Deforming Processes

During the deformation process the metal is said to Flow, called Plastic
Flow of the metal, and the shapes of the grains are changed. If the
deformation is carried out at higher temperatures, now grains start
growing at the locations of internal stresses. When the temperature is
sufficiently high, the growth of new grans is accelerated and
continuous till the metal structure consists of entirely new grains. The
temperature at which this process is completed is known as the
Recrystallisation Temperature of the metal, and it is this point which
differentiates cold working and hot working. Mechanical working of a
metal below its recrystallization temperature is called Cold Working
and that accomplished above this temperature but below the melting
or burning point is known as Hot Working.
Hot working
Advantages of Hot working
Disadvantages of Hot working
Hot working advantages
Hot working Disadvantages
Cold working advantages
Cold working disadvantages
Principle HOT working processes
Hot rolling
Principle of rolling
Rolling-Stand Arrangement
 Hot rolling types
Hot vs cold rolling types
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fQKKlpE1N6Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dpbQK7D97H4
Play this
Forging

Later
Forging and types
Part 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zskg3xKAR0Q
Pay this
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YobXFODkp50
Part 2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fL8ysJj3m7Y&t=11s

Forging types animations:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zg9UKEJ1Wj8
 HOT spinning

(Actual) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=43N44ICyuEU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mnXnAf0p644

HOT extrusion
Types of extrusion
• Direct or forward extrusion (both cold and hot extrusion)
• Indirect or backward extrusion (mostly hot extrusion)
• Tube extrusion (mostly hot extrusion)
• Impact Extrusion (a cold extrusion method, also called as
backward hot extrusion)
• Hydrostatic extrusion (could be hot extrusion or cold)
• Cold extrusion forging (cold extrusion method)
Direct and indirect extrusion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrYv4Io0SQs
Tube extrusion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsdZ6cj3y_g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ETz2WiX6tMI
Types of extrusion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CdgBwlz1Al4
FORGING
Forging Operations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sVv7RNxJYU8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIPcEWNFcx0
grain flow directions are depicted in Fig 7.20
Advantages of forging process
Forging operations
Upsetting
Drawing out
 Punching and drifting

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuVVkIZxh2w
Bending
Setting down and finishing
Cutting
It is a process in which a metal rod or plate cut out into two
pieces, with the help of chisel and hammer, when the metal is in
red hot condition.
Forge welding
It is a process of joining two metal pieces to increase
the length. By the pressing or hammering then when
they are at forging temperature. It is performed in
forging shop and hence is called forged welding.
Further reading for forging operations
http://engineeringhut.blogspot.com/2010/10/forging-operations.html
Tools and equipment in hand forging
 Smith’s forge or Hearth or furnace

The furnace is also known as Hearth. It has four legs for support and body material is either
steel or cast iron, Iron bottom, a chimney, and a blower. In the furnace, we used to heat the
workpiece.
Tongs
Anvil
• Anvil is one of the most important parts of the forging industry. It
is made up of Steel (Material). Anvils serve as a workbench for
blacksmiths.
• On the anvil with the use of a hammer, we perform different
operations like flatting metal surfaces and obtaining shapes of
workpiece.
• There is some anvil which has Hardy holes and Punches hole. The
hardy hole helps to do square shank for hardy and the punch hole
provides clearance for punching hole in the workpiece. This is one
of the major advantages of having Hardy and Punches holes.
• In forging the average weight of an anvil is 100 kg to 150 kg
Swage Block
• A swage block is a square or rectangular block made up of
cast iron or steel and it has several holes in it. The holes
present in the swage block are of different shapes and sizes.
• It is used to perform several operations like sizzling, heading,
squaring, bending, and forming in forging.
Hammer
In general, Hammer is a tool used for striking the workpiece. We have seen
hammers in several places for several works. But forging Hammer is
having more weight to perform several operations like hot forging, cold
forging, press forging, closed die forging, upset forging, and so on.
The hammer has a heavy head fixed with a long handle which gives a high
impact load on the small area of the workpiece. It is used for striking the
hot or cold workpiece to change shape and size as needed.
The different types of Hammer are Drop Hammer, Power Hammer, Hand
Hammer, and Sledge Hammer.
• Drop Hammer: A heavy ram is falling onto the Workpiece by gravity.
• Power Hammer: The power hammer in which the power source is from
compressed air, Hydraulic or electricity in driving the hammer into the
workpiece. We use this type of hammer for larger jobs.
• Hand Hammer: The hand hammer is used by blacksmiths. The other
types of Hand hammers are Ball peen, Straight peen, and Cross peen
hammers.
• Sledge Hammer: The sledgehammer used in striking on the workpiece
by a driver and is heavier to hold by smith’s hand. The different types
are Double face, Straight peen, and Cross peen hammer.
Chisel

