Module 6 2014-15

Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies
School of Aeronautical Engineering
Module 6 Materials and Hardware

Amendment and Annual Review Record
Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

No by Review
1 C Gibson 6/6/2011 2011 C Gibson 6/6/2011
2012 C Gibson 31/08/12
2013 C.Gibson 13/05/13
2014 S Fowler 22 July 2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
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6.4.2 FORMATION BY GALVANIC ACTION PROCESS, MICROBIOLOGICAL,

CONTENTS STRESS ........................................................................ 160
6.4.3 TYPES OF CORROSION AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION............ 164
6.4.4 CAUSES OF CORROSION ........................................... 179
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................5 6.4.5 MATERIAL TYPES, SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CORROSION ............ 179
CHAPTER 6.1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS .......................6 CHAPTER 6.5 FASTENERS................................................. 181
6.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF 6.5.1 SCREW THREADS ................................................... 181
COMMON ALLOY STEELS USED IN AIRCRAFT ...................................6 6.5.2 BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS ..................................... 193
6.1.2 HEAT TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF ALLOY STEELS ......... 15 6.5.3 LOCKING DEVICES .................................................. 239
6.1.3 TESTING OF FERROUS MATERIALS FOR HARDNESS, TENSILE 6.5.4 AIRCRAFT RIVETS................................................... 265
STRENGTH, FATIGUE STRENGTH AND IMPACT RESISTANCE. ............... 21
CHAPTER 6.6 PIPES AND UNIONS ..................................... 280
CHAPTER 6.2 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – NON-FERROUS ............ 30
6.6.1 IDENTIFICATION OF AND TYPES OF RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PIPES
6.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF AND THEIR CONNECTORS USED IN AIRCRAFT .............................. 280
COMMON NON-FERROUS MATERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT .................. 30 6.6.2 STANDARD UNIONS FOR AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC, FUEL, OIL,
6.2.2 HEAT TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF NON-FERROUS PNEUMATIC AND AIR SYSTEM PIPES ......................................... 288
MATERIALS ........................................................................ 42
6.2.3 TESTING OF NON-FERROUS MATERIAL FOR HARDNESS, TENSILE CHAPTER 6.7 SPRINGS .................................................... 291
STRENGTH, FATIGUE STRENGTH AND IMPACT RESISTANCE ................ 47 6.7.1 TYPES OF SPRINGS, MATERIALS, CHARACTERISTICS AND
CHAPTER 6.3 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – COMPOSITE AND NON- APPLICATIONS .................................................................. 291
METALLIC 48 CHAPTER 6.8 BEARINGS .................................................. 295
6.3.1 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC OTHER THAN WOOD AND FABRIC 6.8.1 PURPOSE OF BEARINGS, LOADS, MATERIAL, CONSTRUCTION 295
48 6.8.2 TYPES OF BEARINGS AND THEIR APPLICATION .................. 295
6.3.2 WOODEN STRUCTURES ............................................... 95
6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING .................................................. 142 CHAPTER 6.9 TRANSMISSIONS ......................................... 302
CHAPTER 6.4 CORROSION .............................................. 157 6.9.1 GEAR TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION ........................... 302
6.4.1 CHEMICAL FUNDAMENTALS ........................................ 157
EASA Module 6 – Materials and Hardware Page 3 of 351

6.9.2 GEAR RATIOS, REDUCTION AND MULTIPLICATION GEAR

SYSTEMS, DRIVEN AND DRIVING GEARS, IDLER GEARS, MESH PATTERNS
306
6.9.3 BELTS AND PULLEYS ................................................ 312
CHAPTER 6.10 CONTROL CABLES ...................................... 316
6.10.1 TYPES OF CABLES ................................................... 316
6.10.2 END FITTINGS, TURNBUCKLES AND COMPENSATION DEVICES 317
6.10.3 PULLEYS AND CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS .................... 320
6.10.4 BOWDEN CABLES ................................................... 321
6.10.5 AIRCRAFT FLEXIBLE CONTROL SYSTEMS ......................... 327
CHAPTER 6.11 ELECTRICAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS ........
........................................................... 344
6.11.1 CABLE TYPES, CONSTRUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS ....... 344
6.11.2 HIGH TENSION AND CO-AXIAL CABLES ........................... 345
6.11.3 CRIMPING ............................................................. 347 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
6.11.4 CONNECTOR TYPES, PINS, PLUGS, SOCKETS, INSULATORS,
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE RATING, COUPLING, IDENTIFICATION CODES 347

