Bulk 

Deformation Process
Forging
Dr Mirza Jahanzaib
 Forging
g g
• Forging is the working of metal into a useful
shape by hammering or pressing.
• Most forging operations are carried out hot,
g g p ,
although certain metals may be cold‐forged.
 Forging Operations
Edging is used to shape the ends of the bars and to gather
metal. The metal flow is confined in the horizontal direction
but it is free to flow laterally to fill the die.

Drawing is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of

the work piece with concurrent increase in length.
 Piercingg and p
punching
g are used to pproduce holes in metals.

Fullering
F ll i is i usedd tot reduce
d the
th cross-sectional
ti l area off a portion
ti
of the stock. The metal flow is outward and away from the centre
of the fuller. i.e., forging of connecting rod for an internal
combustion engine
Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller diameter (using
concave dies).
di )
•Swaging is a special type of forging in which metal is formed
by a succession of rapid hammer blows
• Swaging provides a reduced round cross section suitable for
tapping,
pp g, threading,
g, upsetting
p g or other subsequent
q formingg and
machining operations.
 Classifications of Forging Processes

• By equipment:
By equipment:
1) Forging hammer or drop hammer
2)
2) Press forging
f i
• By process:
1) Open ‐ die forging
2) Closed ‐ die forging
2) Closed  die forging
3) Impression‐ die forging
By equipment
By process
Open ‐ die 

Closed ‐ die

Impression‐ die
 1. Open‐die forging
• Open‐die forging is carried out between flat dies or 
d f d b fl d
dies of very simple shape.
• The process is used for mostly large objects or when 
Th i df tl l bj t h
the number of parts produced is small.
• Open‐die forging is often used to preform the work 
Open die forging is often used to preform the work
piece for closed‐die forging.
 2. Closed‐die forging (or impression‐
d f
die forging)
)
• The
The workpiece is deformed between two die 
workpiece is deformed between two die
halves which carry the impressions of the desired 
final shape.
• The workpiece is deformed under high pressure 
in a closed cavity.
• Normally used for smaller components
• The process provide precision forging with close 
The process provide precision forging with close
dimensional tolerance
• Closed dies are expensive
Closed dies are expensive
Flash is the
excess metal,
which squirts
out of the
cavity as a
thick ribbon
of metal
metal.
 Functions of flash
The flash serves two purposes:
• Acts as a ‘safety value’
‘ f l ’ for excess metal.
f l
• Builds up high pressure to ensure that the 
metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.
Process
Typical curve of forging 
load vs. stroke for
load vs. stroke for
closed‐die forging
 Grain Growth Comparison

•The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated in the 
direction of the deformation.
•The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure 
(revealed by etching). This structure gives better mechanical 
properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps) lower
properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps) lower 
across the thickness
•The work piece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore, provide 
finer grains compared to the cast dendritic structure resulting in
finer grains compared to the cast dendritic structure resulting in 
improved mechanical properties.
Forming textures
Crystallographic orientation of the grains
Castings Forgings

Cast iron structure

Cast iron structure Fibre structure in forged steels
Fibre structure in forged steels

Mainly epitaxial, Redistribution of grains
dendritic or in the working
in the working 
equiaxed grains directions
 1. Open Die
a Cold upsetting a cylinder
a. Cold upsetting a cylinder
Assumptions are:
• Metal is cold formed, platen workpiece 
M t li ld f d l t k i
interface is frictionless
• As the deformation proceeds the cylinder 
becomes shorter and the diameter increases.
true strain associated with the upsetting operation 
is

true stress required for upsetting (often called 
the flow stress in forming situations) can be
the flow stress in forming situations) can be 
calculated using the Hollomon equation as

The forming force is given by
h f f b
The material strength constant, K, and strain hardening 
g g
exponent, n, are listed for some common engineering 
materials in Table
The ideal work for deformation is given by equation

