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The PHD Factory
The PHD Factory
training for high-level positions in careers outside academia. Here, Nature examines graduateeducation systems in various states of health.
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most PhD holders go to work outside academia, but continued expansion of the
universities could create more opportunities. Not all end up earning a living from
what they have been trained in, says Peter
Ng, who studies biodiversity at the National
University of Singapore. Some have very
different jobs from teachers to bankers.
But they all get a good job. A PhD can be
lucrative, says Ng, with a graduate earning
at least S$4,000 (US$3,174) a month, compared with the S$3,000 a month earned by a
student with a good undergraduate degree.
I see a PhD not just as the mastery of a
discipline, but also training of the mind,
says Ng. If they later practise what they have
mastered excellent otherwise, they can
take their skill sets into a new domain and
add value to it.
CHINA
60
49,698
50
By some counts, China has
overtaken the United States
to become the worlds
biggest producer of PhDs.
40
30
20
10
0
1990 92
94
96 98 00
02 04
JAPAN
20
16,296
15
06 08
10
5
0
98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06
07 08
UNITED KINGDOM
20
16,606
15
10
5
0
98 99 00 01
30
02 03 04 05 06 07 08
GERMANY
20
25,604
Rate of production
stagnating in
comparison with
competitors.
10
0
98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
10%
CHINA
MEXICO
India hopes to
dramatically increase
PhDs by 2020.
17.1%
DENMARK
8.5%
INDIA
7.1%
KOREA
6.2%
JAPAN
6.2%
AUSTRALIA
6.1%
POLAND
5.2%
UNITED
KINGDOM
2.5%
UNITED
STATES
1%
0%
CANADA
GERMANY
2.2%
HUNGARY
2 1 A P R I L 2 0 1 1 | VO L 4 7 2 | NAT U R E | 2 7 7
The annual number of science and engineering doctorates graduating from US universities rose to almost 41,000 in 2007 (left), with the
biggest growth in medical and life sciences. It took a median of 7.2 years to complete a science or engineering PhD (middle) yet the
proportion finding full time academic jobs within 13 years of graduating is dwindling (right).
8,000
Number of PhDs
TIME TO COMPLETION
PHDS AWARDED
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1993
10
50
40
30
Years
10,000
Postdoc
Earth, atmospheric
and ocean sciences
EMPLOYMENT OF DOCTORATES
Full-time tenured or tenure-track
20
Physical sciences
Part time
10
Biological sciences
0
95
97
99
01
03
05
07
1979 83
87
91
95
99
03
07
1981
85
89
93
97
01
05
NEWS FEATURE
Not
Neutral
Not
Neutral
Satisfied
WITH A PHD
Satisfied
WITHOUT A PHD
SCALE OF DISSATISFACTION
Benefits
Opportunities
to advance
40
35
Salary
PhDs
30
Non-PhDs
70,000
25
60,000
Job security
Working
conditions
20
Intellectual
challenge
15
Location
10
Level of
responsibility
Social status
Degree of
independence
Contribution
to society
In 2004, India produced around 5,900 science, technology and engineering PhDs, a figure that has now grown to some 8,900 a year.
This is still a fraction of the number from
China and the United States, and the country wants many more, to match the explosive
growth of its economy and population. The
government is making major investments in
research and higher education including
a one-third increase in the higher-education
budget in 201112 and is trying to attract
investment from foreign universities. The
hope is that up to 20,000 PhDs will graduate each year by 2020, says Thirumalachari
Ramasami, the Indian governments head of
science and technology.
Those targets ought to be easy to reach:
Indias population is young, and undergraduate
education is booming (see Nature 472, 2426;
2011). But there is little incentive to continue
into a lengthy PhD programme, and only
around 1% of undergraduates currently do so.
Most are intent on securing jobs in industry,
2011 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
Salary (US$)
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Asia
Europe
United States
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