These notes are intended for training guidance Additionally, combinations (Composites) of many of
only and are not to be used as an authoritative these materials will be found, in use, in the aerospace
document for use in the civil aviation industry. industry.
In all cases, reference must always be made to
the current documents for the most up to date
information. The usefulness of the materials depends on their
physical properties, which are primarily a result of the
Introduction addition of other materials that alter the basic
characteristics to suit the specific requirements of the
aircraft designer.
The variety of materials and hardware used in aircraft
engineering is vast and therefore, this module will
A metal’s usefulness is governed principally by the
only deal with a broad group of materials and
physical properties it possesses. Those properties
associated hardware, their main characteristics,
depend upon the composition of the metal, which can
identification and uses. These materials can be classed
be changed considerably by alloying it with other
into the three main categories:
metals and by heat-treatment. The strength and
hardness of steel, for example, can be intensified by
 Ferrous Metals,
increasing its carbon content, adding alloying metals
 Non-Ferrous Metals
such as Nickel and Tungsten, or by heating the steel
 Non-Metallic materials.
until red-hot and then cooling it rapidly.
Apart from the basic requirement of more and more

strength from metals, other less obvious

characteristics can also be added or improved upon, Chapter 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous
when such features as permanent magnetism,
corrosion resistance and high-strength whilst 6.1.1 Characteristics, Properties and
operating at elevated temperatures are desired. Identification of Common Alloy Steels Used In
Aircraft
Composites make up a large part in the construction
In this section we will discuss the properties and
of aircraft. In the early days, composites and plastics
characteristics of Alloy Steels. However, in order to
were limited to non-structural, internal cosmetic
fully understand what alloy steels are, you must
panels, small fairings and other minor parts. Today
understand where they originate from.
there are many large aircraft, which have major
structural and load carrying parts manufactured from
Steel is not a naturally occurring material and must be
composites.
produced. Steel starts life as iron ore. Iron ore is iron
combined with other elements such as oxygen or
Composite materials, in addition to maintaining or
sulphur. Iron is extracted from the ore by removing
increasing component strength, contribute to the
the oxygen and combining the ore with a preferred
important factor of weight saving. There are also
chemical partner such as carbon. Liquid iron dissolves
many modern aircraft that are almost totally
carbon quite readily and smelting process results in a
manufactured from composites and contain little metal
material called Pig Iron. Pig iron is carbon rich and
at all.
contains other impurities which must be reduced or
removed before the result can be called steel.

The pig iron is re-melted and Lime and Millscale are carbon at 1,148 °C, which reflects the upper carbon
added in order to produce a slag which removes most content of steel.
of the carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorous.
This slag is run off and is replaced by a slag containing
lime and anthracite which effectively removes the
sulphur. Once the sulphur has been removed, the
slag is run off and what remains is Steel.
Mixtures of carbon and iron can form a number of

different structures, with very different properties.
Understanding such properties is essential to making
quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable
form of iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) (fig 1)
structure called ferrite, (α iron). It is a fairly soft
metallic material that can dissolve only a small
concentration of carbon, no more than 0.021% at
723 °C and only 0.005% at 0 °C. If the steel contains
more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a Fig 1. Body-centered Cubic Structure
face-centered cubic (FCC) (fig 2) structure, called
austenite or γ-iron. It is also soft and metallic but can
dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%

carbon to leave the austenite is for Iron Carbide

(cementite) to precipitate out of the mix, leaving
behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of
ferrite, resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture.
Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic

compound. At the eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled
structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its
resemblance to mother of pearl. For steels that have
more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the
form of pearlite and cementite.
Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is

martensite, a metastable phase which is significantly
Fig 2. Face-centered Cubic Structure stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in
an austenitic phase and then quenched it forms into
martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when
the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC.
When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as
hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from an austenitic Depending on the carbon content the martensitic
phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase takes different forms. Below approximately
phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for 0.2% carbon it takes a ferrite BCC crystal form, but

