mcca_fm.

qxd

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page xvii

P R E FA C E

This sixth edition of the text on the unit operations of chemical engineering has
been extensively revised and updated, with much new material and considerable
condensation of some sections. Its basic structure and general level of treatment,
however, remain unchanged. It is an introductory text, written for undergraduate
students in their junior or senior years who have completed the usual courses in
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and an introduction to chemical engineering. An
elementary knowledge of material and energy balances and of thermodynamic principles is assumed.
Separate chapters are devoted to each of the principal unit operations, grouped
into four sections: fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer and equilibrium
stages, and operations involving particulate solids. One-semester or one-quarter
courses may be based on any of these sections or combinations of them. The order
of the first 16 chapters has not been changed; later ones, dealing with mass transfer
and operations involving solids, have been rearranged in a more logical order.
Nearly all equations have been written for SI units, and the Newtons law conversion factor gc has been eliminated except in the few instances where it must be
included. Symbols for dimensionless groups have been changed to Re for NRe, for
example, Pr for NPr, and so forth. Many new examples and problems have been
added, some reflecting the importance of biochemical engineering processes. Material on handling, mixing, and grinding particulate solids has been greatly condensed
and dealt with in a single chapter. The number of appendixes is reduced from 22
to 19.
Derivations of the differential equations for continuity and momentum balances, leading to the Navier-Stokes equation, have been added, as well as the differential forms of Fouriers law and Ficks law, emphasizing the analogies among
momentum, heat, and mass transfer. The chapter on adsorption has been expanded
to include new material on chromatography and ion exchange, and renamed Fixedbed Separations. Other new material has been added on viscoelastic fluids, laminar
flow in annuli, drag coefficients, affinity laws for pumps, high-efficiency agitators
and motionless mixers, plate-type heat exchangers, boiling by submerged tube bundles, cooling towers, aqueous phase extraction, cross-flow filtration, and many
other topics.
Many of the problems at the ends of the chapters are new or revised. Most are
expressed in SI units. Nearly all the problems can be solved with the aid of a pocket
calculator; for a few, a computer solution is preferable.
McGraw-Hill and the authors thank Dr. N. T. Obot for his many suggestions regarding fluid mechanics and heat transfer, and Professor Charles H. Gooding of
Clemson University for his detailed and helpful review of the manuscript.
Julian C. Smith
Peter Harriott
xvii

iii

mcca_fm.qxd

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page vii

CONTENTS

Preface

SECTION I

xvii

Introduction
Definitions and Principles

Unit Operations
Unit Systems

4
4

Physical Quantities / SI Units / CGS Units / Gas Constant /

FPS Engineering Units / Conversion of Units / Units and Equations

Dimensional Analysis
Basic Concepts

16
20

Equations of State of Gases

Symbols
Problems
References

SECTION II

24
25
27

Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Statics and Its Applications

31

Hydrostatic Equilibrium

32

Applications of Fluid Statics

Symbols
Problems
References

34

Fluid Flow Phenomena

44

Laminar Flow, Shear Rate, and Shear Stress

Rheological Properties of Fluids
Turbulence
Boundary Layers
Symbols
Problems
References

45

41
42
43

46
51
59
63
64
65
vii

mcca_fm.qxd

viii

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page viii

CONTENTS

Basic Equations of Fluid Flow

67

Mass Balance in a Flowing Fluid; Continuity

Differential Momentum Balance; Equations of Motion
Macroscopic Momentum Balances
Mechanical Energy Equation
Symbols
Problems
References

67

Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels

94

Shear Stress and Skin Friction in Pipes

Laminar Flow in Pipes and Channels
Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Channels
Friction from Changes in Velocity or Direction
Symbols
Problems
References

94

72
77
82
90
92
93

97
104
117
123
124
127

Flow of Compressible Fluids

128

Definitions and Basic Equations

Processes of Compressible Flow
Isentropic Flow through Nozzles
Adiabatic Friction Flow
Isothermal Friction Flow
Symbols
Problems
References

128

Flow Past Immersed Bodies

150

Drag and Drag Coefficients

Flow through Beds of Solids
Motion of Particles through Fluids
Fluidization
Symbols
Problems
References

