Final PDF

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4999 2600
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Estimation and Standard Specifications
249
341
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391-392
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Nominal Dimensions

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Tensile Test :
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Tensile Requirement
Grade
Grade
Grade
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60
75
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91
6-3 High Strength Concrete

: 66 / 2

Superplasticizers

.
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- 2.8
3.6 .
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Superplasticizers
6.21
.
.
2-6-3
Classical
Applications
.
:
* High Rise Buildings
*
Bridges
91
Offshore Structures
(
. "
" : Non-Classical Applications :
High Early Strength
*
* Improving Stiffness
Nuclear Power Plants
*
Underground Concrete Pipes
*
Pavements
*
3-6-3

.

.

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95
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.
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111 /
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121 /
18 /
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111
( )Mineral Fiber board
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21-43
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144
3-4-1

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( :)42
145
2-5
: : : : Piles .
4-2-1

.
2-2-1
Cast in situ bored Piles

) (cast in situ
Pre-cast , .... " "
.
3-2-1 Precast Piles
:
( ) ...
:
"
Investigation Report Geotechnical

,
.
.
" . "
) ( Pile Capacity .
End bearing
,
".
146
41 )( borehole
"
.
,
. N
.
" / Structural Drawings for Piles
: Piles Cap : : .
.
:
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.
-2 .
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( 2 3
)
..
-4 ( )
-1 ) (Fcu , Fy"
40 / 2 426 / .2
-6 :
- 86 .
" " BS 8004 466.
,

.
147
66 " 436
( . .
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" .
Pile Layout Pile cap Layout
:
-
- (
).
- (
).
- .
Cut off level

( ) .
Pile cap level
." ) ( -60
( ) . ) ( Pile cap
" (
"

) ):
-4
. Approved Structural Drawing
-2 .
-3 - ,
, .
-4 site layout. .Bench mark
148
( :)6
149
151
( :)7
:

. BS 800 .Section Seven
:

.
:
151

.
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:
466466
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416 416.
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033
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.
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31 / 2 .
153
:

16 71 .
666 .

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(: ) DRIVEN

( ) Permanent Casing
.
: ,
.
:
366/ 3
71 421 466
471 : 666
.
.
:
154

,
.

.
.
.
:
.
:

( 166 )
.
( : ) RISEN PILES

.

.
-4 ( :) BORED PILES
155
( 666 ) ( 666 ) .
:
.
: .
:
.

.

.

( )

.
: .
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156
3-5 :
:

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21
.
.
:

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.
157
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.

4,3 .

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2 .

.
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( )DIAL GAUGES

6,4 .

.
:
:
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158
.

6,21 /
. 24
.

24 .

.
:

.
:

,
( ) CUT OFF LEVEL
( )BLINED BORING
.
.
.
,
.
159
: Concrete Retaining Walls

4-6 :

. ( )as Abutment
( )basement wall
( )embankments ( )water tanks
( .)sewage treatment tanks :
-4 Gravity walls
( )Plan concrete ( thick masonry
)wall 4

.
-2
Semi - Gravity walls

.
Cantilever Retaining Wall -3
6 2 .
-4
Counter fort Retaining Wall 6

.
.
( )8 .
161
h
Heel
Toe
Cantilever Retaining Wall

without Toe
Heel
Cantilever Retaining Wall
Counterfort Retaining Wall
Gravity Retaining Wall
:)8(
NOTES: Two Basic Form of Cantilever Wall
1 ) A base with a large heel so that the mass of earth above can be added to the wall for
design purposes.
)Cantilever Wall( :)9(

161
2 ) If form A is not practicable, a cantilever wall with a large toe must be used.
From Figure 9 :
The drawing show typical section and pattern of reinforcement encountered with
these basic forms of cantilever retaining walls.
The main steel occurs on the tension face of the wall and nominal steel (0.15% of the
cross-sectional area of the wall) is very often included in the opposite face to control
the shrinkage which occurs in in-situ concrete work.
Reinforcement requirements, bending, fabricating and placing are dealt with in the section on
reinforced concrete.
Advantages and details about cantilever wall : Reinforced cantilever walls have an economic
height range of 1.200 to 6.000 m; walls in excess of this height have been economically
constructed using pre-stressing techniques. Any durable facing material may be applied to the
surface to improve the appearance of the wall but it must be remembered that such finishes
are decorative and add nothing to the structural strength of the wall.
:)10(
162
2-6 :
: ,
,

.
:

.

.

,

.

.

.

.
3-6 :
:
.4
.
163
.2

% 91
, ASTM D- 698 ,
,
.
ASTM D-422
( )73 :
( :)73

%500
2.71( 4)
% 70 -51
200
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416
416 .
.

(.)74
( :)74

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4/5
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2.71( 4)
% 21 - 0
200
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.
, . ASTM D-422
( :)71
164
%500
% 500 10
2.71( 4)
% 500 -20
40
% 71 -0
200
%51 -0
) (PI 41 ) (LL 46
.ASTM D-4318
( )Rienforced Backfill
:
( :)76

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4/5
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2.71( 4)
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40
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200
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.
.
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416
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4666 / 28( 2 )

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6.41 .
ASTM C
150 ASTM C - 1157,
. ASTM C
150
,
:
Type I Normal
Type II Moderate Sulfate Resistance
Type III High Early Strength
Type IV Low Heat of Hydration
Type V High Sulfate Resistance
CSA A3000 :
Type GU General Use Hydraulic Cement
Type MS Moderate Sulfate-Resistant Hydraulic Cement
Type MH Moderate Heat of Hydration Hydraulic Cement
Type HE High Early-Strength Hydraulic Cement
Type LH Low Heat of Hydration Hydraulic Cement
168
Type HS High Sulfate-Resistant Hydraulic Cement

( )Type I
( (Type II
.

. ( ) Type HE
.
.

% 76- 66

. ASTM C-33

%26
% 71 (
) .

3.4 . 2.3

4:4.1 .
. ,
.

( )
, .

169
.

. .
.
,
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:

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.
.
6

()Counterfort
( )42

.
171
)Counterfort Retaining Wall( :)42(
171
Box Culvert
1-7 :

:
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-2 .
-3
. .
( :)43
( :)44
172
:)41(
Benefits: Box culverts can be made in large sizes to accommodate increased flow rates and
capacities.
Boxes can be set with 0 feet to 100 feet of cover.
List of common design standards:
ACI 318, for tunnels and special design.
ACI 350R, for wastewater applications.
Provide for emergency egress, as
with this tunnel underneath a
warehouse and distribution center
List of common design standards:
ASTM C 1433 Box culverts, for
conveyance
of
storm
water,
industrial wastes and sewage.
ASTM C 1504 Three-sided
structures,
for
storm
water
conveyance and culverts.
AASHTO Standard Specification
for Highway Bridges for short-span
bridges.
:)46(
173
2-7 :
-4
(
).
-2 Sub-base layers
%91 26 ,
.
-3
.
-4
.
:

.
& Closed cellular rubber (vinyl
nitrile elastomers) , Physical
properties of ASTM D1056 Type
2C-1 & chemical resistance
requirements of AASHTO M198.
( :)43

174
Box culverts are subject to : 3-7

Lateral .
earth loads from soil and hydrostatic loads from ground water.
.
Vertical loads from the cover soil and live loads above.

Surcharge loads from nearby impact loads.
Seismic loads where applicable
Related Precast Concrete Box Culvert Specifications
ASTM C 877 - Specification for External Sealing Bands for Concrete Pipe, Manholes,
and Precast box Sections
ASTM C 990 - Specification for Joints for Concrete Pipe, Manholes, and Precast Box
Sections Using Preformed Flexible Joint Sealants
ASTM C 1433 - Standard Specification for Precast Reinforced Concrete Monolithic
Box Sections for Culverts, Storm Drains and Sewers
ASTM C 1504 - Standard Specification for Manufacture of Precast Reinforced
Concrete Three-Sided Structures for Culverts, Storm Drains
ASTM C 1504M - Standard Specification for Manufacture of Precast Reinforced
Concrete Three-Sided Structures for Culverts, Storm Drains (Metric)
ASTM C 1577 - Specification for Precast Reinforced Concrete Monolithic Box
Sections For Culverts, Storm Drains, and Sewers Designed According to AASHTO
LRFD
ASTM C 1675 - Practice for Installation of Precast Reinforced Concrete Monolithic
Box Sections for Culverts, Storm Drains, and Sewers.
AASHTO M 198 - Joints for Concrete Pipe, Manholes, and Precast Box Sections
Using Preformed Flexible Joint Sealants
AASHTO M 259 - Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections for Culverts, Storm
Drains, and Sewers
AASHTO M 259M - Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections for Culverts, Storm
Drains, and Sewers [Metric]
AASHTO M 273 - Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections for Culverts, Storm
Drains, and Sewers with Less Than Two Feet of Cover Subjected to Highway
Loadings
AASHTO M 273M - Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections for Culverts, Storm
Drains, and Sewers with Less Than 0.6 m of Cover Subjected to Highway Loadings
[Metric]
4-7
:
175
-4

.
-2
.
-3
.
-4
66
4.2
.
-1 46
.
-6

.
-7 .
-8

.
-9

3 2 .
-46 3.4

BRC .
176
1-7 :

,
, ( )78
.
( :)78
WALL THICKNESS
CLEAR SPAN
150 mm
<2.44 m
200 mm
2.44 m< 4.27 m
250 mm
4.27 m & < 6.096 m
300 mm
6.096 m
, ,
416.
6-7 .

(:)79
Concrete Strength MPa
C = 35 MPa, min. to 50 MPa, max.
)(increments of 5 MPa
C= 21 MPa
Type
'Precast f
'Cast-in-place f
7-7
-4
( (deformed
welded wire fabric (plain), or welded wire fabric
) (deformed 426 416

.
666
.
21 366
.
177

AASHTO Articles 8.15.5 or
. 8.16.6.
-2

.

( )29 ( )36
.
( :)44
178
( :)41
) ( , , ,) 46
.
:
)4 :

= 36.4m3
=11.2 m3
= (2.05+0.3+0.35)*0.3*2*10=16.2m3
=9m3
= (1.4*2+0.2)*0.3*10
= (1.4*2+0.2)*0.35*10
+ 0.5*(1.4*0.05)*2*10
4:4.1:3 :
, C=9.88m3
)36.4=0.67(C+1.5C+3C
Cement = 13.83 ton, Sand = 14.82m3, Gravel = 29.63m3

179
)2 :
) ( ):
16
= 46
l1 3.6 2 * 0.075 32db 3.45 32 * 0.016 3.962 m
10
1 51 bars
0.2
L1 51 * l1 * 2 51 * 3.962 * 2 404.124 m
No.
L1 D12 404.124 * 16 2
w1
638.62 kg
162
162
) ( ):
12
spacing 3.6 2 * 0.075 3.45 m
3.45
No .
1 15 bars
0.25
l 2 10 m , L2 10 * 15 * 2 300 m
L2 D22
300 * 12 2
266.67 kg
162
162
) :
w2
12
= 46
10
1 51 bars
0.2
l 3 H 56 db cov er 0.35 56 * 0.012 0.075 0.947 m
No.
L3 0.947 * 51 * 2 * 2 193.188 m
L3 D22 193.188 * 12 2
171.72 kg
162
162
w3
)3 :
) ( - ):
12
No. = 51 bars
l4=2.05+0.3-0.04+32db=2.694m
L4=2.694*51*2*2=549.576m
L4 D22 549.576 * 12 2
488.512 kg
162
162
w4
181
12
:)) (
2.05
1 10 bars
0.25
l5 10 m , L5 10 * 10 * 2 * 2 400 m
spacing 2.05 m , No.
L5 D22 400 * 12 2
w5
355.56 kg
162
162
) 4
16
:)) (
10
1 68 bars
0.15
l6 3.6 2 * 0.04 32db 3.904 m
spacing 10 m , No.
L6 3.904 * 68 * 2 530.944 m
L6 D12 530.944 * 16 2
w6
839.02 kg
162
162
12
:)) (
3
1 13 bars
0.25
l7 10 m , L7 10 * 13 * 2 260 m
spacing 3m , No.
w7
L7 D22 260 * 12 2
231.11 kg
162
162
wT of 12 = 1513.57kg, wT of 16 = 1477.64kg, WT = 2991.21kg
50
250
42 :
:) 46(
1500
Reinforcement
12 180 mm, two layers
both direction for all
walls
1500
BOX CULVERT
181
)46(
( :)47
.
182
: Concrete Pipe Culvert

(.. 4432 )4989
Reinforced and Unreinforced Concrete Pipes without internal Pressure
( :)46
1-8
- ( )
- : ,
( 4 )
42
, ,
2-8
4-2-8 ( )86
()
()
21
21
50
183
2-2-8
: ( )84
()
()
500
600-505
5200-605
5205
50
: ( )82
()
()
50
10 - 55
61 - 15
71 66
51 -76
56
- 3
() 4232
.
- 42 .
: -
4 266 46 .
- 466
2
184
(. )4232
( )83

0.5
3-8 :
() 4232
4-3-8 ( ) ( )84
( )
500
56
510
56
221
57
500
58
571
20
410
22
2-3-8 (,4,2,3:)4
( ) 88
4-8
- ( )96
.
- ( .. ) 4232
5-8
185
-
(: )81

107
- 86
.
- 86
.
( )86:

0.5
( : )87
()
()

()
500
501
500
500
500
500
500
510
511
510
510
510
510
510
221
250
221
221
221
221
221
500
550
500
500
500
500
250
271
581
571
571
571
571
561
410
460
410
410
410
441
440
121
140
121
121
120
150
186
600
651
600
600
150
180
710
770
710
710
740
720
500
520
500
500
881
861
5010
5080
5010
5010
5050
5000
5200
5250
5200
5200
5571
5541
5510
5580
5510
5510
5520
5250
5100
5150
5100
5100
5470
5440
5610
5680
5610
5610
5650
5180
5800
5850
5800
5800
5760
5750
5510
5550
5510
5510
5500
5870
2500
2540
2500
2500
2010
2050
:
.
( : )88 , 4 , 2 , 3
4
2
( ) 5 \
( )2
25.1
26.0
500
50.0
51.0
55.0
55.1
55.1
26.0
55.0
510
50.0
51.0
55.0
55.1
55.1
25.1
42.0
221
55.0
56.1
54.0
22.1
25.0
75.1
28.0
500
52.0
58.0
51.0
22.1
22.1
54.1
50.0
41.0
571
55.0
55.1
57.0
21.1
21.1
58.1
54.0
15.0
410
51.0
22.1
20.0
50.0
50.0
41.0
40.0
60.0
55.0
187
121
57.0
21.1
25.0
54.1
54.1
12.0
46.0
65.0
600
55.0
28.1
26.0
55.0
55.0
18.1
12.0
78.0
710
25.0
55.1
52.0
48.0
48.0
72.0
64.0
56.0
500
22.0
54.1
57.0
11.1
11.1
85.1
74.0
555.0
5010
21.0
57.1
42.0
65.0
65.0
54.1
84.0
526.0
5200
27.0
40.1
46.0
65.0
65.0
505.1
52.0
558.0
5510
25.0
45.1
10.0
71.0
71.0
510.0 500.0 552.1
5100
55.0
46.1
14.0
85.0
85.0
552.0 508.0 525.1
5610
55.0
45.1
18.0
87.0
87.0
556.0 550.1
54.0
5800
51.0
12.1
65.0
55.0
55.0
554.0 555.1
86.0
5510
57.0
11.1
66.0
55.0
55.0
558.0 522.0 548.1
2500
55.0
18.1
70.0
501.
0
501.
0
25.0
540.0 517.1
:
-4
.
-2 ( )86
.
()
()
-3
6.41
46
26-46
6.26
26
6.21

.
6-8

(
) ,
188
.
.
.
.
( :)47
7-8
-4
:
.
.
.
-2 ASTM
C76 ASTM C361
ASTM C507 .

.
-3 Type II

, ASTM C-150
189

24 4:2:4
6666 / 2 28.
-4 :

. 96
( )rubber gaskets
ASTM C1619 96
( )flexible plastic sealing compound
ASTM C990
.
-1 : ( )266
, .
, .

.
-6 :
.
36 ,
21 33 , .

.
191
:
Destructive and Non-Destructive Jesting of Concrete tests
4-9 ( Cubes Test )
:
466*466* 466
416*416* 416 .
266*266* 266
.
( :)48
(:)49
,
,
. ( 41 15
15 ) ( 46 46 46 ) .
41 ,

. 24

( 36 24 ) 6
7 28
kg/cm2 446
191
.
.

.
( :)26
: .
( )89 28 .