higher carbon contents take a body-centered low-load applications. Low-carbon steels weld
tetragonal structure. easily but do not accept heat-treatment very
well.
Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so
that transformation between them results in a change  Medium-Carbon Steel - Medium-Carbon steels
of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal contain between 0.3% and 0.7% carbon. This
stresses from this expansion generally take the form increase assists in heat-treatment while still
of compression on the crystals of martensite and retaining reasonable ductility. Medium-carbon
tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of steels are used for machining or forging and
shear on both constituents. where surface hardness is required.
The greater the carbon content, the more receptive  High-Carbon Steel - The carbon content of High-
the steel becomes to heat-treatment and, while its Carbon steels ranges between 0.5% and 1.5%
strength and hardness increases, its malleability and that makes them very hard. High-carbon steels
weldability decreases. The three main groups of basic are primarily used in springs, files and in most
steels are: cutting tools.
 Low-Carbon Steel - Low-carbon steels contain Most steels contain manganese, which is left over
between 0.1% and 0.3 % carbon and are from the deoxidation operation carried out at the end
classified as SAE 1010 to SAE 1030 steels. They of the steel making process. Steels which contain
are used in such items as locking wire and cable 1.0% manganese or less are called plain-carbon steels
bushings and, in sheet form, they are used for and are not classed as alloy steels. Consequently,

steels which contain more than 1.0% manganese or The alloying elements are divided into two groups:
have deliberate additions of other elements are
classed as alloy steels and it is these which will be 1. Those which strengthen and toughen the steel
focused on here. by dissolving into the ferrite – nickel,
manganese, small amounts chromium and small
Alloy Steels amounts of molybdenum.
The main purpose of alloying is to improve the 2. Those which combine chemically with some of
existing properties of carbon steels, making them the carbon in the steel to form carbides which
more adaptable and easier to heat-treat successfully. are much harder than cementite – chromium,
Alloy steels can be classified into three groups: molybdenum and vanadium.
1. Constructional Steels – used for machine Other alloying elements which are added in small
parts highly stressed in tension and amounts for special purposes are:
compression.
 Titanium
2. Tool Steels – used to manufacture components  Niobium
requiring great hardness and, in some cases,  Aluminium
resistance to softening by heat.  Copper
 Boron
3. Special Steels – Stainless steels and heat-  Silicon
resisting steels.

The effects that individual alloying elements have Chromium promotes grain growth during heat
when added to steels are summarised in figure 4 on treatment which can cause brittleness.
page 18.
Nickel-chromium Steels
Common Types of Alloy Steels
When both nickel and chromium are added to steel,
Nickel Steels the beneficial effects of both metals appear in the
resultant alloy. However, these steels suffer from
Nickel increases the strength of the steel by dissolving ‘temper brittleness’ which causes a serious decrease
in the ferrite, but its main effect is to increase in toughness. In order to eliminate this defect about
toughness by limiting grain-growth during heat 0.3% molybdenum is added.
treatment processes. Due to nickel’s tendency to
make cementite decompose, nickel steels are always Tool Steels and Die Steels
low-carbon or medium carbon steels with very small
amounts of nickel. Tool and die steels have considerable hardness and
wear resistance combined with reasonable mechanical
Chromium Steels strength and toughness. They generally contain one
or more alloying element that forms very hard
When added to steel, some chromium dissolves in the carbides – chromium, tungsten, molybdenum or
ferrite which strengthens it, but the majority forms vanadium.
chromium carbide. Chromium carbide is harder than
cementite thus the hardness of the steel increases.

Stainless Steels Resistance to oxidation is achieved by adding

chromium and small amounts of silicon, which coat
There are two main types of stainless steel: the surface with a layer of oxide. Nickel is added to
toughen the alloy by restricting grain growth.
1. Straight chromium alloys which contain 13% or Tungsten, titanium or niobium is added to increase
more of chromium. Provided they contain the strength at high temperatures due to their
sufficient carbon, these steels can be heat formation of hard carbides. These steels are used for
treated to give a hard martensitic structure. exhaust valves in internal combustion engines, gas
2. 18/8 chromium / nickel steels. These are turbine discs and rotors, aircraft engine exhaust ducts
austenitic steels and cannot be hardened and / manifolds.
are used for constructional or ornamental work.
Identification
Heat-resisting Steels
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has
The main requirements of a steel to be used at high classified steel alloys with a four-digit numerical index
temperatures are: system (fig 3). For example, one common steel alloy
is identified by the designation SAE 1030. The first
 Resist oxidation and attack by other gases in the digit identifies it as a Carbon Steel, while the second
working atmosphere. digit shows that it is a Plain Carbon Steel. The last two
digits denote the percentage of carbon in the steel
 It must be strong enough at the working (0.30%). It should be noted that the British Standards
temperature. Institute (BSI) has a different classification system.