V is the volume of the cylinder, and el is the total 
true strain due to upsetting
Power is the time rate of doing work, and therefore 
equation can be used to calculate the average power 
consumed per cycle as
 b. Hot upsetting a cylinder
p g y
• If the cylinder is hot upset, then strain hardening 
effects are minimal, but strain rate effects
effects are minimal, but strain rate effects 
become important.
• Assuming the deformation to be homogeneous, 
Assuming the deformation to be homogeneous
uniaxial and frictionless,
When the deformation is homogeneous the
When the deformation is homogeneous, the 
strain rate is defined as
The true stress during hot working as a function of strain 
rate was given as
rate was given as

where C is the strain rate strength constant, and m 
is the strain rate sensitivity exponent

Deformation force is obtained

The work done can be defined as

The work done can be defined as
To obtain an estimate of the magnitude of the work 
and power, most hot forging operations can be 
d th tf i ti b
approximated as constant strain rate processes

Average power necessary to upset a cylinder is the 
Average power necessary to upset a cylinder is the
time rate of doing work,
 c. Upsetting a cylinder with friction
• Friction is almost certain to develop between the die 
and workpiece.
p
• Horizontal platen friction causes the cylinder to assume 
the barreled shape
p
• The barreling causes secondary horizontal stresses, and 
the associated redundant work increases the vertical 
stress required for deformation.
• The amount of barreling, and the consequent 
redundant work, depends upon the friction coefficient
Using the friction coefficient, the average vertical flow 
stress is estimated with the aid of Fig. 4.7, which gives a 
friction multiplying factor Qa

Fig 4.7
This factor is combined with the true stress for 
deformation (the flow stress) to give an estimate for
the actual stress required for deformation according to

The deforming force in this case is then

where Am is the mean cross‐sectional area of the 
workpiece
 Example 
A 302 stainless steel cylinder of height 12 cm and 
diameter 7 cm at room temperature is 
compressed to a height of 2 cm between large 
platens. Mineral oil is used as a lubricant 
between the cylinder and platens. 
Calculate the force necessary and stress on the 
platens.
Solution
13
1.3
 Example 
p

The 302 stainless steel cylinder of the previous 
h 302 i l l li d f h i
example is hot upset at 1000 C to a height of 2 cm 
b
by a platen moving at 2 cm/s. Graphite is used as 
l i 2 / G hi i d
the lubricant between platen and workpiece. 
C l l
Calculate the forging force necessary.
h f i f
 Solution

Increasing the forging temperature reduces the 
power required by about a factor of nearly 3
 2. Open Die 
Forging of rectangular work pieces
Forging of rectangular work pieces

• One important difference related to the stress 
state of the workpiece. If the width of the 
workpiece is considerably greater than the length 
(w > 10L in Fig. 4.8), frictional resistance along 
the width prevents deformation from taking 
place in this direction. Hence, deformation occurs 
in two dimensions only. A plane strain stress 
state exists
The average interface stress calculated according to
 Closed die 
and impression forging
d f
• The
The most difficult part of the analysis is often 
most difficult part of the analysis is often
the calculation of the strain
• Closed die and impression forging are clearly 
Closed die and impression forging are clearly
not uni‐axial deformation problems, with 
different strains applied to different parts of
different strains applied to different parts of 
the work piece, approximate average strain
Th
The actual stress estimated according to
t l t ti t d di t

Equations 4.17 and 4.18 are useful for closed die and 
impression forging operations at temperatures below 
the recrystallization temperature
However, most operations such as this are performed 
hot so that strain rate effects become important The
hot, so that strain rate effects become important. The
average strain rate can be estimated from

The average flow stress is calculated using the strain 
The average flow stress is calculated using the strain
rate of equation 4.19 from equation 3.37, and the 
actual stress estimated, utilizing Q
, g Qh from Table 4.2, ,
according to
 Conclusion
Tasks:
• What are yield criterion i.e. Tresca
y and Von 
misses?
• What do you know about energy methods in 
What do you know about energy methods in
Mechanics of Materials?
• Most software use either Tresca/Von Misses 
Most software use either Tresca/Von Misses
criterion. Why?
• How barreling in open die forging reduced?
H b li i di f i d d?
Assignments:
• Solve problems related to FORGING process