16
40
65
90
14
99
28
7 28 (:)96
/ 2
28
/
7
192
15
10
M15
20
13.5
M20
25
17
M25
30
20
M30
35
23.5
M35
40
27
M40
45
30
M45

( 5

MPa
)
5

MPa
( ) 3
.
193
28.
:

ACI
CODE ( ) 41 36

( )94 :
45 -
41.5
37
34.5
27
24.5
20
15.5
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.91
0.87
0.81
0.76
0.77
Compressive
Strength N/mm2
Strength of ratio of
cylinder to cube

( 41*41*41
)46*46*46 ( 42 6 )3

. 41*41*41 42
.
-4 42 466 3
41*41*41
194

1
60 46 31
3
.
-2 6 7

28
.

.
-3 ( )hammer test

.
4 .1
-4 ( ).
-1 ( )core test

.
4 1 6
.
-6 ( ) loading test
.
195
-7
( )
(*) :

.
( )

.
()

.
(*)
.
2-9 ( )Core Test

( )
( -).
.
:Size of Core 416
. 466 .
%91 .
: Drilling
.
196
: Examination :
_ ( ).
_
.
_ .
_ .
_ .
:Measurement
: 6 . 4/4 .
: Cap 1.
Reinforcement 2 . .
* ( ) End Preparation

.
*** 3 4

.
4 4 % 2 : 4 316-236 6 . . .
**
( 48 ) .
197
. . . . . Calculations
Fc=P/A
A P , .
. ( /) . ( )36 x 41.
. x 1,25 :
- . ( ). - . . - . . - . . - . . - . . - . . .*
. %71 . %36 . .
A nondestructive test method, such as probe penetration, impact hammer or ultrasonic
pulse velocity may be useful in surveying structural members for areas of lower
198
strength concrete. From this preliminary view point use ASTM C823-00 "Standard
Practice for Examination and Sampling of Hardened Concrete in Construction"
to formulate specific areas of investigation. The selected areas then can be specified
for investigation for concrete strength according to ASTM C42-04 "Standard Test
Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete".
Section 3.2 states "Generally, test specimens are obtained when doubt exists about the
in-place concrete quality" and "use of this method is to provide strength information
on older structures."
: ) 24(
:)22(
199
3-9

.
:
* .
* .
* .
* .
* .
* .
* .

.
:
* .
* .
*
.
* .
* .
*
.
:
-4 Schmidt Hammer
-2 Ultrasonic plus velocity
-3 ( ) Core Test
-4 Load Test
( - ) Schmidt Hammer
Rebound Number
.
.
:
-4 .
211
-2 .
-3 .
-4 .
-1 .
-6
-7 . :
.plunger

().

Button .
.
.
.
* :
- .
- .
:
-4 .
-2 .
-3
.
-4 .
:
36 x 36 .
41 . 2,1.
.

1 =
211
2,1 . /
/ 2 .%41
( :)23 Schmidt Hammer
( :)48
:

a=6
41 - a=+45
a=+90
a=-90
212

.
:
_4 .
_2 .
_3 .
_4 .
_1 .
_6 .
_7 ( ).
_8
42,1 .
_9
.
-46 - -
- .
-44 ( 46 - 41)
.
-42 :
( ) .
%36 .
( ).
:
:
-4 ( - - - ).
-2 2666 .
-3 .
-4 .
213
:
-4 .
-2 .
-3 .
-4 ( ).
-1 .
-2 ( ) Ultrasonic pulse velocity

:

.
Ultrasonic Method
:
-4 -2 . .
-3 -4 . .
-1 -6 . .
-7 .
Method of Testing
-4 -2 . .
-3 .
-4 Path length ( ).
-1 Transmitter Receiver
(
).
-6
.
214
-7 T .
-8 ( )V :
Velocity of wave (km/sec) = L/T
( ) L=Length
Time T=Transit
-9 .

. %26 .
( :)24
:Transducers Arrangement
:
( ) Transmission Direct
( ) Transmission Semi-direct
( ) Indirect Transmission
215
( :)49 .
( :)26 ) (X

.
.
.

.
:
-4 Conditions Moisture
(
) .
216
-2 Temperature
.
-3 Aggregate Type

.
-4 : % 16
.
-1 :
.
466 416 26 46
.
-6 .Concrete Age
7.
-7 Reinforcement
(
1,9/ ).
.
-

.
-
. .
:

( )V
% 2,1 4,1 .
217

.

.
.
( : )21
( : )26
218
( : )27
( :)28 (
)
:
))Fcu=2.016 * (e(0.61x vdirect

.
When : Fcu : ultimate compressive strength of concrete.
V direct : velocity of pulse wave in material obtained from instrument direct method.
219
/ / -
/
...
.
...
/1/0
0304
05001
0304/7/03
(
) .
:

Km/sec

0
/
In-Direct
3.90
24.51
Average
24.51
km/sec
4.575
4.575 3.66
211
3.66 3.050
3.050 2.135
2.135
.1 .PUNDIT Manual, 2008, BS EN

12504, Part 4, 2004
.2 .
.3 .
: .
/
-
-3 Load Test

.

. . . . .
:
.Estimation and Standard Specifications
211
24. . 24 .*:

(
.).
* :

.
* :
:
-4 S max
2 lt / 2.5 t ..cm <= Smax
= lt t ,
lt .
-2 24
% 71 .
% 71
.
:
. . . . :
212
-4 .
-2 .
-3 .
- 4 .
-1 .

.

.
213
:
1999 2113
SORB\R5
SORB\R6E
( )
SORB\R6F
SORB\R6G
SORB\R6
SORB\R7
SORB\R8A
SORB\R8B
SORB\R9
:
-4 , Flexible pavement ( sub
)grade soil and subbase course
( )prime coat and tack coat .
( :)26
214
-2 , Rigid pavement (
) .
250
one lane width 3750mm
300
Reinforce Concrete
Pavement
)base coarse (non-erosive
)Sub-base coarse (if needed
500
)Subgrade Soil (Exist
( :)24
.
.
( :)28
( :)22

215
1-11 ( Earth Works) :

( )SORB\R5 1999 2113
:
:
( ) .
-
:Formation Level
.
:

( )316 ,
( )46 .
: Suitable Material

.
: Unsuitable material
:
( )42 .
.
.
( )46
36 , ( )26
.
() 76 (.)41
:
-:
216
-
.
- ( )88
21 .
- .
- 41
.

.
:
-
- ( ) 2666
.
- 91
.
- 91
36 ()CBR 4
11 . 36
4.7\ 3
36 .
- 2( ) 94
.
- 2 93
.
:
217
3
( )92 :

11
2-11 Soil Cement

Stabilised Subgrade , SUB-Base or Base
( )SORB\R6E 1999 2113
: Materials
( )Mix in Place
.
:
-4 : :
-4-4 : :
- (41 )LL
- (26 )PI
- ( )PH 42.4
- 4 8 .
()
2 .
218
- 6.662 . 31
-2-4 : :
- 16 466
- 1 ( )4 . 16
- 6.4 ( ) 36 .41
- 6.671 ( )266 1
- 6.662 3
-2 :

. ) )B.S 12 Part 2\1996
( ) B.S 4027 Part 2\1996
( )AASHTO M85-2006 type 5
4 .
-3 :

:

(AASHTO T134-
)2005 :
- )16-21(Compressive Strength\ 2
91 7
(. )AASHTO T22\2006
- 2 8
(. )AASHTO T135\2005
219
- :
( 4- ) 2+
( )2+
:
21\ 2
31\ 2 7 .
2
(. )B.S 1924
:
8 26 ,
26

4 6 .
:
,
91
AASHTO T134-2005 .
:
:
3 3
46 ,
( 46+ 26- , ) .
221
91
. AASHTO T134-2005
- 2 4 .
- ( )Cross Fall . 6.1
:

3 .
7 .
.
3-11 ( )
Line Stabilised Sub grade or SUB- BASE
( )SORB \R6F 1999 2113
:

.
. 8
.
-4-4

() ( )93 :
( : ) 93
221
LIME

Hydrated
)Quick Lime ,(CaO
Lime , Ca(OH)2
52
51
- -
AASHTO M216\2005
AASHTO T219 \2004
-2-4 :
, ,
AASHTO T26-2004
:

( )Crushing Strength . ( )8-3
( )Compressive Strength
4\ )1 N\mm2( 2
( 6.7\ ) 2 ( )7 .
:
:

AASHTO T88-2004
AASHTO T89-2002& AASHTO T90-2004
B.S1377 , Test No.11
222
AASHTO T99-2004
AASHTO T93
:
( )AASHTO T220-2004 :
.
91
7 ( 4 \ ) 2
.
:

91 . AASHTO T220 -2004
91 .
:

4:36 :
- (46+ 26- , )
R9\6
- 3 4 .
- ( )Cross Fall . 6.1
223
4-11
Bitumen Stabilised Sub grade or SUB BASE
( )SORB \R6G 1999 2113
:

,
:
( 6.671 )266 . 36
(. 36 )LL
- ( )PI . 41
( )Cutback Bitumen RC70 RC250
RC800 ()AASHTO M81-2004
MC800,MC70 MC250 ( . ) AASHTO M82-2004
Cationic SS (, )AASHTO M208-2005

.

( )AASHTO T167- 2005

7
.
( :)94
224
SUB - GRADE
SUB- BASE
21
Compressive Strength
5\
2\
60
Marshall stability
76 ()AASHTO T165-2005
:

.
(. )Tandem
:
,

,

,
( )Prime Coat
.
:

.
- : ( Cut Back
)Bitumen :
225
AASHTO T40-2002
AASHTO T78-2005
AASHTO T79-2004
Saybolt Furol
AASHTO T72-2001
Kinematic Viscosity
AASHTO T201-2003
Absolute Viscosity
AASHTO T202-2003
Cationic
AASHTO T59-2001
-
ASTM
D4223 .
2
-4 2166
.
-2 1666 2 :
- ( )Extraction
AASHTO T164-2004
- , .
-
AASHTO T 191-2002 91
( )Bulk Density .
- ( )( )
226
5-9 SUB BASE Course

( )SORB \R6 1999 2113
:
:
-4-4 ( 2( 46)
- , ,
- 41 (. ) AASHTO T96-2002
-2-1 ( 2)
- 2 3
B.S.1377-1990 6.21
AASHTO T112-2004
- 6.421( 46)
AASHTO T146-2004 :

( )
LL
AASHTO T89-2002
21
31
PI
AASHTO T90-2004
( )9-4
- 6.671( 266) 3\2

6.421( 46) .
-3-4 : . 46
-4-4 : ()SO3 1
1 ( B.S1377-1990
) 46.71
227
-1-4 : ( )91 :
( : )91
( )
71
500
10
500-51
21
500
51 71
500
500
5.1
8\5
61 -50
71 40
81 10
500 60
4.71
11 -21
60 50
61 51
81 10
2.56
42- 56
47 25
12 26
72 42
0.50
10
58 - 7
28 54
28 54
42 25
0.071
200
8-2
51 - 1
51 -1
20 - 1
-6-1 : ( )CBR 31 B
36 C 26 D 91
ASTM D1883 AASHTO T180ASTM D 1557
:
3 1 .
:
26
.
:
228
91
AASHTO T180-2004
:

. 2 4 .
6-11
( )SORB \R7 1999
2113

:

.
:
AASHTO T27 -2006 ( )96
()
57.1
21
52.1
Imperial
5.1
500
500 80
0.1
80 - 10
229
4.71
60 - 50
0.421
40
50 50
0.071
200
51 - 1
)4( 6.671 66
6.421 .
)2( 6.671 (. )42-1
:
4.71
71 .
:
AASHTO T96-2002 41
:
2 .
6.421 AASHTO T146-2004
( )97 :
AASHTO
T89-2002
21
T90-2004
231
B.S 1377 Test No.9

SO3 1 .
: CBR
ASTM D1883- 2005 91
Modified Proctor . 86
Soundness Tests
AASHTO T104-2003
42 1
48 1
.

:

:
- :
:
-4
-2
-3
-4
-1
-6 71
- :
231
:
-4
-2
-3
-4
:
:
AASHTO T27-2006 ()98
:
()
65
500
10
500 50
57.1
70 51
21
51
52.1
1 -
5.1
500
4.71
500 81
0.51
50 50
:
AASHTO T96-2002 41
: ()Soundness Test
AASHTO T104-2003
42 1 .
232
48 1
.
7-9
Bituminous Prime Coat
( )SORB \R8A 1999 2113

: Bituminous binder
:
MC 30
MC 70
MC 250
, AASHTO M82-2004
466\81 ()GORA Kerosene
:
-4
-2
: AASHTO :
-4
T40-2002
-2
T55-2002
-3()
T72-2001
-4
T78-2005
-1
T79-2004
-6
T49-2006
T51-2006
233
T44-2003
-7
T201-2003
-8
T102-2004
:

.
Cationic Bituminous Emulsion
AASHTO M208-2005 CSS-I CSS-1h
( )3 .
:
AASHTO T40-2002
AASHTO T59-2001 AASHTO M208-2005
:
6.1\ 2 4.2\ 2
,
,
6.66\ 2 4.26
\ . 2
:
:
-4
( ) .
6
-2 41
234
:
-4
.
-2
()
.
:
-4
24 .
-2
.
-3 ,
.
:

.
8-9 Bituminous Tack Coat
( )SORB \R8B 1999 2113
:
:
RC70
RC250
( )AASHTO M81-2004
466\81 Cora Standard Motor Spirit
235
:
-4
-2
:
AASHTO :
- 4
T40-2002
-2
T55-2002
-3()
T72-2001
-4
T78-2005
-1
T79-2004
-6
T49-2006
T51-2006
T44-2003
-7
T201-2003
-8
T102-2004
:

.
Cationic Bituminous Emulsion
AASHTO M208-2005 CSS-1h . CSS-1

:
236
AASHTO T40-2002
AASHTO M208-2005 AASHTO T59-2001
:
6.41\ 2 6.1\
,
6.4\ 2
6.31\. 2
:
-:
-4
.
-2 41. 6
:

.
:
-4
81-61 6
.
-2
.
-3
-4

237
9-9 Hot Mix Asphaltic Concrete

Pavement
( )SORB \R9 1999 2113

-4-4 :
:
( )4 )2( , )3( , )4( , )1( ,
)6( ,
, (. )99
( : )99
AASHTO T96-2002
50

51
2.56
40
AASHTO T90-2004

AASHTO T89-2002 AASHTO T146-2004

4
AASHTO T112 5
-2-4 : 4.71

( )1 (. )466
238
( : )466

50 4.71
.
ASTM D4791-2005
50 ( )1 ( )5

Soundness
test
ASTM C88-1999
( )1 ( )
52 58
AASHTO T 182-2002
D1664 51
ASTM
: (4.71 ) :
( )4 )2( , )3( , )4(, )1(, ()6
)7(,
AASHTO T176 ( )8( , )41
21
(2.36) .
-4-4 :
( )4
( )2
( )3
( )4 )2( , )3( ,
( )4( , )3
.
239
( : )464
4 AASHTO T90-2004
0.600
500
0.500
500 51
0.071
500 - 70
-1-1 : , ,
486 6 ( )1, 4

( )102

60( 0)
551 0 ( ) ()50\5 211500 1()
COC ( 0 ) ( )
()
- 60 0 ( )
AC-40
AC-30
AC-20
8004000
6005000
4002000
400
510
500
40
10
60
252
252
252
55
55
55
2000
21
51000
40
50000
10
- () 211 0 \ ( )
241
( )103

10-40
60-10
70-60
-5 ()50\5 21500 0 1
10-40
60-10
70-60
-2 211 0 \()
>500
>500
>500
>252
>252
>252
>55
>55
>55
-5
-4 ()
-1
- ( )
>11
>15
>11
- 21 1 0\()
>21
>40
>10
-6-4 : ( )

: AASHTO M 216-2005
:
-4 4.1
-2
.
:
-4-2 : (
).
-2-2 :
.
( : )464
241
II
IIIB
IIIA
57.1
5.1
500
21
500-50
500
55
4\5
50-76
500-50
500
52.1
2 \5
80-16
50-70
500-50
500
5.1
8\5
74-48
80-16
50-76
500-50
4.71
15-25
61-51
74-44
81-11
2.56
41-55
45-25
18-28
67-52
10
57-1
55-1
25-1
25-7
200
8-2
5-5
50-4
50-4
1.1-5
6-4
6-4
6-4
0.5
0.071
( )
: (Job Mix Formula)J.M.F

-4-3 : (:)7
( : )461

4.71
2.56 0.5-
0.071 ( )200
2
0.5
51
242
-2-3 :
( ) 466 71
.
( : )466
( 71 )ASTM D1559
1
( ( )KN ) - ()
4-2
4-2
4-2
6-5
1-5
1-5
( )
52
55
54
()ASTM D 1075 \2000

70
- ( )
70
70
:
-4-4 :
.
-2-4 : Asphalt Mixing Plant
ASTM D995,ASTM D290

.
-3-4 : Compaction Equipment :
-4 () Smooth- Steel Wheeled Rollers
-2
243
()Multi-Wheeled Pneumatic Tyred Rollers

-3 Vibrating Rollers

-4-1 :
4 ( )467 :
50
-2-1 : ( )
26
( 4 ) .
-3-1 :
.
B.S.2499 Class A , Grade I and II

:
:
( )468
550 ( 0 )
520 ( 0 )

-4-7 :
( )469 :
244

50000-8000

Smooth Steel Wheeled Roller
50000-8000
Multi- Wheeled Pneumatic-Tyred

Roller
41

Smooth Steel Wheeled Roller
-2-7 :
6
76
-3-7 : :
-4
AASHTO T166-2005
-2 ASTM D2950-2005

71 ( )446 :
< 57
-5
-2 200
< 58
Weather Limitations
:
-:
245
-4
-2
-3
-4 ( 1 )6
-1

( 1 )6 .
- ( 41 )6

.
.

