Forging

Forging
• Forging denotes a family of process to make discrete parts in
which plastic deformation take place by compressive forces
applied through various dies and tooling
 Oldest metalworking operations known, dating back too 5000 B.C
and used in making parts with a wide range of sizes and shapes
and from a variety of material.
 Simple forgings can be made with a heavy hammer and an anvil
by techniques practiced by blacksmiths for centuries.
 Typical parts, now mostly made on modern machinery and at high
production rates are : automotive engine components, [engine
crankshafts, connecting rods, gears], turbine disc, Aircraft
structural components, jet engin, turbine parts
• Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic shape
of large and small parts that are subsequently machined to final
geometry and size
• The forging process can produce parts that are in the category of
net-shape manufacturing.
 Forging
What is forging?
A compressive force is applied to the metal
with a hammer to give it the required shape

Modern Components: engine crankshafts,

connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts.
Classified by working temperature:
• Hot or warm forging – most common, high deformation, lowers the
strength but increases ductility of the forged part.
• Cold forging –advantage: increased strength due to strain hardening.
Classified by type of load:
• Forge hammer (impact) - applies an impact load.
• Forge press (press) - applies gradual pressure.
 Products of forging

Connecting rods Engine crankshafts Aircraft structural components

Products of forging

Jet engine turbine parts

Basic shape of small parts

 Forging
Forging refines the microstructure of the metal,
eliminates the hidden defects such as hair cracks
and voids, and rearranges the fibrous
macrostructure to conform with the metal flow. By
successful design of the dies, the metal flow during
the process can be employed to promote the
alignment of the fibers with the anticipated
direction of maximum stress.
 Forging
• The process begins with starting stock, usually a cast
ingot, which is heated to its plastic deformation
temperature, then upset or "kneaded" between dies to
the desired shape and size.
• During this hot forging process, the cast, coarse grain
structure is broken up and replaced by finer grains. Low-
density areas, gas porosity and microshrinkage inherent in
the cast metal are consolidated through the reduction of
the ingot, achieving structural integrity.
• Mechanical properties are therefore improved through
the elimination of the cast structure, enhanced density,
and improved homogeneity.
 Forging
• Forging also provides means for aligning the grain flow to
best obtain desired directional strengths
 Grain Flow Comparison

 Forged Bar:
Directional alignment through the forging process
has been deliberately oriented in a direction
requiring maximum strength. This yields to increase
resistance to impact and fatigue.
 Machined Bar:
Unidirectional grain flow has been cut when
changing contour. This renders the material more
liable to fatigue and more sensitive to stress
corrosion cracking.
 Cast Bar:
No grain flow or directional strength is achieved
through the casting process.
• Cold forging: is done at room temperature or near room
temperature.
• Hot forging: is done at a high temperature, which makes
metal easier to shape and less likely to fracture.
• Warm forging: is done at intermediate temperature
between room temperature and hot forging temperatures.
• Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram
to 170 metric tons.
• Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve
a finished part.
 Classification of Forging
Operations

 Cold vs. hot forging:

• Hot or warm forging – advantage: reduction in
strength and increase in ductility of work metal
• Cold forging – advantage: increased strength
due to strain hardening
 Impact vs. press forging:
• Forge hammer - applies an impact force
• Forge press - applies gradual force
 Types of Forging Operations
1. Open-die forging – work part is compressed between two
flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum
constraint

2. Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression

that is imparted to work part
• Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created

3. Flashless forging (closed die forging) - work part is

completely constrained in die
• No excess flash is created
 Types of Forging Operations

(a) Open-die forging

(b) Impression-die forging
(c) Flashless forging
 Open-Die Forging
• Compression of work part (solid cylindrical) between two flat dies
and reducing its height by compressing it, an operation that is
also known as upsetting
• Similar to compression test when workpart has cylindrical cross
section and is compressed along its axis
Under ideal condition, a solid cylinder deforms uniformly,
in a process known homogeneous deformation.
Deformation operation reduces height and increases
diameter of work. Because in plastic deformation the
volume of the cylinder remains constant, any reduction in
the height is followed by an increase in its diameter
 Open-Die Forging
 While impression or closed die forging confines the metal
in dies, open die forging is distinguished by the fact that
the metal is never completely confined in the dies. Most
open die forgings products are produced on flat dies.
However, round swaging dies and V-dies are also used
depending on the desired part configuration and its size. 
 Open-Die Forging
• Although the open die forging process is often
associated with larger, simpler-shaped parts such
as bars, blanks, rings, hollows or spindles, in fact
it can be considered the ultimate option in
"custom-designed" metal components.
• High-strength, long-life parts optimized in terms
of both mechanical properties and structural
integrity are today produced in sizes that range
from a few pounds to hundreds of tons in weight.
Open-Die Forging products
 Open-Die Forging