Extract from the SAE Classification for Steel Alloys
1xxx Carbon Steels

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
2xxx Nickel Steels
3xxx Nickel Chromium Steels
40xx Molybdenum Steels
41xx Chromium Molybdenum Steels
5xxx Chromium Steels
6xxx Chromium Vanadium
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Fig 3. SAE Classification for Steel Alloys (Extract)

Element Principle Effects

Manganese Acts as a deoxidiser and desulphuriser. Stabilises Carbides.
Nickel Toughens steel. Strengthens ferrite, causes cementite to decompose.
Chromium Stabilises carbides and forms chromium carbide increasing the hardness of steel,
increases resistance to corrosion. Causes brittleness.
Molybdenum Reduces ‘temper brittleness’ in nickel-chromium steels. Stabilises carbides.
Improves high-temperature strength.
Vanadium Stabilises carbides. Raises softening temperature of hardened steels.
Tungsten Forms very hard carbides. Raises the softening temperature. Raises the limiting
Titanium creep stress at high temperatures.
Niobium
Aluminium Deoxidiser. Limits austenitic grain growth
Boron Improves deformability and machinability
Silicon Increases strength, elasticity, improves acid resistance
Copper Improves corrosion resistance
Fig 4. Effect of Alloying Elements on Steel

6.1.2 Heat Treatment and Application of Alloy Normalising

Steels
The main purpose of normalising is to produce a grain
Steel can exist in several types of granular structure,
structure that is uniform throughout the work-piece
depending on temperature. Pure molten iron begins to
that is free of any ‘locked in’ stresses. For example,
harden at 1600C (1873 K) and, as the temperature
forgings may lack uniformity in structure because the
decreases, its internal structure changes through
out layers have been deformed by a greater extent
different phases, each having different properties.
that the core. Thicker sections having undergone little
These phases can be seen in the iron-carbon
working will be course-grained; whilst thin sections
equilibrium diagram in Figure 5. If the cooling process
that have been subject to large amounts of working
were halted or slowed at any time, then the metal
will be fine-grained. In addition, these thin sections
would retain the properties that were present at that
may have cooled rapidly and may contain residual
particular moment. The cooling process employed in
stresses.
the heat-treatment of metals is controlled. It can
range from a rapid quenching, in brine, oil or water, to Normalising involves heating the steel to just above
a slow cooling in still air or to a much slower cooling (around 30oC) its upper phase transition temperature
period, by allowing the metal to cool inside a (upper critical temperature) (Fig 5), allowing it to
switched-off furnace or oven. There are many heat remain at that temperature long enough for it to
treatment processes that can be applied to steels and attain a uniform temperature throughout, then
these are described in the following paragraphs. removing the steel from the furnace and leaving it to
cool to room temperature.

Fig 5. Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

When the material reaches the lower phase transition 1. Annealing of Castings – Sand castings
temperature (fig 5), on heating, the pearlitic part of commonly contain about 0.3% carbon and will
the structure changes to one of fine-grained cool very slowly in the sand mould. This slow
austenitic. As the temperature continues to rise, the cooling process causes the structure to be
remaining ferrite / cementite (as appropriate course-grained, resulting in brittleness. The
depending upon the carbon content of the steel) is annealing process applied to castings is similar
absorbed by the new austenite crystals. This process to normalising; the casting is heated to just
is complete and the whole structure is uniformly fine- above the upper phase transition temperature,
grained austenite when the temperature reaches the causing the grains to form fine-grained
upper phase transition temperature. When the steel is austenite. It is held at this temperature to
removed from the furnace and allowed to cool, the ensure uniformity. The casting is then cooled in
structure changes from fine-grained austenite back to the furnace ensuring that all casting stresses
uniformly fine-grained pearlite and ferrite / cementite, are removed. This procedure also considerably
as appropriate. increases the toughness and ductility of the
casting.
Annealing
2. Spheroidisation Annealing – This procedure
Annealing of steel is conducted to restore its ductility is applied to high-carbon steels in order to
and to allow recrystallisation of the structure. When improve their machinability. The process is
annealing steel, the process is conducted in various conducted below the lower phase transition
methods depending upon the carbon content of the temperature of the steel, at a temperature
steel. The three main methods are:

between 650oC and 700oC for at least 24 hours. the structure produced during quenching is
The steel is then allowed to cool in the furnace. determined by the rate of cooling and the amount of
agitation the material receives during quenching – the
3. Annealing of Cold-worked Steel – This faster the rate of cooling, the harder the material
process is also undertaken below the lower becomes. The following media are commonly used
phase transition temperature of the steel. It is and are arranged in order of quenching speed –
carried out in order to soften cold-worked mild fastest to slowest:
steels so that they can receive further cold-
work. The cold-worked steel is heated to  5% Caustic Soda Solution
around 550oC, allowing recrystallisation of the  5-20% Brine
distorted crystals causing the structure to  Cold Water
become soft again.  Warm Water
 Mineral Oil
Hardening  Animal Oil
 Vegetable Oil
If steel containing sufficient carbon is heated until its
temperature is above the upper phase transition
temperature and is then quenched, it becomes
considerably harder than if it were cooled slowly.
When steel is quenched, the austenitic structure that
existed before quenching transforms into a very hard,
brittle structure called martensite. The hardness of

Tempering 1. By using low-carbon steel and altering the

composition of its surface by either case-
As we have seen above, hardened steel is also very hardening or nitriding.
brittle and it is usual to ‘temper’ the quenched 2. By using at least a 0.4% carbon steel and heat
component so that stresses are relieved, and at the treating the surface by flame hardening or
same time, the brittleness is reduced and ductility and induction hardening.
toughness are improved.
Case-Hardening (Carburising)
Tempering involves heating the steel to between 200
and 600oC and allowing it to cool at room This process forms a thin layer of high-carbon steel on
temperature. the exterior of low-carbon steel. It achieves this
because carbon dissolves interstitially in iron. When
Surface-Hardening of Steels carburising, the mild steel is surrounded by a carbon-
rich material, such as charcoal, and heated above the
Many components require a combination of upper phase transition temperature for long enough to
mechanical properties. For example, bearing metals produce a carbon-rich surface layer of sufficient
must be both hard and ductile. Gears need to be depth. There are three different carburising methods:
strong and shock-resistant, yet also hard and wear-
resistant. This can be achieved by using one of two 1. Pack Carburising – The material to be treated
methods: is packed into a steel container with 50mm
spacing. The carburising material is packed
around each component and once completed

the lid of the box is sealed. The box is then After carburising has taken place it is usual for the
slowly heated to 900-950oC and this metal to be normalised. This has to be carried out
temperature is maintained until the required twice at two different temperatures due to the
depth of case is achieved. When complete, the different compositions of the case and the core. The
material is either quenched or allowed to cool metal is then tempered to relieve any quenching
slowly in the box, depending on any subsequent stresses.
heat-treatment requirements.
Nitriding
2. Gas Carburising – The process of carburising
is similar to pack carburising except that the Nitriding is similar to case-hardening in the fact that
steel is heated to around 900oC in an both processes involve heating the steel for a length
atmosphere containing carbon rich gasses. The of time in the hardening medium – carbon for case-
gasses usually used are a mixture of methane hardening and gaseous nitrogen for nitriding.
and carbon monoxide. Nitriding can only be carried out on special ‘Nitralloy’
steels which contain aluminium, chromium or
3. Liquid Carburising - the metal is heated in a vanadium. This is because other steels absorb the
bath of molten sodium cyanide or barium compounds of iron and nitrogen, produced during the
cyanide salts to between 870oC and 950oC. process, into their core. Thus, the surface hardness is
Carburising takes place due to the lost. With nitralloys, the compounds formed during
decomposition of the salts which releases the process remain near to the surface and produce
nitrogen and carbon. Once complete, the metal an extremely hard skin. Nitriding is conducted at
is quenched in water. 500oC and must be the final operation in the