( )6.4

:
( :)444

( )
50 -5
50
246

-:
-4
-2
-3
-4
-1

:
( )442 :
20-8 +
20-50 +
:
-4-43
( )443 366
1.5-4
50-6
20
40
. 46 .
247
:
4 .
3.
( )444
AASHTO T168-2003

AASHTO T168-2003
.
50 50 ( 500 )2 .
50

248
:
4-44 :
:
, .
:
)1 : 3 2 .
,
,

.
)2 : ,
, .
.
(:)441
1
( )
( )
,

.
249
2-44 :
,
() .
:
( :)446 ( )
4
2
---
---
---
21
---
---
---
.......B

4
( )

---
---
---
46 .....
:
3-44 :
)1 :
251
)2 :

,
,
, .3
,
.... Shovel, Bulldozer.

4 4.1
.

:
)1 26 .
)2 (.%)41-46
)3 166 2 .%91
:)4
,
4.1 6.8.
: 4.1 ,
,
.
251
30 m
30 m
30 m
15 m
(:)23

15 m
15 m
( :)446 4
)Vol.=Area*D (m3
)Area=L1*L2 (m2
)L2 (m
)L1 (m
Sec.
1267.2
1548
48
33
792
990
33
30
432
540
18
30
= 2494.2
(:)24

C
B
:

.
252
)2
, ( )0.2 m ( )0.6 m (.)0.8 m

, (.)21
200
9400 mm
A
3000
200
3152
1000
3952
1000
200
:
:
)1

:
: :
()
()
9.4 + 6.6
26
3.2 6.6
7.8
27.8
: :
253
()
()
3.2 + 6.6
44,4
4.2 6.6
7.2
1.2 6.6
9.2
27.8

)2
:
1
=
2
1
2
(*)T
( )T .
:
1
= - 3.2*3+ 9.4*2
2
* 27.8=6.6*2
3
= 43.344 = 6.8* 6.6*27.8

)3 66
4 6.7 , (.)26
+1.75
0.3
0.0
1.0
0.7
y
h
x
30 m
254
x
30
x 5.1m
0.3 1.75
30
=
5 .1
1 1.4
1+ ( 5.1=)03-1*1.1
y 1.75
y 0.2625m
4.5 30
h 1 0.2625 0.7375m
1 0.7375
1 0.7
0
.
6
4
.
5
5
.
1
= 41.31
=
2
)0 (:)2

( ) :
-4 .Bearing
-2 .
Bearing
.
= * *
)4 :
()
,
255
, ,
(:)446
M25
4.1
M20
M15
M10
M7.5
46
M5
,

, :
)1
4:4:8 .4:1:46
)2
,4:3:6
.
)3 .....
4:2:4 4:4.1:3.
256
)4
4:4.1:3 4:4:2
.
4 3
:
)Vol. = 0.67 (C+S+G
:
= Vol. .
= C = S , = G , .
6.67
6.33
6.67 .
,4:2:4
, :
)1 = 0.67(C+2C+4C

C = 0.21 m3
S = 2C = 0.42 m3
G = 4C = 0.84 m3
= 1400 kg/m3
= 300 kg 6.24*4466
50 kg
300
=
50
= 6
257
:
= 300 kg 6
= 0.5 m3
4:2:4
= 1 m3
)4 ( )
2 1:2:5 .40cm
Vol. = 27.8*0.6*0.4 = 6.672 m3
:
= 46.632 = 6.672*6 46 = 2
= ,3.336 m3 = 6.672*6.1 = 6.672 m3 = 6.672*4
5
) 03
4.5 m 30cm
.1:1.1:0
300 mm
25
88 25
10200
@mm
200c/c
mm c/c
10
R.C Column Detail
( :)27
258
3
0.32 4.5 = 31.567 m3
4
Vol . 30 6
)31.567 = 0.67(C+1.5C+3C
C=8.567 m3
8.567 1400
=11.99 ton
1000
= 1.5C = 1.5*8.567 = 12.85 m3

= 3C = 3*8.567 = 25.69 m3
)6 ( -28) ()
, .4:2:4
3m
R.C , C 21
r = 10 m
3m
60
1
2m
16 m
R.C Raft Foundation
10 m
SECTION
2
TOP VIEW
( :)28
259
:
122.46 m 2
* 0.424 *10 2
*10 2
4
*10 2
4
A 16 * 2 132
A x ax
122.46 x 16 * 2 * 8 13 * 8.5
2
x 9.819 m
60 *
*12246 3823.983 m 3
180
*Vol . S * * A 20 9.819
3823.983 * 300
1147.194 ton
1000
sand 3823.983 * 0.5 1912 m 3
cement
gravel 3823.983 *1 3824 m 3
)7 ,
22 .4:4.1:3
( :)29
261
2.6 1.2
* 5.5 1.2 * 1 22.15 m 2
2
Vol . 22.15 * 22 487.3 m 3
A 7 * 1.5
487.3 0.67C 1.5C 3C , C 132.239 m 3

132.239 * 1400
cement
185.134 ton
1000
sand 1.5C 198.3 m 3
gravel 3C 396.7 m 3
-1
,
,
, :
( :)447
(), mm
()kg/m
cm2
6.222
6.283
6.391
6.163
46
6.62
6.781
42
6.888
4.43
----
44
4.24
4.14
----
46
4.18
2.64
----
48
2.14
261
26
2.47
3.44
21
3.86
4.94
32
6.34
8.64
36
8.6
46.2
)8 4666 ( )8 2666 ( )44

42.
: ( )8 42 = 4.74 = 42 * 6.391
4.74 *1000
4666 (= )8
1000
= 4.74
( )44 42 = 44.12 = 42 * 4.24

14.52 * 2000
2666 (= )8
1000
= 29.64
)9 42 36 8
6.391/.
: =
w2 w1
0.395
x
x 66.66 kg
2
v2
v1
2
* 8 *1
* 30 *12
4
4
:
:
262
)1
.
)2 .
:
()36
,
( )overlap
( )25-40db 366 , db
( ,)diameter of bar
( )6db 46 ,
( .)4db
.
:
1+
(:)448

()
263
71
16
()Strap Beam
16
26
41
26
46
48
42
48
26
lD 2
w
162
:
:w ( :l ,)kg ( :D ,)m ()mm
:
2
lD 2
w Vol .* s
l * 7850
4 1000
162
:s : ()7850 kg/m3
264
)11 2 6.4 , 1 ,
:
2 42
46 @ 250
3 44
( :)34
27.8
2.3 2
12
No.of overlaps
1 l1 27.8 2 * 0.3 28.4 m , L1 3l1 3* 28.4 85.2m

L1 D12 85.2 * 14 2
w1
103.08 kg
162
162
2 l2 l1 28.4 m , L2 2l2 2 * 28.4 56.8 m
L2 D22 56.8 * 12 2
w2
50.49 kg
162
162
265
3 l3 20.6 2 * 0.05 0.4 2 * 0.05 0.3 1.9 m

27.8
1 112 .2 113 L3 113 * 1.9 214.7 m
0.25
L3 D32 214.7 * 10 2
w3
132.53kg
162
162
Wt w1 w2 w3 286.1kg
No.of stirrups
)11 ,
( )4:4:8 26
:
2 48
46 @ 250
3 26
( :)32

266
:
= 20*2+10+2*5.5 = 84.56 m
Vol. = 84.56*1*0.5 = 42.28 m3
42.28 = 0.67(C+4C+8C), C = 4.85 m3
Cement = 4.85*1.4 = 6.8 ton
Sand = 4C = 4*4.85 = 19.42 m3
Gravel = 8C = 8*4.85 = 38.83 m3

84.56
7.05 7
12
No.of overlaps
1 l1 84.56 7 * 0.3 86.66m, L1 3l1 3 * 86.66 259.98m

L1 D12 259.98 * 20 2
w1
641.93kg
162
162
2 l2 l1 86.66m, L2 2l2 3 * 86.66 173.32m
L2 D22 173.32 * 182
w2
346.64kg
162
162
3 l3 21 2 * 0.075 0.5 2 * 0.075 0.3 2.7m
84.56
1 339.2 340 L3 340 * 2.7 918
0.25
No. of stirrups
L3 D32 918 *10 2

w3
566.67kg
162
162
Wt w1 w2 w3 1555.24kg
-6
Raft Foundation

,

267
,
, :
46 @ 260
21 @ 250
( :)33

:
l = overlap + H cover + 4db + 12db
= 40db + 4db + 12db + H cover = 56db + H cover

( )16db ( )32db .
* .
)12
:
268
( :)34
0.45
2.5 m
SEC. 1-1
( :)31
269
( :)36
:
:

2.5-2*0.075 = 2.35m
2.35
1 8.83 9
0.3
l1 2.35 32db 2.35 32 * 0.016 2.862m, L1 2.862 * 9 * 2 51.516m
No. of bars
L1 D12
51.516 * 16 2
* w1 2
* 2
162.816kg
162
162
l 2 56db H cov er 56 * 0.025 0.45 0.075 1.775m, L2 4 * 1.775 7.1m
L2 D22
7.1 * 252
* w2 2
* 2
27.39kg
162
162
:
:
:
30-2*0.075=29.85m
10-2*0.075=9.85m
No. of bars (30) = (29.85/0.3)+1=100.5=101

No. of bars (10) = (9.85/0.3)+1=33.83=34
No. of overlaps (30)=29.85/12=2.4=2
271
l3=29.85+32db+2*0.3=29.85+32*0.025+0.6=31.25m,
L3=31.25*34*2=2125m
L3 D32 2125 * 25 2
8198.3kg
162
162
w3
l4=9.85+32db=9.85+32*0.025=10.65m, L4=10.65*101*2=2151.3m
L4 D42 2151.3 * 25 2
8299.77 kg
162
162
w4
l5=56db+H-cover=56*0.025+0.45-0.075=1.775m, L5=8*1.775=14.2m
L5 D52 14.2 * 25 2
w5
54.78 kg
162
162
Vol.=(30*10+2.52*2)*0.45=140.625m3
140.625 = 0.67(C+4C+8C) C=16.15m3
Cement = 22.6 ton, Sand = 64.58 m3, Gravel = 129.16 m3
-7 :

,
.
)23*11*7(cm .
4.
.)24*42*8( cm
4 3 =
1
=
0.24 * 0.12 * 0.08
= 431.
271
431
446
.416
4 3 :
3
4 6.77 = 6.67*6.44*6.23*431 = 3
= 6.23 = 6.77 4.3
( 4 4 +) ()1- 3
/3.
416 4 3
431.
-8 :

, .
( ) 20 15 40.
= 4.
= ( ) 21 16 41.
4 3 =
1
= 73 = 72.6
=
0.21* 0.16 * 0.41
.
3
4 6.876 = 6.2*6.41*6.4*73 = 3
3
= 6.424 = 6.876 4
71 4 3 ,
73 4 3 .
272
)13 2 6.4 6.6 ,

,4:3:
)1 %21
.
)2 .
)3 .
:
1
= -
2
1
= - 3*3.2 + 2*9.4
2
(*)T
*28 = 6.4*2
3
= 6.72 = 6.6*6.4*28
)1 ,%21 %71
3
= 1.64 = 6.72*6.71
= 4.68 = 6.72*6.21
)Vol.= 0.75(C+S
C = 0.56 m3
16
)1.68= 0.75(C+3C
= 0.56*1400 = 784 kg
= 0.56*3 = 1.68 m3
)2 = 3624 = 6.72*416
3
= 1.48 = 6.23*6.44*6.67*6.72*431
3
= 4.14 = 1.48 - 6.72
273
C = 0.513 m3
)1.54= 0.75(C+3C
= 0.513*1400 = 718.67 kg = 15
= 0.513*3 = 1.54 m3
)3 = 164 = 6.72*71
3
= 1.89 = 6.41*6.2*6.4*6.72*73
3
= 6.83 = 1.89 - 6.72
C = 0.277 m3
8
)0.83= 0.75(C+3C
= 0.277*1400= 387.33 kg
= 0.277*3 = 0.83 m3
)9 ():
( )1:2:4

,
.
46 6
, 2 .3
)14 .2
:
= - (*)T
= 28.2 = 6.2*2* - 3*3.2 + 2*9.4
Vol. = 28.2*0.1*0.2 = 0.564m3
274
Cement = 0.564*6 = 3.384

Sand = 0.564*0.5 = 0.282 m3
Gravel = 0.564*1 = 0.564 m3
)46
)1 :
:
:

.
:

:
) 11 8*24
1

0.24 * 0.08
= 52.38
= 53 03 1 2
:
=
3
= 6.646437 = 6.23*6.44*6.67*13 6.44*4
) 7 12*24
1

0.24 * 0.12
= 34.7
= 31 46 4 2 ,
:
275
=
3
= 6.668641 = 6.23*6.44*6.67*31 6.67*4
)0 :
4:2:4
,
, .
46 46*26 41*26
26*26 21*26 , ,
. :
: 26
46*44 4 2
1
0.41* 0.16
= 46 = 41.2 .
( ) .
:
=
3
= 6.668 = 6.41*6.2*6.4*46 4*6.2
: 41
24*44 4 2
1
0.41* 0.21
= 42 = 44.6 .
( ) . :
=
3
= 6.666 = 6.41*6.2*6.4*42 4*6.41
276
: 4
86 4 3 .
)15 2
4:2 2.1 , 2.1*4
4.1*2.1.
:
= - (*)T
= 28.2 = 6.2*2* - 3*3.2+2*9.4
3
= 44.4 = 2.1*6.2*28.2
= 2.1 = )2.1*4.1+2.1*4(*6.2*2
3
= 44.6 = 2.1 44.4

= 928 = 44.6*86
= = = 6.41*6.2*6.4*928 44.6
3
6.464
0.464=0.75(C+2C) C=0.206m3
Cement = 0.206*1400 = 288.7kg
Sand = 2C = 2*0.206 = 0.412m3
)11 :
277

,
.
)16 ( , , , )
,2 ()
().
( - 37) :
( - 37) :
278
:
:
= = 28.2
3
= 2.82 = 6.1*6.2*28.2
= 6.996 = 6.41*4.4*46.6
= (4.46 = 6.21*)4*46.2-4.4*46.6
= 44.276
300
= *44.276
1000
= 3.3828
3
= 1.638=6.1*44.276
=44.276=4*44.276
: :
:
():
= 4.4-2*0.02= 4.36m
4.36
1 11 .9 12
0.4
l1 10.6 2 * 0.02 32db 10.56 32 * 0.012 10.944 m
No.of bars
L1 12l1 12 * 10.944 131.328 m

L1 D12 131.328 * 12 2
w1
116 .736 kg
162
162
() 1:
l2=0.5l+0.16*2+(0.25l-0.11+0.2)*2+0.3ls+0.5-.02
279
l2=7.18m
L2=12l2=12*7.18=86.16m
L2 D12 86.16 * 12 2
w2
76.59 kg
162
162
: 4
l3=0.5ls+0.16*2+2*(0.25ls-0.11+0.2)+0.3l+0.5-0.02=6.48m
L3=12 l3=12*6.48=77.76m
L3 D12 77.76 * 12 2
w3
69.12kg
162
162
:
:
= 10.6-2*0.02 = 10.56m
10.56
1 27.4 28
0.4
l4 4.4 2 * 0.02 32db 4.36 32 * 0.012 4.744 m
No.of bars
L4 28l4 28 * 4.744 132.832m

L4 D12 132.832 * 12 2
w4
118 .07 kg
162
162
:)lw=3m(
l5=0.5lw+0.16*2+2*(0.25lw-0.11+0.2)+2*(0.5-0.02)=4.46m
L5=28l5=28*4.46=124.88m
281
L5 D12 124.88 * 12 2
w5
111 kg
162
162
:
:
l6=0.5-0.02+0.3*4+0.2=1.88m
l7=0.5-0.02+0.3*5+0.2=2.18m
l8=2*(0.5-0.02+0.3*3)+2*0.2=3.16m
L6=12(l6+l7)+28l8=137.2m
L6 D12 137.2 * 12 2
121.96 kg
162
162
w6
: :
:
28.2 , 28.2
.
46
l9=28.2-10*0.04=27.8m
4 7
L7=4l9+4*7*32db
L7=4*27.8+896*0.012=121.952m
L7 D12 121.952* 122
w7
108.402k g
162
162
:
281
27.8
1 93.6 94
0.3
l10 0.65 2 * 0.04 0.2 2 * 0.04 * 2 0.3 1.68 m
No.of stirrups
L8 94l10 94 * 1.68 157.92m

L8 D22 157.92 * 10 2
w8
97.48 kg
162
162
B1
l11=0.5l+2*0.81+2*(0.25l-0.57+0.2)+0.3ls=7.08m
B2
l12=0.5ls+2*0.81+2*(0.25ls-0.57+0.2)+0.3l=6.38m
B3
l13=0.5lw+2*0.81+2*(0.25lw-0.57+0.2)=3.88m
L9=2l11+2l12+3l13=38.56m
L9 D12 38.56 * 12 2
w9
34.28 kg
162
162
wt of 12=w1+w2+w3+w4+w5+w6+w7+w9=756.158kg
wt of 10=97.48kg
WT=853.638kg
)12 ( ):
)4 (:)2
:
282
)1
.
)2 .
)3 4:4
3 .