• The reduction in height is defined as :

* 100%

And the engineering strain is

e1 =
 Open-Die Forging with No Friction

• If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces,

then homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial
flow is uniform throughout workpart height and true
strain is given by:
ho
  ln
h

• where ho= starting height; and h = height at some point

during compression
• At h = final value hf, true strain reaches maximum value
 Open-Die Forging with No Friction

• (1) Start of process with workpiece at its original

length and diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3)
final size
 Open-Die Forging with Friction
• In cold open die forging
• Friction between work and die surfaces
constrains lateral flow of work
 This results in barreling effect
 Barreling is caused by frictional forces at the
die-workpice interface that oppose the outward
flow of the material at these interfaces (friction
prevents the top and bottom surfaces from
expanding freely)
 Open-Die Forging with Friction
• In hot open-die forging, effect is even more
pronounced due to heat transfer at die surfaces
which cools the metal and increases its resistance
to deformation
• The reason is that the material at and near the die-
specimen interfaces cools rapidly, whereas the rest of
the specimen remains relatively hot. Since the strength
of the material decreases with increasing temperature,
the upper and lower portions of the specimen show a
greater resistance to deformation than dose the center.
• A result of barreling is that the deformation throughout
the specimen becomes nonuniform or inhomogeneous
 Open-Die Forging with Friction

• For cold working operations, barreling

can be minimized by applying an
effective lubricant.
• In hot working operations, barreling can
be reduced by using heated dies or a
thermal barrier at the interfaces,
 Open-Die Forging with
Friction
• Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging, showing pronounced
barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape

Open-Die Forging

• In open-die forging, barreling occurs due to friction between

dies and part work surfaces
 Open-die Forging
1. • Fullering
2. • Edging
3. Cogging

• These operations are used to perform

the workpiece for closed die forging
 Open-die Forging
• Fullering & edging:
These operations are performed, usually on bar
stock, to distribute the material in certain regions
prior to forging.
In edging, it is gathered into a localized area,
whereas in fullering, the material is distributed
away from an area.
Thus these operations are performing techniques
to make material flow easier in die cavity.
 Open-die Forging
• Fullering
• Reducing work piece cross section to prepare for subsequent
shaping action. Dies with convex surface cavity are used.
 Open-die Forging
• Edging
• Similar to Fullering, but the dies have concave
surface cavity.
 Open-die Forging
• Cogging
• Open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces
to reduce cross-section and to increase length.
Open-Die Forging
 Various Forging equipment's
 Forging Hammers
• Apply impact load against workpart: Two types:

1. Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of a

heavy ram : hammers derive their energy from the potential
energy of the ram, which is the converted to kinetic energy; thus
hammers are energy limited. Why???
2. Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air
or steam- the ram is accelerated in the downstroke by steam or
air.
 Hammers speed are high, thus minimizing the cooling of hot
forgings and allowing the forging of complex shapes.
􀂃 Disadvantage:
• impact energy transmitted through anvil into floor of building
• Commonly used for impression-die forging
 Forging Hammers

• Diagram showing
details of a gravity
drop hammer for
impression-die
forging
• Dies are normally
made from tool steel
with high impact
strength and high
wear resistance.
 Forging Hammers

• Drop forging hammer (power drop hammer)

 Forgeability of Metals
 The forgeability of a metal may be defined as its capability to
be shaped without cracking and requiring low forces.
 Although in general the forgeability of metals increases with
increasing temperature, for certain metals there is a
maximum temperature above which some undesirable
phenomena occur, such as fast grain growth [ not wrought] or
melting of a phase.