manufacturing process. Hence all other machining Induction Hardening

and heat treatments must be concluded prior to
nitriding. This is a similar process to flame hardening except
that the whole circumference of the steel is heated
Flame-Hardening simultaneously by an induction coil. The coil carries
high frequency current, which produces eddy currents
This process differs from the previous techniques in the surface of the steel, raising its temperature.
discussed because in this process the type of structure The lower the current frequency used the deeper the
of the steel varies across the section instead of the heating. As soon as the surface of the steel has
composition. In flame hardening the steel is of reached the necessary temperature, the current is
uniform composition throughout, but the surface switched off and it is immediately quenched by jets of
layers receive an extra heat treatment compared to water.
the core material.
6.1.3 Testing of Ferrous Materials for Hardness,
This is achieved by heating the surface to above the Tensile Strength, Fatigue Strength and Impact
upper phase transition temperature by means of a Resistance.
travelling oxy-acetylene torch and immediately
quenching it with a jet of water supplied from a lance The mechanical properties of a material must be
built into the torch assembly. This process can only known by an engineer before he can incorporate that
be carried out of steels with a carbon content of at material into a design. Mechanical property data is
least 0.4% and only after the steel has been compiled from extensive material testing. Various
normalised. tests are used to determine the actual values of

material properties under different loading diameter of the impression is then measured
applications and test conditions. In this section, the using a calibrated microscope and the Brinell
various methods of material testing will be discussed. Hardness Number (H) is found using the
formula:
Hardness Testing
In the previous section techniques on how to improve

the hardness of steels was discussed, but how is this
measured? Historically, hardness was defined as a In practice the tedious calculations are
materials ability to resist abrasion by another unnecessary and H is found by using reference
material. However, this is not easy to determine tables which relate H to the diameter of the
accurately enough for modern engineering. The impression and are contained in BS EN ISO
modern engineering definition of hardness is a 6506-4:2005 part 4. There are different tables
measure of a materials ability to resist indentation. for each possible combination of load and steel
This is a compromise on the true meaning of hardness ball diameter.
but can be determined accurately using mathematical
means. The three main methods for determining 2. The Vickers Test – This test is similar to
hardness are: Brinell hardness test except the hardened steel
ball is replaced by a square-based diamond
1. The Brinell Test – In this test a hardened pyramid as the indentor. The advantage of this
steel ball is forced into the surface of the test test over the Brinell method is that, within set
specimen by means of a standard load. The limits, all impressions will be geometrically

similar and the accuracy of the results will not o Scale C – used in conjunction with the
vary with the depth of the impression. In this diamond cone and a 150Kgf load.
test the diagonal length of the square
impression is measured using a microscope. Of the scales available, scale B is used for most
The measurement obtained is then cross- materials and Scale C is used for hardened steels. The
referred to a set of tables contained in BS EN hardness number refers to the scale used for the test
ISO 6507-4:2005 to obtain the Vickers Pyramid for example, RB80 and RC65, where the RB and RC
Hardness number (VPN). stand for Rockwell Scale B and Rockwell Scale C
respectively.
3. The Rockwell Test - The Rockwell Hardness
Test also uses indentation as its basis, but two Tensile Testing
types of indenter are used, a conical diamond
indenter is employed for hard materials and a Tensile testing is the most widely used mechanical
steel ball is used for soft materials. There are test. It involves applying a steadily increasing load to
several scales on the dial of the test machine a test specimen, causing it to stretch until it
and the most important are: eventually fractures. Accurate measurements are
taken of the load and extension, and the results are
o Scale A – used in conjunction with the used to determine the strength of the material. To
diamond cone and a 60Kgf load. ensure uniformity of test results, the test specimens
o Scale B – used in conjunction with a used must conform to standard dimensions and finish
diameter steel ball and a 100Kgf load. as stated by the appropriate Standards Authority. At
the time of writing (Jan 2010) the current standards

for tensile testing of metallic materials in the

aerospace industry is the BS EN 2002-x:2005 series
(where x is replaced with the relevant part number
applicable to the test conditions).
M
The test-piece of known cross-sectional area is A B

gripped in the jaws of the testing machine and is
subjected to an incremental tensile force. For each
increment of force, the amount by which the length of
a known ‘gauge length’ on the test piece increases is
measured. This is continued until the test-piece
fractures.
O
A force / extension diagram is the plotted (fig 6). It
can be seen from the diagram that in the region OA
the force is proportional to the extension i.e. it is a Fig 6. Force / Extension Diagram for Mild Steel
straight line. If the force is released at any point
before A is reached, the test-piece will return to its
original length. Between OA the extension is said to
be elastic and the material obeys Hooke’s Law:
Stress ∝ Strain