150

Transportation and Metering of Fluids

187

Pipe, Fittings, and Valves

Pumps

187

133
134
140
145
147
148
149

157
162
171
182
183
185

194

mcca_fm.qxd

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page ix

CONTENTS

ix

Positive-Displacement Pumps / Centrifugal Pumps

Fans, Blowers, and Compressors

209

Fans / Blowers and Compressors / Comparison of Devices

for Moving Fluids

Measurement of Flowing Fluids

219

Full-Bore Meters / Insertion Meters

SECTION III

10

11

Symbols
Problems
References

234

Agitation and Mixing of Liquids

238

Agitated Vessels
Blending and Mixing
Suspension of Solid Particles
Dispersion Operations
Agitator Selection and Scaleup
Symbols
Problems
References

239

236
237

259
265
270
278
281
282
284

Heat Transfer and Its Applications

Heat Transfer by Conduction

291

Basic Law of Conduction

Steady-State Conduction
Unsteady-State Conduction
Symbols

291

Problems
References

312

Principles of Heat Flow in Fluids

315

Typical Heat-Exchange Equipment

Energy Balances
Heat Flux and Heat-Transfer Coefficients

315

293
300
311
314

319
321

Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient / Individual

Heat-Transfer Coefficients

Symbols
Problems
References

333
334
335

mcca_fm.qxd

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page x

CONTENTS

12

Heat Transfer to Fluids Without Phase Change

336

Boundary Layers
Heat Transfer by Forced Convection in Laminar Flow
Heat Transfer by Forced Convection in Turbulent Flow

336
339
346

Transfer by Turbulent Eddies and Analogy Between Transfer

of Momentum and Heat

Heat Transfer in Transition Region Between Laminar

and Turbulent Flow
Heat Transfer to Liquid Metals
Heating and Cooling of Fluids in Forced Convection
Outside Tubes
Natural Convection
Symbols
Problems
References

13

14

15

358
360
362
365
371
373
375

Heat Transfer to Fluids with Phase Change

377

Heat Transfer from Condensing Vapors

Heat Transfer to Boiling Liquids
Symbols
Problems
References

377

Radiation Heat Transfer

406

Emission of Radiation
Absorption of Radiation by Opaque Solids
Radiation Between Surfaces

407

Radiation to Semitransparent Materials

Combined Heat Transfer by Conduction-Convection
and Radiation
Symbols
Problems
References

423

Heat-Exchange Equipment

431

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

Plate-Type Exchangers
Extended-Surface Equipment
Scraped-Surface Exchangers

432

389
401
403
404

410
413

425
427
428
430

446
449
455

mcca_fm.qxd

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page xi

CONTENTS

16

xi

Condensers and Vaporizers

Heat Transfer in Agitated Vessels
Heat Transfer in Packed Beds
Symbols
Problems
References

456

Evaporation

473

Types of Evaporators

475

Performance of Tubular Evaporators

479

459
463
467
469
471

Evaporator Capacity / Evaporator Economy

Vapor Recompression
Symbols
Problems
References
SECTION IV

17

498
500
500
502

Mass Transfer and Its Applications

Principles of Diffusion and Mass Transfer
Between Phases
Theory of Diffusion
Prediction of Diffusivities
Mass-Transfer Theories

511
512
518
523

Film Theory / Boundary Layer Theory / Penetration Theory /

Two-Film Theory

Mass-Transfer Coefficients

530

Experimental Measurements / Coefficients for Mass Transfer through

Known Areas

18

Symbols
Problems
References

540

Gas Absorption

546

Packings and Packed Tower Design

Principles of Absorption
Absorption from Rich Gases
Mass-Transfer Correlations

546

542
544

557
574
580

Absorption in Plate Columns

Absorption with Chemical Reaction

588

mcca_fm.qxd

xii

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page xii

CONTENTS

19

Symbols
Problems
References

590

Humidification Operations

596

Definitions
Humidity Chart
Wet-Bulb Temperature
Cooling Towers

596

592
594

600
604
608

Theory of Counterflow Cooling Towers

20

Symbols
Problems
References

618

Equilibrium-Stage Operations

622

Equipment for Stage Contacts

Principles of Stage Processes

622

619
621

625

Equilibrium-Stage Calculations for Multicomponent Systems

21

Symbols
Problems
References

639

Distillation

641

Flash Distillation
Continuous Distillation with Reflux

641

639
640

645

Material Balances in Plate Columns / Number of Ideal Plates;

McCabeThiele Method

Enthalpy Balances
Design of Sieve-Plate Columns
Plate Efficiencies

672
681
689

Theory of Plate Efficiency

22

Distillation in Packed Columns

Batch Distillation
Symbols
Problems
References

699

Introduction to Multicomponent Distillation

713

Phase Equilibria in Multicomponent Distillation

Flash Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures

713

700
704
706
711

717

mcca_fm.qxd

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page xiii

CONTENTS

23

xiii

Fractionation of Multicomponent Mixtures

Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation
Symbols
Problems
References