 Impurities in the metal [Metals with insoluble inclusions tend

to be brittle and have low forgeability] or small changes in
the composition of the metal can have a significant effect on
the ductility and forgeability
 Forgeability of Metals
Two popular tests for determining the forgeability of
materials are:
1. The ‘upset test’ (where cylindrical specimens are
upset in steps until they start cracking radially)
2. The hot ‘twist test’ where a round bar is heated in
a tubular furnace then twisted. The number of
twist turns to failure is a relative measure of
forgeability.
Testing can be carried out in a range of
temperatures and strain rates to determine the best
conditions for practical forging
 Forgeability of Metals

 Based on the results of various tests and observations

made during actual forging operations, the foregability of
various metals and alloys has been determined.
 In general
1. Aluminum, magnesium, copper and their alloys; carbon
and low-alloy steels have good foregability
2. High-temperature materials such as superalloys,
tantalum, molybdenum, and tungsten and their alloys
have poor forgeability
 Forgeability of Metals
• The capability of a material to undergo deformation
without cracking
TABLE 14.3
Metal or alloy Approximate range of hot
forging temperature (°C)
Aluminum alloys 400–550
Magnesium alloys 250–350
Copper alloys 600–900
Carbon and low–alloy steels 850–1150
Martensitic stainless steels 1100–1250
Austenitic stainless steels 1100–1250
Titanium alloys 700–950
Iron-base superalloys 1050–1180
Cobalt-base superalloys 1180–1250
Tantalum alloys 1050–1350
Molybdenum alloys 1150–1350
Nickel-base superalloys 1050–1200
Tungsten alloys 1200–1300
 Forging Defects
 Thin portions of a metal forging are called ribs and webs.
 A rib is a section that runs perpendicular to the forging plane as
determined by the parting line.
 Long narrow ribs are harder to fill and require more forces,
increasing the width of a long rib will better facilitate the filling of
the rib with material during the process.
 A web is a portion of the metal forging that runs parallel to the
forging plane.
 When designing a forging die, web thickness should not be too small
or else there may be trouble completely filling the web with metal.
 Webs that are too thin may also cool faster than the rest of the
metal forging, the resulting shrinkage could cause tears or warping
of the part
 Forging Defects

 Webs - Thin section parallel

to parting line.
 Ribs - thin section
perpendicular to parting
line
 Gutter - area for containing
flash
Dies are normally made
from tool steel with high
impact strength and high
wear resistance.
 Forging Defects

• Forging Defects:
1. Surface cracking.
2. Laps formed by web buckling during forging,
web thickness [material in the web area] should be
increased to avoid this problem [Laps in a metal
forging are caused by a buckling of the part, laps
can be a result of too little material in the work
piece] .
3. Internal cracks caused by oversized billet.
 Forging Defects

 In addition to surface cracking. Several defects in forging can be

caused by the material flow patterns in the die cavity.
1. Insufficient volume of material .Material in the web of a forging
can buckle during forging and develops lap [Laps formed by
web buckling during forging, web thickness should be
increased to avoid this problem].
 Forging Defects
2. If the web is too thick, the excess material flows past
the already forged portions and develops internal cracks

 The previous two defects (1 &2) indicates the

importance of probably controlling the volume of the
blank and its flow in the cavity.
 Forging Defects
3. The die radii also can significantly affect formation of defects.
The material flows better around a large corner sides that it dose around
small radius.