.
)4 4:3
() .
)5 : :
) : :
)1 .
)2 .
) :
4:2
. :
)1 )2 . .
:
)1 .
)2 .
2 :
= *
2 4:3
Vol. = 1*0.02=0.02m2
0.02 = 0.75(C+3C) C = 0.0067m3
Cement = 0.0067*1400 = 9.33 kg
283
Sand = 3C = 0.02 m3
)2 (:)2

,
,
6
,
2 .
. 2

. 4:2
Vol. = 1*0.02 = 0.02m3
4271/ 3 %46
.
= 28.61 = 4.4*4271*6.62
* 46
)3 (:)2

, .

4:3

. 2 ,
284
4-2 3 ,
.
,
. 26*26
21*21 36*36 .
4 2 :
36.3*36.3 6.3 = 3 =
=
1

=
0.303 * 0.303
= 44 = 46.89
3 1 .
%41
.

.
3
= ( 6.663 = 6.63*)44*6.3*6.3 -4
)4 (.):

,
.
50cm*13cm*0.6cm
4:3 .
.
)1 (:)2
285
,
. 4:2
, 4:3 .
: " "
4
60cm*30cm*0.9cm

.30cm*8cm*0.9cm " "
3 ,
40cm*25cm*0.7cm
.25cm*7.5cm*0.7cm
)6 (:)2
:
, .
:
:
.
() :
.

,
(:)449
286
(/2)
41 - 42
11 16
21 26
4 = 4
4 = 4.14669
4 = 3.78144
)46 :
:
.1
.4:3
.2 .
.3 46
.
.4 ( )6.81 6.71 .
.5
7 .1.5cm/m
.6 ( )6.64*6.8*6.8 2
.
2 41 2
3.
:

8 466
26 466
287

3.82*3.82
6.82 .
)25 2
:
.1 4:4
6.1.
.2 .4:3
.3 ( )3*4 ()6.9*36*66
426 ()6.9*8*36.
.4 ( )3*1 ()6.6*43*16.
.5 .
.6 ()3*36*36.
:
)4
)(+
=27m2
)(+
= {(4+3)*2+(5+3)*2}*3 =90m2
)(+
=78m2
= (9.6+3.4)*2*3
)(+
=14m2
) = (10.6*4.4)-(9.6*3.4
)(+
=12m2
= (10.6+4.4)*2*0.4
)(+
=7.1m2
= (10.2+4)*2*0.25
)=5.84m2 (+
)(-
=25m2
= 208.94 m2
= 4*3+5*3
) = (10.6*4.4)-(10.2*4
* = 1*2.5*2*2+1.5*2.5*2*2
288
Vol. = 208.94*0.005 = 1.0447m3

1.0447 = 0.75(C+C) C = 0.696m3
Cement = 975 kg
Sand = 0.696 m3
*
* 2 * 2
.
)2
) = 78 + 14 + (12+7.1+5.84)=116.94 m2 (+ + +
)= 12.5 m2 (-
= 1*2.5*2 + 1.5*2.5*2
104.44 m2
Vol. = 104.44*0.02=2.0888 m3
2.0888 = 0.75(C+3C) C=0.696 m3
Cement = 0.696*1400 = 975kg
Sand = 3C = 2.0888 m3
)3
) = (4+3)*2*1.2 = 16.8 m2 (+
= 15.1 m2
)= 1.2 m2 (-
= 1*1.2
)= 0.5 m2 (-
= (1.2-1)*2.5
4 , ()6.9*36.4*66.4.
15.1
83.47 84
0.301 * 0.601
289
) = 10.5 m() 2.5( = (4+3)*2 1

10.5
34.88 35
0.301
= 15.1+10.5*0.08=15.94m2 + =
2 , ()2-0.9=1.1cm=0.011m
3
= 6.47134 = 6.644*41.94
C = 0.058m3
)0.17534 = 0.75(C+3C
Cement = 0.058*1400 = 81.83 kg

Sand = 3C = 0.17534m3
= {(0.6+0.3)*0.001*84+(0.3+0.08)*0.001*35}*0.009
= 8.001*10-4 m3
8.001*10-4=0.75C C=10.668*10-4m3
White Cement = 10.668*10-4*1400 = 1.5kg
)4:
= (5+3)*2-1=17m
17
33.7 34
0.503
3
6.6 , ()2-0.6=1.4cm
3
= 6.63694 = 6.644*6.43*47
0.03094=0.75(C+2C) C=0.0103m3
291
Cement=14.44kg
Sand=0.03094m3
3 4-
= { 46*3.8116=6.666*})6.43+6.1(*6.663*34
3.8556*10-4=0.75C C=5.1408*10-4m3
White cement=0.719712kg
)1 :
)(+
= (5+3)*2*3+(4+3)*2*3= 90m2
)(+
= 27m2
= 86.35m2
= 4*3+5*3
)= 15.94m2 (-
)(-
= 2.21m2
= 12.5m2
)(-
= 17*0.13
= (1*2.5+1.5*2.5)*2
= 86.35*0.02 = 1.727m3
= 1.727*1275*1.1= 2422.1175kg
)6
2
= 27= 3*1+3*4
27
= 294.1300
0.303 * 0.303
= 27*0.02 = 0.54m3
0.54=0.85(C+3C) C=0.1588 m3
291
Cement = 222.35 kg
Sand = 0.476 m3
= (27-294*0.3*0.3)*0.03=0.0162m3
0.0162=0.75C C=0.0216m3
White cement=0.0216*1400=30.24kg
:
46.
)(1)+(2
(1) = 27.8*(0.1*2)*0.3 = 1.668 m3
(2) ={(3-0.1*2)*(4-0.1*2)+(3-0.1*2)*(5-0.1*2)}*0.2 = 4.816m3
Vol. of fill = 6.484 m3
%71 .
Vol. of fill = 6.484*(1/0.75) = 8.645m3
= (2)/2 = 4.816/2 = 2.408m3
Cement = 314.48kg, Sand = 1.123m3, Gravel = 2.246m3
292
: 26 36
(:)426

C of concrete
71
4:4.1:3
26
28MPa
:
Area of retaining wall section is = 2.21 m2
( : )38
Calculate amount of materials for 1 meter of wall length.
293
Volume = 2.21 x 1 = 2.21 m3
2.21 = 0.67(5.5X)
:)424(
Cement
Sand
Gravel
846 Kg
0.9 m3
1.8 m3
:
1- 25 @ 200 mm:
1
* 3.2 0.4 0.438 0.075* 3.86 67.48kg
Amount =
0.2
:
2- 42 @ 210 mm:
3.2 0.075
1 * 1* 0.888 12kg
Amount =
0.25
3- 42 @ 210 mm:
1
* 3.2 0.4 0.438 0.075* 0.888 14kg
Amount =
0.25
4- 42 @ 210 mm:
3.2 0.075
1 * 1* 0.888 12kg
Amount =
0.25
5- 25 @ 200 mm ) Top layer):

1
* 3 0.65 0.075* 3.86 69kg
Amount =
0.2
294
6- 25 @ 200 mm ) bottom layer):

1
* 3 0.075 * 3.86 56.45kg
Amount =
0.2
)7- 42 @ 260 mm:) Top & bottom layer
3 0.075
1 * 1* 0.888 26kg
Amount = 2 *
0.2
( ) :B
Amount of sub-base class B= (3.5*0.5*1)= 1.75 m3
: ()422
SUBBASE
REINFORCEMENT
GRAVEL
SAND
CEMENT
52.5 m3
7.768 Ton
54 m3
27 m3
25.2 Ton
:27
-4 :
- ( 6.8).
- .
- .
- .
- (
4.1*2 4* 2.4) . ( 39 )
295
SLAB LAYOUT
FOOTING LAYOUT
:) 39(
296
:)46(
:
Length of footing = 18.6 m
Volume of concrete = (18.6 *0.4*0.6)= 4.464
4.464 = 0.67(7 X)
Cement = 0.951 m3
Sand = 4.903 m3
Gravel = 3.8 m3
297
: )44(

:)423(
Cement
Sand
Gravel
4.332 ton
4.903 m3
3.8 m3
:
Volume of Excavation = (18.6 *6.8*0.6)= 8.064 m3

Amount of main reinforcement = 9 *18.6 * 0.888 148.6kg
Amount of stirrup reinforcement =
((18.6 / 0.2) 1) *1.68 * 0.888 140.2kg
298
:
Volume of concrete = 4* (3.5 *0.25*0.25)= 0.875 m3
0.875 = 0.67(7 X)
:)424(
Cement
Sand
Gravel
6.264ton
6.373 m3
6.71 m3
Amount of main reinforcement = 4 * 4.3 * 3.86 66.39kg

Amount of stirrup reinforcement = 4 * 3.5 / 0.2 1* 0.9 * 0.62 41.3kg
Amount of columns reinforcement = 107.7 kg
:
Area of Slab = 30 m2
Volume of concrete = (0.15 *30)= 4.5 m3
4.5 = 0.67(7 X)
:)421(
299
Cement
Sand
Gravel
1.343 ton
1.918 m3
3.84 m3
:
Amount
of
main
reinforcement
(long
direction)
straight
bar=
(5 0.04 / 0.4 1) * 6.05 0.04* 0.888 71.5kg

Amount of main reinforcement (long direction) bent bar=
length (long direction) bent bar= 6.482 m
(5 0.04 / 0.4 1) * 6.482 0.04* 0.888 76.65kg

Additional bar(long direction) = (2*(6.05-0.04)/4)*(( 5 0.04 / 0.4) 1
)*0.888 = 35.74 kg
Amount of main reinforcement (short direction) straight bar=
(6.05 0.04 / 0.4 1) * 5 0.04* 0.888 70.58kg

Amount of main reinforcement (short direction) bent bar, length (long
direction) bent bar= 5.482 m
(6.05 0.04 / 0.4 1) * 5.482 0.04* 0.888 77.44kg

Additional bar(long direction) = (2*(5-0.04)/4)*(( 6.05 0.04 / 0.4) 1
)*0.888 = 35.29 kg
Amount of Slab reinforcement = 295.7 kg
311
:
Length of beams = 17.6 m
Volume of concrete =(0.65*0.25*17.6) = 2.86 m3
2.86 = 0.67(7 X)
:)426(
Cement
Sand
Gravel
0.853 ton
1.22 m3
2.44 m3
:
1- Amount of main reinforcement for (B1):
Straight bars = 5*(4.9+0.5+0.24)*2.47 = 69.65 kg
Bent bars = 2*6.27*2.47 = 30.97 kg
Stirrup = ((4.9/0.3)+1)*1.60*0.62 =17.2 kg
For two beams (B1) = 235.62 kg
2- Amount of main reinforcement for (B2):
Straight bars = 5*(3.9+0.5+0.24)*2.47 = 57.3 kg
Bent bars = 2*4.44*2.47 = 23.91 kg
Stirrup = ((3.9/0.3)+1)*1.60*0.62 =13.9 kg
For two beams (B2) = 190.2 kg
311

Amount of brick under D.P.C =(0.36*0.577*17.6) =3.65 m3

Amount
of
brick
above
D.P.C
=(0.25*2.331*17.6)
((1.5*2+2.1*1)*0.25) = 9 m3
)4:3(
(3.65+9)=0.89(4X)
)427(
Cement
Sand
5 ton
10.66 m3
:
)428(
Gravel
Sand
46.83
16.075
m3
312
Cement Reinforcement Excavation
8.74 ton
1.189 ton
8.064 m3
Brick
work
12.65 m3
Channel Work
4-44
:
.)4 - 42( ,) 4
.)2 - 42( ,) 2
.)3 - 42( ,) 3
F.S.D
F.B
F.B
N.S.L
F.S.D
BANK OF
CHANNEL
BANK OF
CHANNEL
1
Z
FIG. 1
N.S.L
F.B
FIG. 2
N.S.L
BANK OF
CHANNEL
BANK OF
CHANNEL
FIG. 3
: )42(
:) 28
)429(
R.D. (m)
500
1000
1500
G.L. (m)
241.4
241.3
241.1
240.9
Bed width=4m, side slope in cutting=1:1, and in filling=1:1.5, bank

width=1.5m both side, full supply depth (F.S.D)=60cm, free board
(F.B)=45cm, bed slope=1:5000, Proposed bed level (P.B.L)=240.8m.
313
:
= x .
1
x
x 0.1m
5000 500
F.S.D+F.B=1.05m
()436
)Cut (m
)N.S.L (m) P.B.L (m
)R.D (m
0.6
240.8
241.4
0.6
240.7
241.3
500
0.5
240.6
241.1
1000
0.4
240.5
240.9
1500
y ( )Bank
0.45 m
0.60 m
45
1.5
( : )43
@ R.D 0.0 m
314
y 1.05 0.6 0.45m

Ac 0.6 * 4 0.6 2 2.76m 2
Af 2 * 1.5 * 0.45 1.5 * 0.452 1.9575m 2
@ R.D 500m
y 1.05 0.6 0.45m
Ac 0.6 * 4 0.6 2 2.76m 2
Af 2 * 1.5 * 0.45 1.5 * 0.452 1.9575m 2
@ R.D 1000m
y 1.05 0.5 0.55m

Ac 0.5 * 4 0.52 2.25m 2
Af 2 * 1.5 * 0.55 1.5 * 0.552 2.5575m 2

@ R.D 1500m
y 1.05 0.4 0.65m

Ac 0.4 * 4 0.42 1.76m 2
Af 2 * 1.5 * 0.65 1.5 * 0.652 3.2175m 2

)434(
R.D (m) Ac (m2) Af (m2)
Length
(m)
Mean Ac
(m2)
Mean Af
(m2)
Vc (m3) Vf (m3)
2.76
1.9575
500
2.76
1.9575
500
2.76
1.9575
1000
2.25
2.5575
500
2.505
2.2575
1252.5 1128.75
1500
1.76
3.2175
500
2.005
2.8875
1002.5 1443.75
315
1380
3635
978.75
3551.25
:) 29
)432(
R.D. (m)
500
1000
1500
2666
G.L. (m)
239
239.1
239.2
239.3
239.4

m both side, full supply depth (F.S.D)=60cm, free board 2width=
(F.B)=40cm, bed slope=1:5000, Proposed bed level (P.B.L)=240m.
:
1
x
x 0.1m
5000 500
.)2(
:)433(
R.D (m)
N.S.L (m) P.B.L (m)
Fill (m)
239
240
500
239.1
239.9
0.8
1000
239.2
239.8
0.6
1500
239.3
239.7
0.4
2000
239.4
239.6
0.2
@ R.D 0m
A1(below bed)=(4+2*2+4*1.5*1)*1+1.5*12=15.5m2
316
A2(above bed)=2*(2*1+1.5*12)=7 m2 (banks)

Af =22.5m2
@ R.D 500m
A1(below bed)=(4+2*2+4*1.5*1)*0.8+1.5*0.82=12.16m2
Af =19.16m2
@ R.D 1000m
A1(below bed)=(4+2*2+4*1.5*1)*0.6+1.5*0.62=8.94m2
Af =15.94m2
@ R.D 1500m
A1(below bed)=(4+2*2+4*1.5*1)*0.4+1.5*0.42=5.84m2
Af =12.84m2
@ R.D 2000m
A1(below bed)=(4+2*2+4*1.5*1)*0.2+1.5*0.22=2.86m2
317
Af =9.86m2
:
22.5 9.86
Vol . 500 *
19.16 15.94 12.84 32060m 3
2
:) 31
)434(
R.D. (m)
1000
2000
3000
4000
G.L. (m)
210.8
210.4
208.8
208.4

width=1.6m both side, full supply depth (F.S.D)=80cm, free board
(F.B)=40cm, bed slope=1:5000, Proposed bed level (P.B.L)=210m.
:
1
x
x 0.2m , F.S.D+F.B=1.2m
5000 1000
)431(
318
R.D (m)
N.S.L (m)
P.B.L (m)
Cut (m)
Fill (m)
1000
210.8
210
0.8
---
2000
210.4
209.8
0.6
---
3000
208.8
209.6
---
0.8
4000
208.4
209.4
---
@ R.D 1000m
y 1.2 0.8 0.4m