• It is used for cutting the workpiece. There are two types of chisel:
Hot chisel and cold chisel. The hot chisel is used for cutting hot
workpieces (Hot forging) and cold is used for cutting cold
workpieces (Cold forging). Normally A hot chisel is preferred in a
forging shop.
• The difference between Hot and cold chisels is the edges of the
cold chisels are at an angle of 60 degrees and Hot chisels at an
angle of 30 degrees. In cold chisel, hardening and tempering are
required whereas In hot only tempering is required.
• The chisel is made up of high petroleum steel with an octagonal
cross-section with a tapered cutting edge on one end for efficient
cutting action
Punch

The punch is made up of high carbon steel which is used for

making a hot hole in the workpiece. The punch comes in
different sizes. When we want to make a hole on the
workpiece simply keep the thinner part on the hot metal and
apply compressive load by hammering into it.
Drift
Drift is a kind of tapered rod made up of steel and is used for
enlarging the holes of the workpiece. It is not used as a punch;
it helps to remove dents from inaccessible places. Drift has a
small diameter in comparison to hammer face.
Fuller
Swages
Flatter
Set Hammer
Brick Iron
Further reading
https://themechanicalengineering.com/forging-tools/
Open Die Forging vs. Closed Die Forging

https://www.steelforging.org/open-die-forging-vs-closed-die-forging/
 Open Die Forging
Open die forging is the process of deforming a piece of metal between multiple
dies that do not completely enclose the material. The metal is altered as the dies
“hammer” or “stamp” the material through a series of movements until the desired
shape is achieved. Products formed through open forging often need secondary
machining and refining to achieve the tolerances required for the finished
specifications. Open die forging is widely used for the products in small
quantity that are simple, rather than complex, such as discs, rings, sleeves, cylinders
and shafts. Custom shapes can also be produced with open die forging. The
strength of the grain structure will be increased during the deformation process
due to the repeated working of the steel billet. Another benefit of open die forging
is that the fatigue resistance and strength of products will be improved. Besides,
voids could be effectively reduced after open die forging.

Open die forging is also called free forging. In open die forging, the billet is
placed between multiple dies that do not enclose the metal entirely. The
dimensions will be changed by hammering and stamping the metal through a
series of movement until the final dimensions are achieved.
 Close Die Forging

Closed die forging (also known as impression die forging) is a metal

forming process that compress a piece of metal under high pressure to
fill an enclosed die impression. For some special shapes, second
forging operation is required to reach final shapes and dimensions. The
type of material, tightness of tolerances, and need for heat treatment
can determine the cost of a closed die forged part.

Closed die forging process, is also referred to as impression die forging.

It utilizes high pressure to compress the metal piece to fill an enclosed
die impression for required shapes. A medium frequency induction
heating furnace is used to heat the metal for pressing into dies.
 Process
The technique of both open die forging and closed die forging is
different. In general, for closed die forging, the molding dies are
first precision machined and cost is high. The metal bars are then
placed on between upper and lower dies and forged to any shapes
needed. After closed die forging very less or no machining will be
operated due to its high accuracy throughout the process. So
closed die forging is also a net shape or near net shape process.
For open die forging, enormous compressive forces are imposed
by the continuous strike of a forging hammer to deform the metal
billets. Unlike closed die forging, dies of open die forging is very
simple. And secondly machining operation is always carried out.
 Open Die Forging Closed Die Forging
Advantages

1) The internal grain structure formation increases the

1) Better fatigue resistance and improved tightness and strength of the products.
microstructure 2) Economic for large production runs.
2) Continuous grain flow and finer grain size 3) No material limitation
3) Increased strength and longer part life 4) Better surface finish
4) Less material waste 5) Less or no machining required for its close
5) Reduced chance of voids tolerances
6) Valuable cost savings 6) Dimensions of tighter tolerances and net shapes
can be achieved

