GTX-100 gas-turbine equipment, Gazoturb. Tekhnol., No. 6 (2002).
2. E. Ya. Sokolov, The thermal characteristics of heat-exchange
apparatus, Teplonergetika, No. 5 (1958).