Ac 0.8 * 3 0.82 3.04m 2
Af 2 * 1.6 * 0.4 1.5 * 0.4 2 1.76m 2
@ R.D 2000m
y 1.2 0.6 0.6m

Ac 0.6 * 3 0.62 2.16m 2
Af 2 * 1.6 * 0.6 1.5 * 0.62 3m 2

* R.D2000 R.D3000
, N.S.L
P.B.L ( ,)F.S.D+F.B Bank
.
l
1000
l 428.6m
0.6
1.4
1000 m
1000 - L
0.80
0.60
L
The drawing not to scale
( :)44
@ R.D 2428.6m
y 1.2 0 1.2m
Ac 0m 2
Af 2 * 1.6 *1.2 1.5 *1.2 2 8.16m 2
319
F.B
F.S.D
BANK OF
CHANNEL
: )41(
@ R.D 3000m
A1(below bed)=(4+2*1.6+4*1.5*1.2)*0.8+1.5*0.82=11.68m2
A2(above bed)=2*(1.6*1.2+1.5*1.22)=8.16 m2 (banks)
Af =19.84m2
@ R.D 4000m
A1(below bed)=13.4*1+1.5*12=14.9m2, A2(above bed)= 8.16 m2 (banks)
Af =23.06m2
)436(
R.D (m)
Ac (m2)
Af (m2)
Length (m)
Mean Ac (m2)
Mean Af (m2)
Vc (m3)
Vf (m3)
1000
3.04
1.76
2000
2.16
1000
2.6
2.38
2600
2380
2428.6
8.16
428.6
1.08
5.58
3000
19.84
571.4
14
7999.6
4000
23.06
1000
21.45
21450
462.888 2391.588
3062.888 34221.188
:
311
-4 ( )
( (Pipe Culverts 11 ,
, :

C 21 MPa ,4:2:4
41 mm
/ - (
)
/
( 3 )
46
220,000
46,666
Type I I

/
( )
R.C
Wing Wall
/
( )
800,000
48,666
2
/
/
3
46,666
21,666
6,000
30,000
%36
/
( )
7,666
%3
%4
%26
Pavement width 8000 mm
1000
Rock Protection
3000
9250
8781
3374
15530
Section in Road and Pipe Culvert
(-46) :
311
150
:)-46(
312
150
Cut-off wall
Wing wall
7765
Sub-base layer ,well compacted up to 95%

thickness 300 mm
Crushed Rock thickness 250 mm
Lean Concrete 1:3:6 , C15 ,bedding

material 100 mm thick.
Embankment Material
Flexible Pavement
Sub-base layer ,well compacted up to 95%
Clean Sand size (1-3) mm
3374
Apron Length 3300 mm
Pavement half width 4016 mm
1000
CL
Rock Protection
1000
3000
230
R.C Pipe Culvert
300
Embankment Material
260
CL
100
:)-46(
313
:)47(
314
Dia. 10 /150 mm
8 - dia. 10 mm
Cut-off wall detail
Dia. 10 /150 mm ,two

layers both way
00
10
Section in Pipe Culvert
Dia. 10 /100 mm
Dia. 6 /82 mm
:

: .4
Volume = 80.15 * 2.20 = 176.33 m3
: .2
Volume = 15.513*0.3*5.0 = 23.269 m3
: .3
Volume = 15.513*0.25*5 = 19.40 m3
: .4
Area = 8.781* 5.0 = 43.905 m2 ( thickness 10 cm ).
: .1
Volume = 4.5 *1.0*0.26 = 1.17 m3
:) ( .6
Volume = 2*(3.374*0.1+0.26*0.15)*4.5 = 3.38 8 m3
3.388 = 0.67* (7 X)
X= 0.723 m3
cement = 1.01 ton
Sand = 1.446 m3
Gravel = 2.892 m3
Reinf. = ( (3.375/0.15)+1)* 4.5*0.62 + ((4.5/0.15)+1)*3.375*0.62
=130.43 kg
: . 4
Volume of Concrete = (2 * 3.14* 0.9 * 0.1) * 1 = 0.5652 m3
0.5652 = 0.67 (7X)
cement = 0.168 ton
Sand = 0.24 m3 , Gravel = 0.48 m3
315
Reinf. = (2*3.14*0.9)*0.62*(1/0.1)+((1*0.222*(2*3.14*0.9/0.082)+1)=
Stirrup
main
Reinf. = 14.34 kg
3 4
Cost of excavation = 176.33 * 1.1* 1.2 * 1.3 * 6,000 = 1,396,534 ID

For 1 m3 =10,296 ID
Cost of sub-base = 23.269 * 1.1 *1.2*1.3*1.03*10,000 = 411,275 ID

For 1 m3 = 17,675 ID
Cost of lean concrete = 43.905 *1.1*1.2*1.3*1.03*25,000=1,940,030 ID
For 1 m2 = 44,187 ID
Cost of rock = 19.40*1.1*1.2*1.3*1.03*30,000=1,028,673 ID
For 1 m3 = 53,024 ID
Cost of protect rock = 1.17*1.1*1.2*1.3*1.03*30,000= 62,039 ID
For 1 m3 = 53,024 ID
Cost of R.C wall under culvert = (1.1*1.2*1.3*1.03)*((1.01*220,000)+(
1.446*7,000)+(2.892*18,000)+( 0.130*800,000)= 686,416 ID
Cost of 1 m3 of R.C wall under culvert = 686,450/3.388 =202,612 ID
Cost of 1 m.L of pipe = (1.1*1.2*1.3*1.03)*((
0.168*220,000)+(0.24*7,000)+(0.48*18,000)+(0.0514*800,000)
Cost of 1 m.L of pipe = 156,245 ID
Cost of 1 m3 of R.C Wing wall of culvert = 202,612 ID
.) (2,666,666
. ) 46(
316

1

1
.

2

.

B
3 26
%91

4

5

4:2:4
1 C15

SHEAR WALL
1 4:2:4 C21

2 4:2:4 C21

4:2:4
3 C21

2,666,666
4866
46,366
46,814,666
4736
46,366
47,849,666
246
48,666
4,326,666
491
13,666
46,331,666
42
13,666
636,666
446
41,666
49,866,666
22
263,666
4,466,666
34
263,666
6,962,666
92.1
466,666
44,866,666
85,131,111
317
-2 ) (CIRCULAR TANK
:

C35MPa ,4:4:2
66 mm
Type II
( :)48
318
:)49(

319
: 1
:

,

.
i.
Strengthening of reinforced concrete columns
Strengthening of reinforced concrete columns is needed when:

1. The load carried by the column is increased due to either increasing the
number of floors or due to mistakes in the design.
2. The compressive strength of the concrete or the percent and type of
reinforcement are not according to the codes requirements.
3. The inclination of the column is more than the allowable.
4. The settlement in the foundation is more than the allowable.
There are two major techniques for strengthening reinforced concrete
columns:
1- Reinforced Concrete Jacket
The size of the jacket and the number and diameter of the steel bars used
in the jacketing process depend on the structural analysis that was made
to the column. In some cases, before this technique is carried out, we
321
need to reduce or even eliminate temporarily the loads applied to the

column; this is done by the following steps:
Putting mechanical jacks between floors.
Putting additional props between floors.
Moreover, in some cases, where corrosion in the reinforcement steel bars
was found, the following steps should be carried out:
Remove the concrete cover.
Clean the steel bars using a wire brush or sand compressor.
Coat the steel bars with an epoxy material that would prevent corrosion.
If there was no need for the previous steps, the jacketing process could
start by the following steps:
Adding steel connectors into the existing column in order to fasten
the new stirrups of the jacket in both the vertical and horizontal
directions at spaces not more than 50cm.Those connectors are
added into the column by making holes 3-4mm larger than the
diameter of the used steel connectors and 10-15cm depth.
Filling the holes with an appropriate epoxy material then inserting
the connectors into the holes.
Adding vertical steel connectors to fasten the vertical steel bars of
the jacket following the same procedure in step 1 and 2.
Installing the new vertical steel bars and stirrups of the jacket
according to the designed dimensions and diameters.
Coating the existing column with an appropriate epoxy material
that would guarantee the bond between the old and new concrete.
321
Pouring the concrete of the jacket before the epoxy material dries.
The concrete used should be of low shrinkage and consists of small
aggregates, sand, cement and additional materials to prevent
shrinkage.
The previous steps are illustrated in Figure(50)
Figure (50): Increasing the cross-sectional area of column by RC

jacketing.
322
2- STEEL JACKET
This technique is chosen when the loads applied to the column will be
increased, and at the same time, increasing the cross sectional area of the
column is not permitted.
This technique is implemented by the following steps as shown in Fig 2:
1. Removing the concrete cover.
2. Cleaning the reinforcement steel bars using a wire brush or a sand
compressor.
3. Coating the steel bars with an epoxy material that would prevent
corrosion.
4. Installing the steel jacket with the required size and thickness,
according to the design, and making openings to pour through them the
epoxy material that would guarantee the needed bond between the
concrete column and the steel jacket.
5. Filling the space between the concrete column and the steel jacket with
an appropriate epoxy material.
323
Figure (51): Increasing the cross-sectional area of column by steel

jacketing.
In some cases, where the column is needed to carry bending moment and
transfer it successfully through the floors, one should install a steel collar
at the neck of the column by means of bolts or a suitable bonding
material.
324
Pic. (29): shows a column which was strengthened with steel angles.
ii.
Methods Of Increasing Structural Stiffness
The methods of increasing structural stiffness of tall buildings are by

providing central core, shear walls, tubes, braced frame and double tube.
These are discussed in detail below.
1. Central Core:
By constructing a central core, the stiffness of the building is greatly
increased. A central core is used to house stairs and lifts and building
services. This method allows the building to keep an open facade.
Following figure shows the central core of a building with a 55 column.
Figure (52):Centeral core

in building
325
2. Shear Walls:
Shear walls are constructed at opposite ends of a building to provide

stiffness in a particular direction. Shear walls are particularly useful in
non-square buildings, where the wind forces predominantly come from
one direction. The interior of the building is kept clear. Shear walls only
provide minimal torsional stiffness.
Figure (53): Shear wall

3. Tube system:
A tube system is essentially two sets of shear walls. The tube system
allows the building to be stiff in all directions of loading. The building
will also have a high-torsional resistance. The interior of the building is
kept clear.
326
Figure (54): Tube system

The tube system must be pierced for windows. These openings must be
kept to minimum.
4. Braced Frame:
Braced frame is the simple structure with bracing that help to increase the
structural stiffness. A braced frame is similar to floor bracing, but it does
not depend on the stiffness provided by the floor system, rather on the
addition of another diagonal cross members.
Figure (55): Braced Frame
327
This type of bracing is lighter than its counterpart with floor bracing. The
building has good stiffness.
Compared to the system with floor bracing, this system is less easy to
construct. The faade detailing can be interesting but also expensive.
5. Double Tube System:
A double tube system is a combination of the central core and tube
system as shown in figure below. This combination of both systems
allows the building to be extremely stiff.
Figure (56): Double Tube System

The building has high torsional resistance. For the tube system, apertures
for windows must be kept to minimum. The central core take much
valuable space. This type of system is used for very tall building.
iii.
328
Methods Of Concrete Column Repair
Pic. (30): Weak column

Before starting the repair of a column, the axial dead load, axial live load,
horizontal load and its associated moments must be known. Repairs to
concrete columns can be divided into two categories. Surface or cosmetic
repair only covers local deterioration and structural repair restores or
strengthens the affected columns. If the deterioration does not
significantly reduce the cross section, the conventional concrete repair
can successfully be employed.
Columns may be repaired by using one or more of the following
methods:
Encasement or enlargement of the column cross section
(jacketing).
Cathodic protection to stop reinforcing steel corrosion.
Realkalization of the reinforcing steel to stop corrosion.
Chloride extraction to retard the reinforcing steel corrosion.
Confinement using steel plate, carbon, or glass fiber materials.
Addition of shear collars to increase the shear capacity of
intermediate floors.
Addition of a steel plate assembly to increase moment capacity.
329
Supplemental columns.
The application of a protection system to prevent future corrosion.
Following parameters are important for the design and the execution of
the column repair:
Unloading columns
In those cases where the column deterioration is significant, unloading
the column is usually required so that the entire cross section of the
repaired column is capable of carrying the reintroduced design load.
Without this unloading, the new repair will hardly carry any load. Drying
shrinkage of new material may further reduce this share of load.
Unfortunately, it can be difficult and expensive to unload columns,
especially in high-rise buildings. If the existing load on a column is not
removed before the repair, the jacket will only provide confinement to the
existing column. The percentage of direct load taken by jacket will be
very small (less than 25 percent of the jacket strength). If it is not possible
to remove the load from the column, then a supplemental column system
can provide an alternative method of support in combination with the
repair of the existing column.
Redistribution of the load
In case of corrosion of reinforcement and significant concrete
deterioration, the load is redistributed in the structure before repair to a
new pattern which must be considered while designing the repair. Even
the adjoining members may have been affected by this redistribution.
Supplemental reinforcing steel
331
The column ties can not usually be disturbed during the repair as it may
cause buckling of the longitudinal bars. Hence, the supplemental vertical
bars may be placed outside the original cage with extra ties. When the
supplemental bars are placed outside the tie bars, the column dimensions
should be increased to provide adequate cover. Hairpin ties, usually of
stainless steel, are used to laterally support the supplemental bars.
Concrete removal
The removal of concrete within a column cage must only be done if the
column is unloaded. Otherwise, the longitudinal bars may buckle and
compression failure of column may take place.
Corroded reinforcing steel
It is not necessary to remove the corroded reinforcing bar with reduced
cross-sectional area if the loss is supplemented with additional
reinforcing bars. The lap length of such a splice must be provided
corresponding to the area lost by corrosion to either side of the corroded
portion of the reinforcing bar that is supplemented. The partially corroded
reinforcing bars that are left in place must be thoroughly cleaned by
sandblasting to obtain bare metal. The bars with excessive corrosion must
be replaced with fresh reinforcement having full laps on both sides.
Corroded ties
The corroded ties can be replaced by adding stainless steel hairpin ties
that are anchored into the concrete. It is often necessary to deposit extra
material around columns to provide adequate cover over the supplemental
ties.
Low-strength concrete
331
Where the concrete strength is low, resulting in insufficient load-carrying

capacity, several alternatives are available:
Shore the column and remove and replace the in-place concrete.
Shore the column and increase the size of the column to reduce the
bending stresses, and to increase the confinement on already placed
weak concrete.
Wrap the column with carbon- or glass-reinforced plastic.
Install a supplemental column.
iv.
Repair Of Active Cracks In Concrete
Methods of Repairing Active Cracks in concrete structures:

1. Drilling and Plugging through Crack:
One of the approximate methods would be to drill holes normal to
cracks, fill them with a suitable epoxy or epoxy-mortar formulation
and then place reinforcement bars (of predetermined sizes and
lengths) in them to stitch across the cracks. The bars may be
placed in the clean holes prior to filling the epoxy (so as to save
loss of epoxy) but then great care is needed not to entrap any air.
2. Stitching of Concrete Cracks:
Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and
grouting in U-shaped metal units with short legs (staples or
stitching dogs) that span the crack as shown in picture (57) below:
332
Figure (57): Stitching of concrete cracks

Stitching should be used when tensile strength has to be restored
back across major cracks. Stitching a crack tends to stiffen the
structure and the stiffening may increase the overall structural
restrain, causing the concrete to crack elsewhere.
Therefore, it is
necessary that proper investigation is done and if required, adjacent

section or sections are strengthened using technically designed
reinforcing methods. Because stresses are often concentrated, using
this method in conjunction with other methods maybe necessary.
The procedure consists of drilling holes on both sides of the crack,
cleaning the holes and anchoring the legs of the staples in the
holes, with either a non-shrink cement grout or any epoxy resinbased bonding system. The staples should be variable in length,
orientation, or both and they should be located so that the tension
transmitted across the crack is not applied to a single plane within the
section but is spread over an area.
3. External Prestressing:
333
The flexural cracks in reinforced concrete can be arrested and even

corrected by the Post tensioning method. It closes the cracks by
providing compression force to compensate for tensions and adds a
residual compression force. This method requires anchorage of the
tie-rods (or wires) to the anchoring device (the guide bracketangles) attached to the beam (Fig. 58).
SLAB
CRACK
Tension Tie
Figure (58): Post Tensioning Cracked Beam