Disadvantages
1) It is not capable of forming close tolerance and 1) It is not very economical for short runs due to the
higher precision parts high cost of die production
2) Machining is often required to achieve desired 2) Closed die forging presents a dangerous working
dimensions environment
Application of Close and Open die forging

• Closed die forging and open die casting are the most common
used forging methods for steel parts. Forging is popular because of its
improved internal grain structure and can produce stronger and tougher
products.
• In Open die forging, a rough or precision machining is normally further
required after the open die forging process as imprecise dimensions are
achieved by hammering. Thus, open die forging is more suitable for large
parts in a number of tons. Generally, the products in forging method include
forged long shafts, forged rollers, and forged cylinders, which are mostly
used for the application of railway and aircraft industry.
• However, closed die forging is preferred for small critical parts with safety
consideration because of its high precision. It is highly used to produce small
products like forged fittings, forged lifting & rigging hardware, forged
automotive parts, etc. Oilfield, automotive, forestry & agriculture, and mining
are some of the industries that rely on closed die forging technique.
Forging Types
•Smith Forging or manual forging
•Drop forging
•Press Forging
•Upset or Machine Forging
•Roll forging
•High velocity forging
 Smithy and forging
Smithing is the oldest form of forging

Which one will Smithing forging

you use when?
Size of job is Yes Usually its
small larger
Accuracy is not Yes It is important
very important

Introduction to Metal Working By Dr. Pramod Bhatia

 Smithing can also be
called as hand
forging

Introduction to Metal Working By Dr. Pramod Bhatia

Drop forging
 Advantages
• Fast
• Improves strength

Disadvantages
• More maintenance
• Dies cost more

Introduction to Metal Working By Dr. Pramod Bhatia

 Actual Drop forging

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AXiDluxlXT0
Press Forging
 Hydraulic or
Press Forging Mechanical
Press

1. Fast or slow process?, 2. Life of die is better,

3. Can it be used for complicated shapes
 Actual Press forging
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyMTkLqZyEE
Upset or Machine Forging
 Upset forging animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nz7fWcG9iJs
 Roll Forging

To produce
parts which are
of varying cross-
section.

Introduction to Metal Working By Dr. Pramod Bhatia

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNUEfjhdT7o

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tK3wQ2vjTvQ
HIGH VELOCITY FORGING
 High Velocity Forging

Nitrogen or
compressed
air

Introduction to Metal Working By Dr. Pramod Bhatia

 High Velocity Forging
Advantages

•Good Surface Finish

•Good tolerance
•Not much Vibration

Introduction to Metal Working By Dr. Pramod Bhatia

 Wire, Rod and Tube drawing
All must go through following video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CKLasI0dyr8
 Difference between drawing and extrusion
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yy5B7PS9F5w
 Wire Drawing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pd4Uk8vk09c

Actual Wire drawing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVewNWWBVjs
Rod and Tube drawing
Sheet metal Characteristics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tWtLt1cSfig (play)
• Sheet metal is the basis of all engineering today. We can see
it everywhere – from cars and machinery to house facades
and furniture.
• To utilise sheet metal to its full extent, engineers should first
know a thing or two about it. This includes standard
measurements, materials, differences in manufacturing and
possible forming methods.
• Sheet metal is a thin metal with thickness in between 0.5 mm to 6
mm. Sheet metal is easy to form and has great strength which has
resulted in wide use of sheet metal in almost every object. It is used
for engineering purposes on large scale. Sheet metals having same
properties of base metal are durable and used in constructions and
machinery.
Foil, Sheet and Plate

• Metal foil is especially common with aluminium, often

referred to as tinfoil. The thickness of foil is usually up to
0.2 mm.
• Sheet metal is the next in line. The thickness of sheet
metal starts from 0.5 mm and goes up to 6 mm.
Anything above that is a metal plate.
• The thin sheet metal is easy to form, while still providing
great strength. At a relatively cheap price, it makes a
great fit for most engineering purposes. That is why we
see it everywhere around us.
Other characteristics of sheet metal
Low cost
• The material and process of sheet metals is low in cost. Due to cost
effectiveness, sheet metal is used in a wide variety of objects.
Strength
• Sheet metal has high tensile and endurance strength which increase its durability
and use in tough and hard objects.
Variety
• Formability of sheet metal enables it to be shaped in variety of things. Sheet
metal is not only flat but shaped in circle, rectangle, square, Z shape and many
other shapes.
Conductivity
• Sheet metal is good conductor of heat and electricity. Thermal and electric
conductivity of sheet metal enhances its suitability for thermal and electric
appliances.
Millimetres, Mils & Gauge