Where permanent extension in the metal. Thus, the metal is

said to behave plastically.
As the force is increased further, the metal stretches

rapidly, in a uniform manner along its length
originally, then locally to a ‘neck’ at point M. Past this
point the cross-section rapidly decreases at the neck
This is usually expressed as a constant, E, known as until at point B the test-piece fractures. An
the Young’s Modulus or ‘Modulus of Elasticity’ of the interesting point to note is that the force at B to
material and is a measure of the materials stiffness. fracture the test-piece is much less than the
maximum force at point M.
Where
Point M is significant because it is point from which
E = stress / Strain the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of the material is
calculated. Thus:
When the test-piece is stretched beyond point A,

known as the elastic limit, the material suffers a
sudden extension for very little increase in force. This
is called the yield point. If the force is removed from Heat treated steels and most alloys do not exhibit a
the specimen at this point, there will be a small defined yield point and the elastic region of the graph
gradually merges with the plastic region (fig 7).

Therefore, it is extremely difficult to assess the yield

Force
stress of the metal. In these instances, a substitute
value known as Proof Stress is used. This is defined Proof Force
as:
“The tensile stress which is just sufficient to

produce a non-proportional elongation equal to
a specified percentage of the original gauge
length.”
Ext
Usually a value of 0.1% or 0.2% is used for proof
stress, in other words, this is the stress that will
produce a permanent extension of 0.1% or 0.2% in Fig 7. Determination of Proof Stress
the gauge length of the test-piece. The proof stress is
then referred to as the 0.1% Proof Stress or the 0.2% If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, 0.2% of the
Proof Stress respectively. gauge length is marked on the extension axis. Then a
line parallel to the straight line portion of the graph is
drawn until it intersects the non-linear portion of the
curve. The corresponding load is then read from the
graph. Proof Stress is calculated by dividing this load
by the original cross sectional area.

If, after fracture, the two pieces of the broken test- Engineers became aware that alternating stresses of
piece are fitted together and the extended gauge quite small amplitude could cause failure in a
length is measured. The percentage elongation of the component which was capable of safely carrying much
material can be determined using the formula: greater steady loads. This phenomenon of small,
alternating loads causing failure was likened to a
progressive weakening of the material, and hence the
name fatigue. Very few constructional members are
immune from it especially those operating in a
The % elongation is a measure of the materials dynamic environment.
ductility.
Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the
Fatigue Testing stress cycles aircraft are subjected to may be very
complex with occasional high peaks due to gust
A few years ago an in-depth survey revealed that over loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation
80% of failures of engineering components were with in service behaviour, full-size or large scale
caused by fatigue. A characteristic of modern mock-ups must be tested in conditions as close as
engineering is an increase in operating stresses, possible to those existing in service.
temperatures and speeds. This particularly so in
aerospace, and in many cases has made the fatigue An experiment conducted back in 1861 found that a
properties of materials more significant than their wrought iron girder which could safely sustain a mass
ordinary static strength properties. of 12 tons, broke if a mass of only 3 tons was raised
and lowered on the girder some 3x106 times.

Some years later a German Engineer, Wohler, did

work in this field and eventually developed a useful
fatigue testing machine which is still used in industry
today. The machine uses a test piece which is rotated
in a chuck and a force is applied at the free end (at
right angles to the axis of rotation). The rotation thus
produces a reversal of stress for every revolution of
the test piece. The fatigue limit for the material is
found by subjecting a number of similar specimens to
the test, each with a different force acting on the free
end. Each specimen is tested until failure occurs or
until 20 million stress reversals have been endured.
Fig 8. Typical S/N Curve for Steel
The results from the tests are plotted to form a stress

/ number of cycles curve (S-N curve) (fig 8). It can
This limiting stress is called the fatigue limit and for
be seen in the graph that if the stress is reduced, the
steels the fatigue limit is generally in the region of
steel will endure a greater number of stress cycles and
40% to 60% of the value of the Ultimate Tensile
a point is eventually reached where the curve
Strength (UTS).
becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the
material will endure an infinite number of cycles.
Note: The Wohler test subjects the test-piece to
reversing torsional loads, but in practice fatigue may