The rods or wires are then tensioned by tightening the end-nuts or
by turning of turnbuckles in the rods against the anchoring devices.
However, it may become necessary in certain critical case to run
at least an approximate stress-check to guard against any possible
adverse effects.
4. Drilling and Plugging:
When cracks run in reasonable straight lines and are accessible at
one end, drilling down the length of the crack and grouting it to
form a key as shown in Figure (59) could repair them.
Form key with precast concrete or mortar plugs set in bitumen. The
bitumen is to break the bond between plugs and hole so that plugs will
not be cracked by subsequent movement of the opening. If a
334
particularly good seal is required, drill a second hole and plug with
bitumen alone, using the first hole as a key and the second as a seal.
Figure (59): Drilling and Plugging

A hole of 50 to 75mm dia depending on width of crack should be
drilled, centered on and following the crack. The hole must be
large enough to intersect the crack along its full length and provide
enough repair material to structurally take the loads exerted on the
key.
The drilled hole should then be cleaned, made tight and
filled with grout. The grout key prevents transverse movements of

the sections of concrete adjacent to the crack.
The key will also reduce heavy leakage through the crack and loss
of soil from behind a leaking wall.
If water tightness is essential
and structural load transfer i s not, the drilled hole should be filled with a
resilient material of low modulus in lieu of grout. If the key effect
is essential, the resilient material can be placed in a second hole, the
first being grouted.
335
v.
Reinforcement Corrosion-Causes & Prevention
The corrosion of steel reinforcement is complex, but basically it is an

electro-chemical reaction similar to that of a simple battery. The
composition of mild
steel varies along its length and potential anodic (more negatively
charged) and cathodic (positively charged) sites can be set up at various
points.
Figure (60): Reinforcement Corrosion progression

Concrete is capable of conducting and electric current and acts as the
electrolyte with the circuit being completed by the bar through which the
electrons can flow. However the highly alkaline environment (pH about
12.8) provided by good quality concrete produces a protective layer
around the steel preventing the flow of current. This is known as
Passivation.
The corrosion reaction can only occur when the following conditions
prevail.
1. There is a breakdown of the passivating layer (de-passivation) brought
about by
336
a) A lowering of the alkalinity of the concrete below a critical pH of

about 10.5, caused normally by the ingress of carbon dioxide
(carbonation).
b) The ingress of chlorides
2. Oxygen and water are present.
With the above conditions prevailing the ferrous ions (Fe++) released
from the anode combine with the hydroxyl ions (OH-) from the cathode,
in the presence of water and oxygen to produce rust (ferric hydroxide).
This is an expansive reaction leading to eventual spalling of concrete
cover and reduction in the area of the steel at the anodic site.
vi.
The Mechanism Of Reinforcement Corrosion:
Carbonation:
Acidic gases like carbon dioxide react with any free alkali that may be
present, which can lead to a drop in the alkalinity of the concrete. This
process, which starts at the surface of the concrete, slowly penetrates
deeper and deeper. The penetration is nearly proportional to square root
of time.
Figure (61): Carbonation progression

337
Pic. (30). Carbonation leads to the general corrosion along the full length
of the bar.
Pic. (30):Effect of Carbonation

started in concrete
The above figure shows the first outward signs of general corrosion
taking place is surface cracking of the concrete along the line of the steel.
Pic. (31):Effect of Carbonation concrete

spall way
The above fig. shows that as the corrosion proceeds, the concrete will
spall away completely to expose the steel.
Chlorides:
338
Chlorides are generally acidic in nature and can come from a number of
different sources, the most common being, de-icing salts, use of
unwashed marine aggregates, sea water spray, and certain accelerating
admixtures (their use is now prohibited).
In the presence of chlorides localized pitting corrosion occurs which does
not always have associated with it the early warning signs of surface
cracking.
Chlorides induced corrosion is potentially more dangerous than that
resulting from carbonation. Like most of the aspects of concrete
durability, deterioration due to corrosion of the reinforcement can take
place years (5 to 20) to manifest itselt.
Minimizing the risk of corrosion:
The quality and depth of concrete in the cover zone are all important in
minimizing the risk of corrosion as shown in figure (62) below.
Figure (62): Effective the concrete cover on corrosion

Quality:
Quality is controlled largely by minimizing permeability.
339
Depth:
Recommendations for minimum depths of cover are given in the codes of
practice and are based on exposure conditions and minimum cement
contents. Higher cement contents infer lower water cement rations
leading to permitted reductions in cover.
At no time should the normal cover be less than the maximum size of
aggregates+5mm.
Materials:
Blended cements made from combinations of PC/PFA and PC/GGBS can
lead to significant reduction in chloride penetration. However, in
situations where these materials are not cured properly there is a risk of
increased carbonation.
Care must be taken that all aggregates and admixtures contain limited
amount of chlorides.
vii.
Steps For Concrete Damage Repairs In Structures
Repair of concrete is needed time to time as the structure gets old due to
several reasons. We will discuss the steps involved in the process of
repair of concrete structures.
Following are the steps involved in the repair of damaged concrete:
1. Determination of cause of Concrete defects:
The first and important step for repairing a damaged concrete structure is
to identify the causes responsible for the damage. Because, if the cause of
the damage to concrete structure is not identified or misidentified, then
341
the same damage can repeat even if the repairing work have been done.
Based on the causes of concrete damage, the nature of the cause can be
identified. If the cause of damage is repetitive in nature then the structural
repair will have to consider the effect of the cause, but if the cause is one
time event, then that can be neglected.
2. Evaluation of extent of concrete damage:
Evaluation of the extent of damage to concrete helps to understand
severity of damage and its effect on the life and serviceability of the
structure. This activity includes prediction of how quickly the damage is
occurring and what progression of the damage is likely. Knowing the
extent of the damage to concrete, decision can be made weather the
damage can be repaired or the structural members have to be replaced. It
also helps to take precautionary measures to stop the damage in future for
the known cause of the damage. The main difference in severity lies in
the fact that proper maintenance can reduce or eliminate damage caused
to the structural members.
Pic.(32): Shows the extent of concrete damage

341
The most common technique used to determine the extent of damage is

sounding the damaged and surrounding undamaged concrete with a
hammer. If performed by experienced personnel, this simple technique,
when combined with a close visual inspection, will provide the needed
information in many instances of concrete damage. In sounding suspected
delaminated or disbonded concrete, it should be remembered that deep
delaminations or delaminations that contain only minute separation may
not always sound drummy or hollow. The presence of such delaminations
can be detected by placing a hand close to the location of hammer blows
or by closely observing sand particles on the surface close to the hammer
blows. If the hand feels vibration in the concrete, or if the sand particles
are seen to bounce however slightly due to the hammer blows, the
concrete is delaminated.
Strength of concrete can also be determined while evaluation of the
extend of damage by hammer blows. High strength of concrete gives
distinct ring from a hammer blow and hammer rebounds smartly. Low
strength of concrete rebounds with dull thud and little rebound of the
hammer.
Non-Destructive Testing of concrete can also be done to evaluate the
extent of damage of concrete structures and also to get its strength. More
details about NDT tests on concrete.
3. Evaluate the Need for Concrete Repair:
Repair of concrete structural members required cost and time. So, it
should be evaluated whether the structure needs the repair or can serve its
intended purpose. Not all damaged concrete requires immediate repair.
Repairs should be carried out immediately on concrete if the damage
affects the safety and serviceability of structure. Also, if the damage has
342
reached to the stage or progressing at a rate that soon the structure will
become unserviceable, then repair should be carried out. Most concrete
damage, however, progresses slowly, and several options are usually
available if the deterioration is detected early. With early detection, it
may be possible to arrest the rate of deterioration using maintenance
procedures. Even if repair is required, early detection of damage will
allow orderly budgeting of funds to pay the costs of repair.
4. Select the Concrete Repair Method:
There is a tendency to attempt selection of repair methods/materials too
early in the repair process. This should be guarded against. With
insufficient information, it is very difficult to make proper, economical,
and successful selections. Once the above three steps of the repair process
have been completed, or upon completion of a detailed condition survey,
the selection of proper repair methods and materials usually becomes
very easy. These steps define the types of conditions the repair must
resist, the available repair construction time period, and when repairs
must be accomplished. This information, in combination with data on the
volume and area of concrete to be repaired, will usually determine which
standard repair materials should be used. Also, this information will
determine when the standard repair materials cannot be expected to
perform well and when nonstandard materials should be considered.
5. Prepare the Old Concrete for Repair:
Preparation of the old concrete for application of the repair material is of
primary importance in the accomplishment of durable repairs. The very
best of repair materials will give unsatisfactory performance if applied to
weakened or deteriorated old concrete. The repair material must able to
bond to sound concrete. It is essential that all of the unsound or
343
deteriorated concrete be removed before new repair materials are applied.

Saw cutting of perimeter, removal of concrete, preparation of
reinforcement, maintenance of prepared damaged area should be carried
out before application of concrete repair.
Pic.(33): Dameged of old concrete

6. Apply the Suitable Repair Method:
There are many different standard concrete repair methods and materials
available based on type of damage. More details about these will be
discussed in future post. Suitable methods and materials should be used
based on types of concrete damage.
Pic.(34): Suitable
Repair of concrete
344
7. Cure the Concrete Repair Properly:

Concrete damage when applied with repair materials, it requires proper
curing to gain the required strength and durability. Curing is usually the
final step of the repair process, followed only by cleanup and
demobilization. It should be noted that if the proper curing has not been
done to the concrete repair works, then the concrete will not gain required
strength and all the cost and time invested to the repair work goes waste.
So, special attention is required for the curing the concrete repair.
viii.
Replacement Concrete: Materials And Applications
Replacement concrete is a method of repair for defective concrete when

the defects or cracks in concrete have large area. In this method of
concrete repair, defective concrete is removed from the structural member
and area is prepared for repairs and then replacement concrete is used.
Concrete repair using this method is used when the area exceeds 1 square
foot and has a depth greater than 6 inches (150 mm) and when the repair
is of appreciable continuous area.
Replacement concrete repairs are also used for:
Holes extending entirely through concrete sections.
Holes in which no reinforcement is encountered, or in which the
depth extends 1 inch (25 mm) below or behind the backside of the
reinforcing steel and which are greater in area than 1 square foot
and deeper than 4 inches (100 mm), except where epoxy- bonded
concrete replacement is required or permitted as an alternative to
concrete replacement.
Holes in reinforced concrete greater than one-half square foot and
extending beyond reinforcement Replacement concrete is the most
345
common concrete repair material and will meet the needs of a

majority of all concrete repairs.
Replacement concrete repairs are made by bonding new concrete to the
repair areas without the use of a bonding agent or Portland cement grout.
Because the defective concrete is being replaced with high quality
concrete very similar to the surrounding concrete, the repair is compatible
in thermal expansion and in other physical and chemical properties with
the old concrete. For this reason, in many cases, the best repair method is
the use of replacement concrete.
Figure (63): Steps of concrete replacement
1- Preparation of Surface for Replacement Concrete:
346
Pic. (35): Preparation of surface for replacement concrete

To obtain satisfactory results with the replacement concrete method,
preparation should be as follows:
The reinforcement in the reinforced concrete should be exposed for
a minimum of 25mm around the it to use replacement concrete.
The minimum depth of concrete removal for replacement concrete
should be around 25mm and should extend till all the defective
concrete has been removed. In case of a vertical member, the top of
the hole should be cut in a 1:3 upward slope from the back toward
the face from which the concrete will be placed. This is essential to
permit vibration of the concrete without leaving air pockets at the
top of the repair. In case where concrete from removed from one
side to other side of the structural member, the replacement
concrete should be filled completely in the hole.
347
The cutting of damaged concrete should be such that there is no

damage to the existing concrete and there is no spalling of
concrete.
For repairs on the surfaces subject to destructive water action and
for other repairs on exposed surfaces, the outlines of areas to be
repaired should be saw cut as directed to a depth of 1-1/2 inches
before the defective concrete is excavated.
Surfaces of old concrete to which new concrete is to be bonded must be
clean, rough, and in a saturated surface dry condition. Extraneous
material on the joint resulting from form construction must be removed
prior to placement.
2- Materials for Replacement Concrete:
Concrete for repair should have the same water-cement ratio as
used for similar new structures or the existing structure but should
not exceed 0.47, by weight.
Aggregate of as large a maximum size and slump as low as is
consistent with proper placing and thorough vibration should be
used to minimize water content and consequent shrinkage.
The concrete should contain 3 to 5 percent entrained air.
To minimize shrinkage, the concrete should be as cool as
practicable when placed, preferably at about 20C or lower.
Materials should, therefore, be kept in shaded areas during warm
weather. Use of ice in mixing water may sometimes be necessary.
Batching of materials should be by weight; but batch boxes, if of
the exact size needed, may be used. Since batches for this class of
348
work will be small, the uniformity of the materials is important and

should receive proper attention.
The slump of concrete shall be as minimum as possible for
replacement concrete and should be around than 75mm.
Structural concrete placements should be started with an oversanded mix containing about a 20mm-maximum size aggregate; a
maximum water-cement ratio of 0.47, by weight; 6 percent total
air, by volume of concrete; and having a maximum slump of 100
mm. This special mix should be placed several inches deep on the
joint at the bottom of the placement. A mortar layer should not be
used on the construction joints.
3- Application of Replacement Concrete:
The quality of a repair depends not only on use of low-slump concrete,
but also on the thoroughness of the vibration during and after depositing
the concrete. There is little danger of over-vibration. Immersion-type
vibrators should be used if accessibility permits.
Immediately after the hole has been completely filled, pressure should be
applied to the fill and the form vibrated. This operation should be
repeated at 30-minute intervals until the concrete hardens and no longer
responds to vibration. Pressure is applied by wedging or by tightening the
bolts extending through the pressure cap.
Concrete replacement in open-top forms, as used for reconstruction of the
tops of walls, piers, parapets, and curbs, is a comparatively simple
operation. Only such materials as will make concrete of proved durability
should be used. Top surfaces should be sloped to provide rapid drainage.
349
Forms for concrete replacement repairs usually may be removed the day
after casting unless form removal would damage the green concrete, in
which event stripping should be postponed another day or two.
Some replacement concrete does not require forms. Replacement of
damaged or deteriorated paving or canal lining slabs, wherein the full
depth of the slab is replaced, involves procedures no different from those
required for best results in original construction.
4- Curing and Protection of Replacement Concrete:
It is very important for the replacement concrete to be cured after the
forms have been removed or the concrete has hardened. If the proper
curing is not done to the replacement concrete, there are chances of
complete failure of the repaired concrete. Because of the relatively small
volume of most repairs and the tendency of old concrete to absorb
moisture from new material, water curing is a highly desirable, at least
during the first 24 hours. One of the best methods of water curing is a
soil- soaker hose laid beneath a plastic membrane covering the repair
area. When curing compound is used, the best curing combination is an
initial water-curing period of 7 days (never less than 24 hours) followed,
while the surface is still damp, by a uniform coat of the compound.
ix.
Grouting Procedure For Cracks In Concrete
Procedure for cement grouting of cracks in concrete structures:

Holes are drilled in structure along cracks and in an around
hollow spots. If there are several cracks, holes can be drilled
in a staggered manner at 500 to 750mm spacing in both
directions covering
adequately the
area
proposed
to be
grouted. Holes spacing can be altered as per site conditions.