• Foils, sheets and plates are pretty much the same, with the only difference
being in thickness. Thickness is measured in 3 ways – millimetres, mils and
gauges. While millimetre is a pretty straightforward unit, mils and gauges are
only common in engineering and manufacturing.
• One mil equals to a thousandth of an inch. As the British often use “mils” as a
plural for millimetres, it can be a little confusing but the difference is important.
• Gauge is another unit for measuring sheet metal thickness. Although official
standards discourage the use of gauges, they are not all that rare. Gauge
represents the thickness of a metal in relation to its weight per square foot. A
higher gauge number means a smaller thickness.
• The specifications of metal sheets are given in terms of their Gauge Numbers,
Length and Width. The gauge numbers correspond to definite thickness of the
sheets. The thinkness of sheet varies inverserly as their gauge numbers. Higher
the gauge number, the smaller the thickness and vice versa.
What to Consider Before Choosing a Sheet Metal
Hardness
• Usually denoted in Rockwell, hardness refers to the capacity of force a sheet metal can withstand before pressing into
its surface
Tensile strength
• In simple terms, this refers to the maximum tension that the sheet metal can resist. It determines the maximum load
the sheet metal can carry before breaking or fracturing.
Max Temperature
• The maximum temperature a sheet metal can withstand is a key criterion in processing environments were heat and
temperature are crucial. Sheet metals may gain or lose some properties at high temperature, and as such, it is
important to factor this into your prototyping requirements.
Cost
• Sheet metals differ in cost per unit. For early stage prototyping, you may consider more affordable options, and proceed
to higher grade materials when functional testing become crucial.
Malleability
• Malleability refers to the ease of processing, shaping or fabricating a sheet metal. Depending on what you need the part
for, the ideal sheet metal should be easy to flattened or stiffened when required. If higher malleability is your need,
consider aluminum and mild steel sheet metals.
Common Materials

• Pretty much all the common engineering metals are

also used in the form of sheets. Some of them are
carbon steel, stainless steel, copper and aluminium.
Choosing the right one for you comes down to the
application and requirements of your product.
• Metal sheets have the same mechanical properties as
the base metal. Thus, steel sheets have high tensile
strength and durability suitable for use in constructions
and machinery.
• At the same time, copper sheets often find use as a
decorative layer on modern buildings.
Types of Sheet Metals
Sheet metals may be distinguished from one another based on
parameters like material type and thickness. Based on types,
there are stainless steel, aluminum, copper, galvanized and mild
steel sheet metals. Let’s go into a little more detail on these
materials.
Aluminum Sheet Metals
• Aluminum is one of the most naturally-abundant occurring
sheet metals on the planet. Unlike stainless steel and copper,
aluminum is soft with high strength-to-weight ratio. Its
physical attributes like high malleability and easier
machinability makes it one of the best fits for rapid
prototyping.
• In some operations, aluminum sheet metals may be heat
treated and blended with other materials to deliver increased
strength. It is available in different grades and series, with each
grade having some unique chemical and physical attributes.
Copper Sheet
Metals
• Copper sheet metals are
widely deployed in electrical
applications. They contain
zero additional metals,
making them pure and very
effective as conductors.
Copper sheet metals are
equally strong, corrosion-
resistant and durable
• Copper sheet metals are
occasionally deployed in
sheet metal rapid
prototyping for electronics,
jewelry and ornaments.
 Stainless Steel
Sheet Metals
• Stainless steel is the most
versatile sheet metal for all
the right reasons. Stainless
steel combines its versatility
with the durability and
strength to make a case as to
why it should feature in every
sheet metal project on the
planet.
• Sheet metal comprises of
Nickel, Chromium and
Molybdenum up to 13
percent. It is resistant to
moisture, easy to clean and
corrosion resistant. Because
of these properties, stainless
steel is widely deployed in
engineering and construction
works.
Mild Steel Sheet Metals
Mild steel sheets are alternatives to stainless steel. The material
is easy to machine, versatile and more affordable than stainless.
Mild steel is great for automobile and construction applications.
Galvanized Sheet Metals
• Galvanized sheet metals maybe hot-dipped or electro-
galvanized sheet metals. Hot dipped galvanized sheet metals
are dipped in quality zinc to improve the strength and durability
of the sheet metal.
• Electro-galvanized sheet metals are achieved by electroplating
the base steel of cold-rolled annealed steel with thick zinc
coating. Electro-galvanized sheet metals are more expensive
than hot-dipped ones. They are widely preferred in mechanical
applications, and are ideal for insulation purposes. They also
have good heat resistance and enhanced durability.
Black iron
Other sheet metal materials