As the work material fills the die cavity, the flow of metal will have to
change directions depending upon the part's geometry.
Smooth, large filleted turns will allow the metal flow to change directions
while adhering to the die's dimensions.
If corners within the metal forging are too sharp then the material may not
completely follow the path of those corners, resulting in vacancies, laps, or
cold shuts. Sharp corners will also act as stress raisers within the die cavity.
 Good forging die design should provide adequate enough fillet and corner
radius to allow for easy metal flow
 Forging Defects
3. The die radii also can significantly affect formation of
defects.
 With smaller radii, the material can thus fold over itself,
producing a lap ( cold shut : which metal does not flow
properly into the corner as a result of that small cracks
appear at the corners of the forged part).
 Cold shuts occur when metal flows of different
temperatures meet, they do not combine smoothly, a
boundary layer, (cold shut), forms at their intersection. Cold
shuts indicate that there is a problem with metal flow in the
mold as the part is being formed
 Forging Defects
Such a defect can lead to fatigue failure and
other problems during the service life of the
forged component.
So it is important to inspect the forging part
prior to being placed into service, particularly
for critical applications.
 Forging Defects
In general, defects in parts manufactured by
metal forging can be controlled first by careful
consideration of work stock volume, and by
good design of the forging die, (mold).
The main principle is to enact the right
material distributions, and the right material
flow to accomplish these distributions.
 Forging Defects
 The effect of die radii in developing defects in the forged parts
 Forging Defects
4. Another important factor is the grain-flow pattern.
 The grain flow lines may reaches a surface perpendicularly,
exposing the grain boundaries directly to environment
(knowing as end grains).
 In service, they can be attacked by the environment ( such as
salt water, acid rain, or other chemically active environments),
thus developing rough surfaces which act as stress raiser.
 End grains can be avoided:
1. by proper selection of blank orientation in the die cavity and
2. by control of material flow during forging .
 Forging Defects
• Reasons:
1. Insufficient volume of material to fill the die cavity
completely: laps will be developed.
2. If the web is too thick: internal cracks can be
developed.
3. Temperature gradients throughout the work piece
during forging (Non uniform deformation of the
material in the die cavity).
 Forging Defects can cause fatigue failures, and wear.
 Forging Defects
Examples of defects in forged
parts.
(a) Labs formed by web
buckling during forging;
material should be enough
to avoid this problem.
(b) Internal defects caused by
oversized billet; die cavities
are filled prematurely.
Internal cracks will be
formed in the rib region.
 Forging Process Design
• In modern manufacturing industry, metal parts of complex
geometry are often forged completely with the need for only
minor finishing operations.
• These parts can not be manufactured with a single forging. The
work stock is taken through a series of metal forging operations
that, in steps, alter the geometric shape of the material until the
final process creates the desired forging.
• In these types of design sequences each operation must be
planned in such a way as to prepare the work piece for the next
forging process. Together the series of metal forging operations
that are required to create a part, make a larger single process and
each individual forging operation has its place within the larger
process.
 Forging Process Design

• When designing a complex metal forging

process, great consideration should be taken
with each step and how it relates to the final
product.
• Also, design the chosen path for the
redistribution of the work material from the
start of the process to the end of the last step,
concentrating on smooth metal flow
 Forging Process Design

• Forging design, in general, should first accomplish a redistribution

of the material, then the more detailed impression die forging
operations, and finally finishing operations.
• In addition to providing a smooth transition of material the forging
processes, as a whole, should be designed to produce a controlled
grain structure in the final product.
• When choosing a path for material redistribution, a metal forging
design should consider how this particular method of metal
deformation will effect and change the grain structure of the part.
• It is desirable that the final product contain a favorable grain
orientation throughout the structure of its material. Such a grain
structure should strengthen the part, particularly with respect to
that part's application
Forging Process Design
 Forging Process Design
• Open die forging often plays a roll in the early stages, providing
a general mass redistribution of the work metal.
• Before the more detailed impression forgings can shape the
work, metal must be formed in such a way as to place higher
concentrations of material in regions that will require more
material.
• Fullering and edging of the metal, discussed in the open die
forging section, are very important open die forging processes
used to accomplish a rough transfer of material.
• Fullering and edging will squeeze more metal into some areas
of the work, while causing other areas to have less depending
on the needs of the process.
 Forging Process Design

Figure shows two rough forms, one was subject

to fullering the other to edging, the nature of
the different processes should be apparent
Forging Process Design
 Design Considerations
1. Die design:
 The design of forging dies and die material selection
require knowledge of
1. The strength and ductility of the workpiece material
2. Workpiece material sensitivity to strain rate and
temperature
3. Its frictional characteristics
4. Forging temperature
 Design Considerations

 The terminology used in die design is as follow:

1. The bar is first performed (intermediate shape) by techniques such
as fullering and edging.
2. Forged into the final shape
3. Finally the forged part is trimmed.
 The reason for performing is recognizing that for long die life, wear is
to be minimized
Design Considerations
 Design Considerations
 Some general rules of die design include the following:
a) The parting line : is where the two dies meet. For simple
shapes, the parting line is a straight line at the center of the
forging; for more complex shapes, the line may be offset and
may not be in a single plane.
 The selection of the proper location for the parting line is based
on:
a. The shape of the part,
b. Flow of the metal,
c. Balance of the forces,
d. And the flash
 Design Considerations
The parting line
Location of the parting line is of primary importance
in metal forging die design. The parting line, which
defines the forging plane of the operation, is a large
determinant in how metal flows through the die
during the forging's compression.
The parting line dictates where flash will be formed,
and effects the grain structure of the manufactured
part. It is easier to fill sections closer to the parting
line than further away.
 Figure shows a metal forging with
three possible locations for a parting
line. The location of the parting line
of C will better facilitate the flow of
metal through the die cavity.
 Unlike A or B, location C makes use
of the maximum periphery of the
forging. It is easier to fill material
near the forging plane than in the
further recesses of the die cavity. In
addition to being a major factor in
the flow of metal during the forging
process, the location of the parting
line is also critical in the formation of
the grain structure of the forged
work. The parting line acts to disrupt
the metal's grain. [structure
 microstructural variations].
 Design Considerations
 Some general rules of die design include the following:
b) The flash: the flash is allowed to flow into gutter.
 A general guideline for flash clearance (between the dies) is 3%
of the maximum thickness of forging .
 The length of the land is usually five times that of the flash
clearance
 Design Considerations
c) - Draft angles