351
G.I. pieces (12 to 20mm dia x 200mm) with one end

threaded or PVC nozzles are fixed in the holes with rich cement
mortar.
All the cracks and annular space around G.I. pipes are
sealed with rich cement mortar. All the cracks are cut open
to a V shaped groove, cleaned & sealed with rich cement
mortar. All the grout holes should be sluiced with water
using the same equipment a day before grouting as per
following sequence; so as to saturate the masonry.
All holes are first plugged with proper wooden plugs or locked in the
case of PVC nozzles. The bottom most plug and the two adjacent
plugs are removed and water injected in the bottom most hole
under pressure. When the clear water comes out through the
adjacent holes the injection of water is stopped and the plugs in the
bottom most hole and the one immediately above are restored. The
process is repeated with other holes till all the holes are covered.
On the day of grouting all the plugs are removed to drain out
excess water and restored before commencing grouting.
The same sequence as described above is adopted for injecting the
cement grout also. The grout is kept fully stirred/ agitated
under pressure throughout the grouting. The grouting is
carried out till refusal and/ or till grout starts flowing from
the adjacent hole. A proper record of the quantity of grout
injected into every hole should be maintained.
After grouting, curing should be done for14 days.
Tell tales are provided for checking the effectiveness of grouting.
Only such quantities of material for preparing grout should be
used, as can be used within 15 minutes of its mixing.
351
Grouting equipment must be cleaned thoroughly after use.
Figure (64): Grouting of concrete cracks procedure

Precautions to be taken during the work:
During the grouting operation in track or close to it, speed
restrictions of stop-dead and proceed at 10 kmph shall be
imposed at the site of work and same should be continued for a
period of 24 hours. The restriction may then be relaxed to nonstop 30 kmph to be continued for a period of another 2-3
days. However, speed restrictions indicated above are only
guidelines and appropriate speed restriction at each individual site
should be considered.
Immediately after grouting work, all the grouting equipment
including the slurry and mixing drums, pipes, nozzles, etc.
should be thoroughly washed so that set cement does not
damage the equipment.
After the work has been completed, it should be inspected
thoroughly and should be kept under observation for a period
of 6 months to 12 months for its behavior after grouting. In
352
case arch masonry of bridges is grouted to strengthen the

structure, some load tests may be carried out in selected
cases to satisfy that grouting has helped to reduce the
deflection of crown and spread at the springing to within
permissible limits.
x.
Epoxy Injection For Concrete Crack Repair
Epoxy injection for Concrete Crack Repair in foundations, basements,

beams, columns, slabs, walls and other concrete structures. Injection of
epoxies under pressure may be used to bond the cracks having greater
than or equal to 0.05mm opening. This method is not applicable if the
crack is active, the cracks are large in number, or when the water leakage
can not be controlled. If the cause of the cracking has not been corrected,
it will reoccur near the original crack. Extreme caution must be exercised
when injecting cracks that are not visible on all surfaces.
Pic. (36): Epoxy injection for Concrete Crack Repair in basement wall
Epoxy injection is commonly used to restore the pre-cracking condition

of the member without increasing its strength. The epoxy tensile bond to
the concrete substrate is stronger than the concretes tensile strength.
Future cracking may occur at the same load as that of the original
353
uncracked member but at different locations. Strengthening is provided

by installing additional reinforcement across the failure plane in
combination with the resin injection. Frequently, internal or external
reinforcement is installed in combination with the epoxy injection for
strengthening and restoration. Crack injection can be successfully
performed on cracks as narrow as 0.013 mm in width with general epoxy
injection resins. Cracks with less width can be injected with epoxy or
other polymer systems having a low viscosity of 200 cps.
Poured foundation cracks may be repaired by using low-pressure
injection of an epoxy or polyurethane foam material. For the repair of
concrete floor cracks, certain epoxies and polyurea materials exists,
suitable for such slab repairs.
Epoxies and other resins lose strength when exposed to fire or sustained
elevated temperatures and fireproofing protection is required for such
structural repairs. Epoxies that are labeled water-insensitive during curing
may develop milky white bond lines if injected into wet or damp cracks.
Verification that the epoxy is completely water-insensitive should be
made by injecting the test epoxy into pre-wetted cracks, then evaluating
the cored sample of the cured epoxy injected into the crack. Slabs and
walls restrained at their ends may develop full-depth slab cracks due to
shrinkage as a result of volume changes during concrete curing or during
extreme thermal fluctuations. The cause for the local overstress should be
either eliminated or considered in the repair. Injecting the crack at the
midrange temperature minimizes thermal stress fluctuations.
354
xi.
Replacing Damaged Structural Members
Replacing damaged beam, columns, braces and walls by supplemental

members
Pic. (37): damaged reinforced concrete column
Supplemental members are new columns, beams, braces, or infilled walls

that are installed to support damaged structural members. The location of
these members is usually below the damaged or deflected areas to
stabilize the structural framing. New members are installed to support
seriously cracked and deflected flexural members and the technique is
generally economical. The use of cross bracing, infilled walls, or other
means of providing resistance to lateral forces are required if the original
structure has lost the necessary resistance.
This repair method can be used if none of the other strengthening
techniques is adequate. Supplemental members are quickly installed and,
therefore, are suitable temporary emergency repair solutions. A new
355
column obstructs passage and new beams reduce head room. Further, the
new beam or new column is noticeable and architecturally unpleasant.
Cross bracing and infilled walls seriously disturb the interior space
utilization. Loads and stresses in the existing structure may not be
relieved unless special procedures are used. The supplemental members
may cause a redistribution of loads and forces that overstress an existing
nearby member, foundations, or both. A simply supported beam propped
by a column at midspan does not behave like a 2-span continuous beam.
The expected cracking at the top of this central support must be
investigated.
The new members are made up of timber, steel, concrete, or masonry and
are tightly shimmed, wedged, or anchored in position so that loads are
transferred to the new members. The packing force must not be so large
that lifting of repaired and adjoining members occurs beyond their
original position and no stress reversal should take place. The single span
becomes continuous and negative and positive moment regions may be
reversed. It must be decided whether the expected cracking in negative
moment region will be acceptable or not. If shear cracks are present in a
beam supported on columns, a post may be added adjoining an existing
column to improve the shear resistance and reduce the effective span of
the existing beam, which may provide economical solutions than collars.
The eccentric positioning of the post over an existing footing is to be
analyzed to determine if its size or strength is sufficient or its
strengthening is also required. In placing the post, a permanent jack,
props with shims, or both, may be required.
The jacking carried out before installing the props must effectively
redistribute the dead loads to the new posts. In some cases a full new
frame may be fitted within the already present frame. Two columns are
356
erected adjoining the existing columns towards the inside and a new
beam is constructed below the existing beam. The space between the new
beam and existing structure is shimmed or dry packed. To provide lateral
stability to the supplemental member, it may be necessary to
mechanically anchor it to the existing slab, columns, or both. To
strengthen an existing slab, extra beams may be provided resting on the
already present beams.
xii.
Repair Of Reinforcement In Concrete
The reinforcement repair techniques are different for mild steel and
prestressing steel.
1. Mild reinforcing steel
The damaged bars may either be replaced or supplemented by additional
reinforcement based on engineering judgment, the purpose of the
reinforcement and the required structural strength of the member.
a) Replacement: In case it is decided to replace the bars, splicing of
reinforcement with the remaining steel must be done. The lap length must
be according to the provision of ACI 318 and the welding (if used) must
satisfy ACI 318 and American Welding Society (AWS) D1.4 (or the
codal provisions of the respective country). Butt welding is usually
avoided due to the high degree of skill required to perform a full
penetration weld because the back side of a bar is not usually accessible.
Welding of bars larger than 25 mm may cause problems because the
embedded bars may get hot enough to expand and crack the surrounding
concrete. Mechanical connectors may also be used according to the code
requirements.
357
b) Supplemental reinforcement: This alternative is selected when the

reinforcement has lost cross section, the original reinforcement was
inadequate, or the existing member needs to be strengthened. The
allowable loss of cross-sectional area of the existing reinforcing steel and
the decision to add supplemental reinforcement must be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis and is the responsibility of the engineer. The damaged
reinforcing bar must be cleaned and extra space is to be created by
removing concrete to allow placement of the supplemental bar beside the
old bar. The length of the supplemental bar must be equal to the length of
the deteriorated segment of the existing bar plus a lap-splice length for
smaller diameter bar on each end. Reinforcing bars, having corrosion of
their original deformations, give less bond and this factor must be
considered while designing the repair of the reinforcement.
c) Coating of reinforcement: New and existing bars that have been
cleaned may be coated with epoxy, polymer cement slurry, or a zinc-rich
coating for protection against corrosion. The coating must have a
thickness less than 0.3 mm to minimize loss of bond development at the
deformations.
Pic. (38): Damaged reinforcing bars
358
2. Prestressing steel
Deterioration or damage to the strands or bars can result from impact,
design error, overload, corrosion, or fire. Fire may anneal cold-worked,
high-strength prestressing steel. The unbonded high-strength strands may
need to be detensioned before repair and retensioned after repair to
restore the initial structural integrity of the member.
a) Bonded strands: Because the prestressed strand is bonded, only the
exposed and damaged section is restressed following repairs. The repair
procedure requires replacing the damaged section with the new section of
strand connected to the existing ends of the undamaged strands. The new
strand section and the exposed lengths of the existing strand must be posttensioned to match the stress level of the bonded strand.
b) Unbonded tendons: The strands are protected against corrosion by the
sheathing, corrosion-inhibiting material (commonly grease), or both.
Corrosion of the end connections and the strand has been the primary
cause of failure of unbonded tendons. A deteriorated portion of a strand
can be exposed by excavating the concrete and cutting the sheathing.
Unbonded tendons can be tested to verify their ability to carry the design
load. This can be done by attaching a chuck and coupler to the exposed
end of the strand and performing a lift-off test. This usually requires at
least 20 mm of free strand beyond the bulkhead. If there is excessive
corrosion in the strand, failure occurs and the strand must be replaced or
spliced. Shoring of the span being repaired and adjacent spans up to
several bays away may be required before removing or retensioning
unbonded prestressed strands.
The strand is cut on both sides of the deterioration and the removed
portion of the strand is replaced with a new section. The new strand is
359
spliced to the existing strand at the location of the cuts. The repaired
strand is then prestressed. Carbon fiber or equivalent systems are
available to supplement the reinforcement in prestressed, post-tensioned,
and mild steel reinforced structures. This system is normally glued onto
the exterior surface. Unless the component being reinforced is unloaded,
the strengthening system only provides reinforcement for future loadings.
Fiber wrapping is commonly used for reinforcing columns, especially in
earthquake zones. There are systems available that recover the dried and
damaged protective barrier within the sheathing.
xiii.
Structural Defects Of Foundations At Construction Stage
Structural defects occur in foundations at construction stage. There can be

many causes for these defects. The problem areas, effects in foundation
and defects in structure due to those causes are presented here.
Table (138): Causes of structural defects occur in foundations at
construction stage
Problem Areas
Effect on foundation
Defects in structure
Insufficient depth of Movement of

foundation (mostly foundation due to
in soft clayey soil)
changes in water table
seasonally, and
movement due to trees
and vegetation.
Cracks in walls at
natural lines of structural
weakness, i.e. windows,
doors, junctions with
extension and bays.
Insufficient width of Settlement of

foundation
foundation occurs due
to insufficient
distribution of load.
Cracking of walls above

ground level.
361
Soft-spots in subsoil
Foundation settles due

to insufficient support
from sub-soil.
Cracking in walls above

affected section of
foundation.
Insufficient steps in
strip foundation on
sloping ground.
Building may slide or

creep in case there is
soil erosion.
Displacement movement
of building or section of
building. Cracking in
walls.
Trees and large

shrubs close to
building (mostly in
case of soft
shrinkable clayey
soil)
Water-content of soil
changes with season,
i.e. desiccation occurs
in absence of moisture
and heave occurs with
excess moisture.
Cracking in walls in line

of weakness in structure.
Clayey soil with

high sulphate
content.
Sulphate attack in
concrete foundation and
cement mortar below
ground level.
Movement in walls
above ground level and
expansion and
deterioration of cement
mortar and concrete
below ground level.
Inadequate support
to foundation from
land-fill.
Excessive settlement of
foundation which
continues for a long
time.
Cracking in walls,
complete collapse of
buildings.
Foundation near to
Foundation is
Cracking in walls occur
361
drains where drains

are running below
foundation and / or
drains lacking
concrete cover.
xiv.
inadequately supported. above ground level and

walls move out of plumb
due to lateral movement
of foundation.
Repairing of Plaster In Walls
Repairing of plaster is needed from time to time as the building ages. The
plaster repair work includes cutting the patch and preparing the wall
surface.
Procedures involved in repair of plaster are:
1. Setting up Scaffolding:
Scaffolding if required for the proper execution of the repair work should
be erected. Ladder can also be used in case of scaffolding if the work can
be done safely.
2. Cutting of Old Plaster:
The mortar of the patch, where the existing plaster has cracked, crumbled
or sounds hollow when gently tapped on the surface, is first removed. The
patch is be cut out to a square or rectangular shape at position where
repairing is needed. The edges of cut plaster is made under cut to provide
a neat joint.
3. Preparation of Surface:
The masonry joints which become exposed after removal of old plaster is
raked out to a minimum depth of 10 mm in the case of brick work and 20
362
mm in the case of stone work. The raking is carried out uniformly with a
raking tool, and loose mortar is dusted off. The surface is then thoroughly
washed with water, and kept wet till plastering is commenced.
In case of concrete surfaces, the old plaster is thoroughly scrubbed with
wire brushes after the plaster had been cut out and pock marked the
surface is roughened by wire brushing and all the resulting dust and loose
particles cleaned off. The surface is washed and cleaned and kept wet till
plastering is commenced.
Pic. (39): damaged plastering in wall

4. Application of Plaster:
Mortar of specific mix such as CM 1:4 or CM 1:6 with the good quality
plaster sand is used. After the plaster has been applied to the surface,
finishing of plaster is done to match with the old surrounding plaster. All
dismantled mortar & rubbish etc.
5. Protective Measure:
Doors, windows, floors, articles of furniture etc. and such other parts of
the building should be protected from being splashed by mortar.
363
6. Curing of plaster:
Curing of plaster is necessary to prevent cracking. It should be done for at
least 3 days at regular interval.
7. Finishing of plaster:
After the plaster is thoroughly cured and dried the surface is then painted
with the colour of the surrounding area.
xv.
Epoxy Coating Of Steel Reinforcement
It is important to use epoxy coated rebar to protect steel from corrosion.

Using certain types of epoxies yielded positive results, especially in steel
exposed to seawater while evaluating the use of epoxy to coat steel
reinforcements exposed to chloride attack.
Pic.(40): steel reinforcing protected with epoxy
Epoxies have been used in painting reinforced steel for bridges and
offshore structures since 1970. Some shortcomings have been found
using this method. Precautions must be taken during the manufacturing
364
and operation of painting the steel, such as avoiding the absence of any
friction between the bars, which would affect the result of the erosion of
the coating layer due to friction. Also, it is difficult to use methods for
measuring the corrosion rate such as polarization or half-cell, so it is not
easy to predict the steel corrosion performance or measure the corrosion
rate. Painting steel-reinforced bars has been used extensively in the
United States and Canada for 25 years. The coated steel bar must follow
ASTM A 775M/77M-93, which sets allowable limits as the following:
Coating thickness should be in the range of 130300 mm.
Bending of the coated bar around a standard mandrel should not
lead to formation of cracks in the epoxy coating.
The number of pinhole defects should not be more than six per
meter.
The damage area on the bar should not exceed 2%.
These deficiencies cited by the code are the result of operation,
transportation, and storage. There are some precautions that must be
taken in these phases to avoid cracks in the paint.
Painting steel reinforcement bars will reduce the bond between the
concrete and steel; therefore, it is necessary to increase the development
length of steel bars to overcome this reduction in bond strength.
According to American Concrete Institute (ACI) code (ACI Committee
318 -1988), the increase of the development length is from about 20
50%. The American code stipulates that, in the case of painting, the
development length of steel bars must be increased by 50% when the
concrete cover is less than three times the steel bar diameter or the
distance between the steel bars is less than six times the bar diameter; in
other circumstances, the development length should be increased by 20%.
365
Painting the mild, low tensile steel at full bond strength is prohibited due
to friction; when it is painted with coating, all the bond strength will be
lost, so it is important to avoid coating the smooth bars. Care must also be
taken not to increase the thickness of the paint coating to more than 300
?m(micrometer). Some researchers have stated that when painting with a
thickness of 350 mm was used for the main steel reinforcement in
concrete slab, testing found too many cracks, which led to separation
between steel bars and concrete.
xvi.
Repairing of Off-Centre Footings (Fixes for Misplaced