718

Leaching and Extraction

739

Leaching

739

734
735
736
738

Leaching Equipment / Principles of Continuous

Countercurrent Leaching

Liquid Extraction

747

Extraction Equipment / Principles of Extraction

Special Extraction Techniques

766

Supercritical Fluid Extraction

24

Symbols
Problems
References

768

Drying of Solids

773

Principles of Drying

775

769
772

Phase Equilibria

Cross-Circulation Drying
Through-Circulation Drying

782
790

Drying of Suspended Particles

Freeze-Drying
Drying Equipment

793
794

Dryers for Solids and Pastes / Dryers for Solutions and Slurries /
Selection of Drying Equipment

25

Symbols
Problems
References

807

Fixed-Bed Separations

812

Adsorption
Adsorption Equipment

812

809
810

813

Equilibria; Adsorption Isotherms / Principles of Adsorption / Basic

Equations for Adsorption / Solutions to Mass-Transfer Equations /
Adsorber Design / Continuous Operation

Ion Exchange
Equilibria / Mass-Transfer Rates / Operation of Ion Exchangers

839

mcca_fm.qxd

xiv

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page xiv

CONTENTS

26

Chromatography
Symbols
Problems
References

845

Membrane Separation Processes

857

Separation of Gases
Separation of Liquids

857

852
854
855

878

Dialysis / Membranes for Liquid-Liquid Extraction /

Pervaporation / Reverse Osmosis

27

Symbols
Problems
References

896

Crystallization

902

Crystal Geometry
Equilibria and Yields
Nucleation
Crystal Growth
Crystallization Equipment
Crystallizer Design: Crystal Size Distribution

903

898
900

904
911
918
921
927

MSMPR Crystallizer

Crystallization from Melts

Symbols
Problems
References

SECTION V

28

936
937
939
941

Operations Involving Particulate Solids

Properties and Handling of Particulate Solids

945

Characterization of Solid Particles

Properties of Masses of Particles

945
951

Storage and Conveying of Solids

Mixing of Solids

955

Mixers for Noncohesive Solids / Mixers for Cohesive Solids

Size Reduction
Computer Simulation of Milling Operations / Equipment
for Size Reduction

965

mcca_fm.qxd

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page xv

CONTENTS

29

xv

Ultrafine Grinders
Symbols
Problems
References

977

Mechanical Separations

986

Screening

986

981
983
984

Screening Equipment

Filtration; General Considerations

991

Cake Filters

993

Centrifugal Filters / Filter Media / Filter Aids /

Principles of Cake Filtration

Clarifying Filters

1018

Liquid Clarification / Gas Cleaning / Principles of Clarification

Crossflow Filtration; Membrane Filters

1021

Type of Membranes / Permeate Flux for Ultrafiltration /

Concentration Polarization / Microfiltration

Gravity Sedimentation Processes

Centrifugal Sedimentation Processes
Symbols
Problems
References
Appendix 1 Conversion Factors and Constants of Nature
Appendix 2 Dimensionless Groups
Appendix 3 Dimensions, Capacities, and Weights
of Standard Steel Pipe
Appendix 4 Condenser and Heat-Exchanger Tube Data

1035

Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
Appendix 9
Appendix 10
Appendix 11

1070

Tyler Standard Screen Scale

Properties of Liquid Water
Properties of Saturated Steam and Water
Viscosities of Gases
Viscosities of Liquids
Thermal Conductivities of Metals
Thermal Conductivities of Various Solids and
Insulating Materials
Appendix 12 Thermal Conductivities of Gases and Vapors
Appendix 13 Thermal Conductivities of Liquids Other
Than Water
Appendix 14 Specific Heats of Gases

1045
1056
1058
1061
1063
1066
1068
1069
1071
1072
1074
1076
1079
1080
1082
1083
1084

mcca_fm.qxd

xvi

8/3/00

8:42 AM

Page xvi

CONTENTS

Appendix 15
Appendix 16
Appendix 17
Appendix 18

Specific Heats of Liquids

Prandtl Numbers for Gases at 1 atm and 100C
Prandtl Numbers for Liquids
Diffusivities and Schmidt Numbers for Gases
in Air at 0C and 1 atm
Appendix 19 Collision Integral and Lennard-Jones
Force Constants

1085

Index

1091

1086
1087
1088
1089

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

374

375

376

377

378

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388