•Galvanised Iron
•Tin Plates
•Brass
•Lead
•Zinc
Sheet Metal operations

Some
applications
And others where material removal is involved.
Main Sheet metal operations

Measuring Machine
Cleaning Laying out Hand cutting Hard forming Nibbling
and Marking Shreaing

Edge forming
Circle cutting Piercing Blanking Joint making Bending Drawing
and wiring

Stretch Embossing
Soldering Spinning Trimming Perforating Ironing
forming and Coining

Shaving Lancing
MEASURING AND MARKING
Cleaning
LAYING OUT
CUTTING AND SHEARING
Cutting

When sheet metal is cut by means of a

chisel and hammer manually.

Shearing

Shearing means cutting of sheet metal by

two parallel cutting edges moving in
opposite directions
• Difference between cutting
and shearing
Cutting and Shearing
Fracture Lines have to meet
HAND FORMING
 Hollowing or Blocking

Beating the sheet metal into a particular shape such as

sauce pan, lid or bowl. Operation is performed on a
hollowing block made of wood
 Sinking

Method of thinning Metal to form a shallow

tray
Raising
 Planishing

It’s a careful hammering operation by

which exact shape and good surface is
obtained
MACHINE SHEARING
Shearing mechanism
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tEyFPM14yfo
 NIBBLING

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZHpkG47z5iU (play)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ia6WGvTMq4
 CIRCLE CUTTING

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flZdAuDry
SE
PIERCING/PUNCHING AND BLANKING
EDGE FORMING AND WIRING
JOINT MAKING
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aTL0Jvrf4I&t=7s Riveting
 BENDING

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rv74HEcLAqc (play)
DRAWING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5hV-BcrVB8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2KZRQSI8GkQ
SOLDERING
 Stretch forming
Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet metal is
stretched and bent simultaneously over a die in order to form large contoured
parts. Stretch forming is performed on a stretch press, in which a piece of sheet
metal is securely gripped along its edges by gripping jaws. The gripping jaws are
each attached to a carriage that is pulled by pneumatic or hydraulic force to
stretch the sheet. The tooling used in this process is a stretch form block, called
a form die, which is a solid contoured piece against which the sheet metal will
be pressed. The most common stretch presses are oriented vertically, in which
the form die rests on a press table that can be raised into the sheet by a
hydraulic ram. As the form die is driven into the sheet, which is gripped tightly
at its edges, the tensile forces increase and the sheet plastically deforms into a
new shape. Horizontal stretch presses mount the form die sideways on a
stationary press table, while the gripping jaws pull the sheet horizontally around
the form die.

Stretch forming is used to form aerospace parts from steel, nickel, aluminum, and
titanium alloys and other heat-resistant and refractory metals. Some of these parts are
difficult or impossible to form by other methods

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eSVi7dC5L_Q
Stretch forming
 Spinning

(Actual) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=43N44ICyuEU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mnXnAf0p644

Embossing and coining
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MHRjPSWJCnw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eKoXhplG56I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uSkukZFyiY
Perforating
A perforated metal is a piece of sheet metal that has been
stamped, fabricated, or punched to create a pattern of holes,
slots, and various aesthetic shapes. A wide range of metals
are used in the perforating metal process, which include steel,
aluminum, stainless steel, copper, and titanium. Though the
process of perforating enhances the appearance of metals, it
has other useful effects such as protection and noise
suppression.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LD8opG2dK1w
Lancing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjVJoTZTQ0I
Ironing
•Make list of operations
where shearing is involved.
(Shearing stands for cutting of sheet
metal by two parallel cutting edges
moving in opposite directions.)