Footings)
It is sometime hard to position footings in the trench, so contractors

often see walls that are not in the center of the footing (Pic. 41). The
foundation wall has to be located correctly to support the house, of
course, so it has been placed off-center on the footing.
Pic.(41): This incorrectly placed footing caused the foundation wall to be

off-center.
366
If the soil is very strong, this may not lead to problems. If the footing is
on a weaker soil it is recommended that it is fixed.
In good bearing soil, it is not the matter of much concern about this
foundation for the loads involved in a simple wood frame house. The full
width of the footing is not needed to support the loads; wall can be
constructed right on the edge of the footing and still have enough support.
However, if it goes over the edge and have the wall sticking out past the
footing on the side or on the end, then rotational force is generated which
the footing is not designed to handle. In that case, an engineer has to get
involved. If soils are relatively soft, the risk is even greater.
Figure (65): In strong soils, a mistake in footing layout can be corrected

by placing gravel to support the wall (top). In weaker soils, casting an
augmented footing alongside the existing footing is recommended
367
(above), connected by dowels epoxied into the side of the existing

footing. Be sure to fill any notches in the footing, and cut off any existing
steel dowels that will miss the wall.
In soils with high bearing capacity greater than about 4,000 psf,
excavating next to the footing and under it and placing compacted
large gravel into the space is suggested. That should be adequate to
support the wall.
In weaker soils, the footing itself has to be augmented with steel
and concrete. Excavation has to be done as before, but instead of
filling it with gravel, drilling into the side of the footing has to be
done and epoxy steel dowels into it, and then concrete is placed to
extend the footing out to the proper width.
xvii.
Surface Treatments For Roof & Walls
Surface treatments include any material applied to either horizontal or

vertical surfaces of concrete to provide protection. The objective is to
limit corrosion by reducing the existing moisture level in the concrete and
preventing further ingress of moisture and chlorides. All the materials in
contact with each other must be compatible to avoid bond failures of the
surface treatment materials with the underlying substrate. Appropriate
surface preparation is a must for success of surface treatments.The
surface treatments must be applied to a clean, dry, and sound substrate at
moderate temperature and humidity conditions in a well-ventilated space.
A relatively smooth surface is needed for liquid-applied membranes. All
concrete repairs are completed and allowed to cure before applying most
of the surface treatments. The curing time is usually 28 days but varies
with the repair material.
368
Details of expansion and control joints, door and window openings,

drains, and curbs must be reviewed and installed properly.
Pic.(42): Surface treatments to limit corrosion by reducing the existing

moisture level in the concrete.
Surface treatment classification: The surface treatment can be by using

penetrating sealers, surface applied corrosion inhibitors, surface sealers,
high-build coating, membranes, overlays, and joint sealants.
1. Penetrating sealers
Penetrating sealers are materials that are generally absorbed within the
repaired concrete and the depth of penetration varies by the product, the
size of the sealer molecule and the size of the pore structure in the
concrete. Deep penetration of sealers is usually not an important factor
although it may be desirable for abrasion resistance of surfaces. These
sealers are effective for protection in two ways; as water repellents and as
surface hardeners. Penetrants do not have crack-bridging capabilities, but
the hydrophobic properties imparted by some of these products may
reduce the intrusion of moisture into narrow cracks. The appearance of
concrete surface is usually not affected by applying these sealers, only
369
slight change in color may take place. Such sealers include boiled linseed
oil,
silanes,
siloxanes,
certain
epoxies,
magnesium
and
zinc
fluorosilicates, and high molecular-weight methacrylates. The sealants do

not usually hide the surface flaws.
These products may be applied by roller, squeegee, or spray to the
concrete substrate and proper surface preparation is important for
successful application. UV, wear, and abrasion resistance are generally
good when compared with coatings or membrane systems. Penetrating
sealers do not bridge new or existing cracks. Some of these products are
solvent-based (that can cause air-pollution) and others are water-based.
2. Surface-applied corrosion inhibitors
Surface-applied corrosion inhibitors are designed to reduce the rate of
corrosion. The effectiveness and life expectancy of these materials varies
with the properties of the concrete, site conditions and type of inhibitor
material.
3. Surface sealers
Sealers and paints are applied on the surface of concrete where it adheres.
The finished thickness may be 0.03 to 0.25 mm. Pigmented or naturally
colored paints are used according to the requirements, while transparent
paints result in a wet or glossy appearance. Surface sealers do not have
significant crack-bridging capabilities. The hydrophobic nature of some
of these products may reduce the movement of moisture into narrow
cracks and some of these products may fill dormant cracks, reducing the
penetration of moisture through those cracks.
371
Epoxies, polyurethanes, HMWM (high molecular weight methacrylate),

siloxanes, silanes, moisture-cured urethanes, and acrylic resins are
included in this category. Certain paints, whether oil-based or latex-based
(such as styrenebutadiene, polyvinyl acetate, acrylic or blends of these
with other polymers dispersed in water), can also be included if the
resulting thickness of layer is less than 0.25 mm.
These materials have the capability to reduce the intrusion of water,
chlorides, and mild chemicals. They also may or may not permit the
transmission of water vapor. The materials may be applied with brush,
roller, sponge, or spray. Surface sealers reduce skid resistance and they
do not bridge moving cracks. However, these are effective in filling (not
bridging) small, nonmoving cracks. These products are affected by UV
exposure and wear under surface abrasion. Some of these products
depend on solvents to work and may have problems with environmental
quality.
4. High-build coatings
High-build coatings are materials with a dry thickness between 0.25 mm
and 0.75 mm applied to the surface of the concrete. High-build coatings
alter the appearance of the surface and may be pigmented. The base
polymers of such products include acrylics, alkyds, styrene butadiene
copolymers, vinyl esters, chlorinated rubbers, urethanes, silicones,
polyesters, polyurethanes, polyurea, and epoxies. These products are
generally used for decorative or protective barrier systems but some
products may be suitable for use against rain, salts, and mild chemicals.
These products may be applied with brush, roller, sponge, or spray. For
exterior environments, the coating must be resistant to oxidation and UV
and infrared radiation exposure. On floors, resistance to abrasion and
371
punctures and resistance to mild chemicals (salts, grease and oil, and
detergents) are also important. The coating material must be durable and
the bond between the coating and concrete substrate must be strong.
Epoxy resins are commonly used repair materials that generally have
good bonding and durability characteristics and can be mixed with fine
aggregates to improve abrasion and skid resistance. Some high-build
coatings result in a very slippery surface when wet and may not be
suitable for pedestrian or vehicular traffic. Non-elastomeric high-build
coatings generally do not bridge moving cracks, but are usually effective
in filling small, nonmoving cracks. These products have better wear
characteristics than thinner systems. A coating intended to reduce
reinforcement corrosion in repair work may also be required to
waterproof the structure, protect against chemical attack, or improve the
appearance. Breathability is often an important factor when selecting a
protection material on exterior walls and slabs-on-ground. Some of these
products are solvent-based and can have pollution problems.
5. Membranes
Membrane systems are treatments with thicknesses between 0.7 mm and
6 mm applied to the surface of the concrete, significantly changing the
appearance of the concrete surface. They may be bonded, partially
bonded, or unbonded to the concrete surface. Elastomeric membrane
systems generally have sufficient thickness and flexibility to bridge
narrow, nonmoving cracks of various widths.
Some systems require that cracks wider than 0.25 to 0.375 mm should be
located and sealed before application of the membrane. Elastomeric
membranes are usually gray or black, but some manufacturers offer
several other colors.
372
Chemically these materials consist of urethanes, acrylics, epoxies,

neoprenes, cement, polymer concrete, and asphaltic products. The
membranes are generally used as protective, waterproofing, wearing
course for traffic and damp-proofing systems.
Liquid forms of these products may be applied by brush, sponge, roller,
trowel, or spray. Preformed sheets are sealed at the edges to form a
continuous waterproofing membrane. Most of these membranes are
resistant to water absorption. These bridge small (less than 0.25 mm)
moving or nonmoving cracks. Membranes with a rigid urethane mortar or
epoxy-mortar top coat offer reasonable skid and abrasion resistance under
traffic. Standardized tests must be conducted for permeability, elongation,
tensile strength, tear strength, adhesion, modulus of elasticity, abrasion
resistance, low temperature flexibility, and water vapor transmission.
6. Overlays
Overlays are depositions of 6 mm or greater in thickness that can be
bonded, partially bonded, or unbonded to the surface of the concrete. The
details of the overlay materials and the placing methods are given earlier.
The materials for the overlays may be Portland cement concrete, latex
modified concrete, polymer concrete and silica-fume concrete, as
described earlier.
7. Joint sealants
Protection systems of joints include the sealing of cracks, contraction
(control) joints, expansion joints, and construction joints. Joint sealants in
concrete minimize the intrusion of liquids, solids, or gases, and protect
the concrete against damage. Sealing of various types of joints is
discussed below:
373
a) Cracks: Cracks are produced in concrete due to shrinkage, thermal

changes, structural-related stresses, and long-term strain shortening.
Before selecting a sealant, the reason for the cracking must be determined
and moving cracks must be identified. In some cases, structural bonding
of a crack may be required, whereas in other situations, restraint across
the crack is to be avoided.
b) Contraction (control) joints: Contraction joints are intentional gaps /
discontinuities provided to control crack locations to accommodate the
contraction of concrete. The necessary plane of weakness may be formed
by reducing the concrete cross section by tooling or saw cutting a joint,
usually within 24 h. It must be sealed in such a way that it must allow
contraction to occur.
Pic. (43): Cracks in concrete due to thermal changes

c) Expansion (isolation) joints: Expansion joints are made by providing a
space over the entire cross section between abutting structural units and
are used to prevent crushing and distortion of abutting concrete structural
units due to the transmission of compressive forces that may be
developed by expansion, applied loads, or differential movements arising
from the configuration of the structure or its settlement.
374
Pic. (44): joint treatement to prevent crushing and distortion of concrete

d) Construction joints: Construction joints are formed by interruptions in
the placement of concrete or due to the positioning of precast units.
Locations are usually predetermined so as to limit the work that can be
done at one time to a convenient size. They may be required to function
later as expansion or contraction joints, or they may be required to be
firmly bonded together so as to maintain complete structural integrity.
Construction joints may run horizontally or vertically depending on the
placing sequence prescribed by the design of the structure.
Pic. (45): Injection of joints with flexible material

375
e) Sealing methods: Methods to seal joints include injection techniques,

routing and caulking, bonding, installing pre-molded seals, or installing
appropriate surface protection systems (such as elastomeric membranes).
xviii.
Injection Grouting /Grouting From Surface
Injection grouting is usually carried out from the surface and is the
common method for filling cracks, open joints, and interior voids with a
material that cures in place to produce the desired results. Besides cement
grout, polymer-cement slurry, epoxy, urethane, and high-molecularweight methacrylate (HMWM) may be used as grouting material.
Grouting can strengthen a structure and can prevent water movement.
Proper grouting material is to be selected for a particular project to
achieve the desired objectives, while cores are tested to ensure quality
control.
Pic.(46): Interior voids in concrete

Short entry holes (called ports) are drilled into the opening having a
minimum diameter of 25 mm and a minimum depth of 50 mm. These
holes are drilled from face of the concrete at spacing of 150 mm c/c for
376
finer cracks to 300 mm c/c for others (to be used as entry and venting
terminals). The spacing of ports is usually kept greater than the desired
depth of grout penetration, but it may be adjusted based on judgment and
requirements for a particular project. The crack / opening surfaces
between ports are sealed by applying epoxy, polyester, strippable plastic
surface sealer (for low injection pressures) or cementitious seals (if
surface appearance is important) to the surface of the crack. Time
required for hardening of seal depends upon the type of material used. To
stiffen the surface seal, the cracks are usually routed 6 mm in width and
13 mm in depth.
Sometimes, the crack can be cut out to a depth of 13 mm and width of
about 20 mm in a V-shape, which is then filled with an epoxy to get a
flush surface. When the ports are drilled after sealing the openings and
the grout pressure is up to 350 kPa, a hand-held, cone-shaped fitting on
the grout hose is sufficient. If cracks pass through the structure (such as a
wall) the surface seals and ports are applied on both sides. Openings may
be sealed by plugging with cloth or fabric that allows passing of water or
air but retaining of solids. Paper and other materials that remain plastic
are not suitable for this purpose. For larger grout pressures, short pipe
nipples are connected in to the holes to obtain grout hose connections.
The method of installing entry and vent ports in case of V-grooving of the
cracks is to drill holes 20 mm in diameter and 13 to 25 mm deep below
the groove at the required spacing. A pipe nipple or tire valve stem is
usually bonded with an epoxy adhesive. The method commonly used in
case of rectangular grooves is to use a flush fitting has an opening at the
top for the adhesive to enter and a flange at the bottom that is bonded to
the concrete face. Third method is to use special gasket devices which
can be directly fitted on to the discontinuities / openings in the surface
377
seals. Before grouting, flushing is done with clean water to obtain the
following objectives:
1. To wet the interior surfaces for better grout flow and penetration.
2. To check the effectiveness of the surface sealing and port system.
3. To gather information on grout flow patterns and details of
interconnections of voids / discontinuities in the mass.
4. To familiarize the grouting crew with the situation.
Full crack cleaning may not be possible in practical situations and
judgment must be used to decide the extent of this cleaning. Grouting is
started at one end of a horizontal opening or at the bottom of a vertical
opening. It is continued until grout appears at the next port or the surface
seals of cracks bulge out, after which the grouting operation is shifted to
the next port. The port valves from where the grout is coming out are
plugged before moving to the next injection location.
Pic. (47): Injection Grouting in to concrete wall tunnels
378
Grouting is usually started with a relatively thin grout, thickened as

quickly as possible to the heaviest consistency that can be pumped
without blockage.
Extreme caution must be exercised when injecting cracks that are not
visible on all surfaces. For injection of the epoxy, hydraulic pumps, paint
pressure pots, or air-actuated caulking guns are generally used. The
pressure used for injection must be selected carefully and it must not be
excessive. For vertical or inclined cracks, the injection process must
begin by pumping epoxy at the lowest level until the epoxy level reaches
the entry port above. The lower injection port is then capped, and the
process is repeated until the crack has been completely filled. An
indication of full filling of the crack is that the pressure does not drop.
Epoxy injection requires a high degree of skill for satisfactory application
of the technique. The atmospheric temperature at the repair site is also an
important consideration.
Only that quantity of epoxy is mixed which can be used before gelling of
the material, otherwise pressure injection becomes considerably difficult.
During the batch mixing process, the components of the epoxy are mixed
in a fixed quantity using a mechanical stirrer, such as a paint mixing
paddle. In the more advanced continuous mixing system, the two liquid
adhesive components are passed through an automatic mixing head after
the pumping just before leaving the gun.
This system allows the use of fast setting adhesives that have a short
working life. After the injected epoxy has cured, the projected part of
surface seal is removed by grinding or other appropriate means.
For massive structures, the procedure consists of drilling a series of holes,
20 to 100-mm diameter, at a spacing of 1.5 m along the crack. In a
379
recently developed method, a bag is wrapped all along the member and
the liquid adhesive is introduced at the bottom and is sucked by a vacuum
pump at the top, or epoxy is injected in the cracks from one side and
pulled from the other side.
381
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REFERENCES
1. Normann, J. M., Houghtalen, R. J., and Johnston, W. J. Hydraulic
Design of Highway Culverts, Federal Highway Administration
Hydraulic Design Series No. 5 (HDS-5),Report Number FHWAIP-85-15, McLean, VA, September 1985.
2. Federal Highway Administration, HY-8 , HDS-5 Appendix .Chart
Calculator, www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/software.
3. Graziano, F., Stein, S., Umbrell, Ed., and Martin, B. South Dakota
Culvert
Inlet
Design
Coefficients,
Federal
Highway
Administration, Report Number FHWA-RD-01-076,McLean,

VA, June 2001.
4. French, J. L. Hydraulics of Short Pipes, Hydraulic Characteristics
of Commonly Used Pipe Entrances, First Progress Report,
National Bureau of Standards, NBS Report Number 4444,
Washington, DC, December 1955.
5. French, J. L. Hydraulics of Culverts, Second Progress Report,
Pressure and Resistance Characteristics of a Model Pipe Culvert,
National
Bureau
of
Standards,
NBS
Report
Number
4911,Washington, DC, October 1956.

6. French, J. L. Hydraulics of Culverts, Third Progress Report,
Effects of Approach Channel Characteristics on Model Pipe
Culvert Operation, National Bureau of Standards, NBS Report
Number 5306,Washington, DC, June 1957.
7. French, J. L. Hydraulics of Improved Inlet Structures for Pipe
Culverts, Fourth Progress Report, Pressure and Resistance
Characteristics of a Model Pipe Culvert, National Bureau of
398
Standards, NBS Report Number 7178, Washington, DC, August

1961.
8. French, J. L. Hydraulics of Culverts, Fifth Progress Report, Nonenlarged Box Culvert Inlets, National Bureau of Standards, NBS
Report Number 9327, Washington, DC, June 1966.
9. French, J. L. Hydraulics of Culverts, Sixth Progress Report,
Tapered Box Culvert Inlets,National Bureau of Standards, NBS
Report Number 9355, Washington, DC, June 1966.
10.French, J. L., and Bossy, H. G. Hydraulics of Culverts, Seventh
Progress Report, Tapered Box Inlets with Fall Concentration in
the Inlet Structure, National Bureau of Standards, NBS Report
Number 9528, Washington, DC, July 1967.
11.Jones, J. S., Mistichelli, M. P., and Kilgore, R. T. Long Span and
Special Shape Culverts, Federal Highway Administration,
unpublished laboratory report, McLean, VA, June1991.
12.Graziano, F., Stein, S., Umbrell, E., and Martin, B. Hydraulics of
Iowa DOT Slope-Tapered Pipe Culverts, Federal Highway
Administration, Report FHWA-RD-01-077,McLean,VA, June
2001.
13. Hollaway and Leeming, "Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Structures", 1st Edition. 5 March 1999.
14. KRIS BROSENS. Research engineer, Department of Civil
Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Belgium." Strengthening of Concrete
Structures With Externally Bonded". 3 October 2010.
15. R T L Allen, S.C. Edwards, D.N. Shaw. "Repair of Concrete
Structures book". Reprinted in 1994 . Spon press.
16.JP Broomfield. 'Assessing Corrosion Damage on Reinforced
Concrete Structures' in Corrosion and Corrosion Protection of
399
Steel in Concrete, Edited by R Narayan Swamy, Sheffield

Academic Press, 1994.
411

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