Draft angle, in metal manufacturing processes, is the

taper around the internal and external sides of a part.
Draft angle is necessary to include in the forging die
design in order to allow the removal of the work from
the die after the part has been forged.
The larger the draft angle, the better it will facilitate the
metal forging's removal.
As the metal forging cools, it shrinks away from the
outer surfaces of the die cavity, therefore exterior draft
angles are usually made smaller than interior angles.
 Design Considerations
 Some general rules of die design include the following:
c) Draft angles: are necessary in almost all forgings to facilitate removal
of the part from die.
 Draft angles usually range between 0.052 (2.9 0 )and 0.174 rad (9.90 ).
 Because the forging shrinks in its radial direction as it cools, internal
draft angles are made larger than external ones.
 Internal angles are about (0.1222 to 0.1745 rad)
 External angles are about (0.052 to 0.087)
 Design Considerations
 Some general rules of die design include the following:
d) Die radii: the proper selection of die radii for corners and fillets
ensures smooth flow of the metal in the die cavity and improves
the die life.
 Small radii are generally not desirable because of their adverse
effect on metal flow and their tendency to wear rapidly from
stress concentration and thermal cycling
 Design Considerations
2. Die materials:
 Because most forgings, particularly large ones, are
performed at elevated temperature, die materials must
have
1. High strength toughness and hardness at elevated
temperature
2. Hardenability and ability to harden uniformly,
3. Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock
4. Resistance to wear ( particularly to abrasive wear
because of the presence of scale on heated forging)
 Design Considerations
2. Die materials:
 Selection of die materials depend on:
1. The properties of workpiece
2. Complexity of workpiece shape,
3. Forging temperature,
4. Cost of die material
5. The number of forging required
6. Heat transfer characteristics of die material
 Common die materials are steel containing chromium,
nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium
 Die Failures
Die failure results from:
Improper design
Defective material
Improper heat treatment and finishing
operations
Overheating (cracking caused by temperature
cycling)
Overloading-Excessive wear
 Forging Advantages

1. Directional Strength
• By mechanically deforming the heated metal
under tightly controlled conditions, forging
produces predictable uniform grain size and
flow characteristics.
• These qualities translate into superior
metallurgical and mechanical qualities, and
deliver increased directional strength in the
final part.
 Forging Advantages

2. Structural Strength
• Forging also provides a degree of structural integrity
that is unmatched by other metalworking processes.
• Forging stock is also typically pre-worked to refine the
structure of the ingot and remove defects or porosity.
• Forging eliminates internal voids and gas pockets that
can weaken metal parts. By dispersing segregation of
alloys or nonmetallics.
• Forging provides predictable structural integrity reduces
part inspection requirements, and ensures optimum
part performance under field-load conditions.
 Forging Advantages

3. Impact Strength
• Proper orientation of grain flow assures
maximum impact strength and fatigue
resistance.
.
 Advantages of forging
• Some common advantages of forging are given as under:
1. Forging refines the structure of the metal.
2. It results in considerable saving in time, labor and material as
compared to the production of similar item by cutting from a
solid stock and then shaping it.
3. Forging increases the strength by setting the direction of grains.
4. Because of intense working, flaws are rarely found, so it has
good reliability.
5. The reasonable degree of accuracy may be obtained in forging
operation.
6. The forged part can be easily welded.
 disadvantages of forging
 Few disadvantages of forging are given as under:
1. Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high
temperature results in scaling which wear the dies.
2. The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult
to maintain (Open-die forging is not a net-shape process
and will require a subsequent machining to dimension) .
3. Some materials are not readily worked by forging.
4. The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their
maintenance is high.
5. The metal get cracked or distort if worked below a
specified temperature limit.