result from stresses which are tensile, compressive or approximately 163 Joules and is partially
torsional as long as the loading fluctuates or absorbed by the test-piece during fracture. As
alternates. the pendulum swings past the broken test-piece
it drags a pointer up a scale and leaves it at the
The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated highest point of the pendulums swing. The
by the fact that in a high cycle fatigue mode, a mere pointer indicates the amount of mechanical
10% improvement in fatigue strength can bring about energy used to fracture the test-piece.
100 times life improvement. Examination of the fractured cross-section
reveals further information about the material.
Impact Resistance Testing In most ductile materials, the fractured surfaces
appear ‘fibrous’ and will be dull as plastic flow of
Impact testing is conducted to ascertain the the structure has taken place. In brittle
toughness of a material and in particular, the materials however, the surfaces will appear
materials ability to resist mechanical shock. There are bright and crystalline because no plastic flow
two main types of impact test: has occurred.
1. The Izod Impact test – In this test, the test- 2. The Charpy Impact Test – This test differs
piece is notched and the test conducted in from the Izod test in that the test-piece is
accordance with BS 131-1:1961. The test-piece clamped at each end. In addition the impact
is clamped in a vice and a heavy pendulum is energy can be set to either 150 Joules or 300
then allowed to swing from a fixed height and Joules. Like the Izod test, test-pieces are
strike the test-piece. The striking energy is notched in a standard manner and the test

conducted in accordance with BS EN ISO 148- Aluminium and its Alloys

1:2010.
Pure aluminium is extracted from the mineral rock
bauxite. It is soft, weak, ductile and malleable. It is
Chapter 6.2 Aircraft materials – Non- approximately one third the weight of steel and
Ferrous approximately one third the stiffness of steel. Its
strength may be improved by cold work but it is still
6.2.1 Characteristics, Properties and low strength material. Before work hardening
Identification of Common Non-Ferrous Materials aluminium has a tensile strength of 90 Nmm-2 and
Used In Aircraft when work hardened it is only 135 Nmm-2. Due to its
high affinity for oxygen it is highly corrosion resistant.
In this section we will discuss the properties and
This is due to the rapid formation of a thin, but very
characteristics of Non-Ferrous materials used in
dense oxide film which protects it from further
aircraft. Non-Ferrous materials are materials that do
atmospheric attack. This oxide layer can be thickened
not contain iron. The metals that will be discussed in
by anodising and as seen in section 6.1.1, aluminium
this section are:
oxide is extremely hard, thus making the surface
more wear resistant.
 Aluminium and its alloys
 Magnesium and its alloys
In addition to the above, aluminium has a high
 Titanium
thermal conductivity and a very good electrical
 Nickel and its alloys
conductivity. Although copper is about twice as good
 Copper and its alloys
at conducting electricity, aluminium is lighter making

it a better choice in some circumstances. The A380 addition, Silicon is a further common alloying element
has electrical looms made from aluminium for in cast alloys.
example.
Non Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys
To achieve medium / high strength properties,
aluminium must be alloyed. Aluminium alloys are Wrought Alloys
classified into two main groups:
In these alloys, are highly ductile and corrosion
 Wrought Alloys - those that are rolled into resistant. This is because the alloying elements form
sheet, strip or plate form, extruded as tubes etc. a solid solution in the aluminium. Due to the fact that
or are drawn to form wire. these alloys cannot be heat treated, they obtain their
 Cast Alloys – those that are used in either the final strength and rigidity by the amount of cold-
sand or die casting processes. working they receive. These alloys are used to form
electrical conductors.
To complicate matters even more, some of the alloys
in both groups may be heat treated and some cannot Cast Alloys
be heat treated. Each of these groups will be dealt
discussed separately. These alloys are used for sand and die casting and
have excellent rigidity, corrosion resistance and
The three most common alloying elements in fluidity during casting. The best non heat treatable
aluminium alloys are copper, magnesium and zinc. In cast alloys contain between 10% and 13% silicon and
all have 0.01% metallic sodium added just before

pouring as this ensures the casting has a very fine- Heat Treatable Cast Alloys
grained structure.
The most universally known cast alloy contains 4%
Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys copper with additions of 2% Nickel and 1.5%
Magnesium. It was developed during the First World
Wrought Alloys War in the UK in order to build light weight, high-duty
engines for fighter planes. It is called L35 (sometimes
In the aircraft industry the best known heat treatable called Y-alloy). A derivative of Y-alloy was used in
wrought alloy contains about 4% copper and is called wrought form for the skin of Concorde due to the high
Duralumin (Dural for short). Dural in all its forms is metal temperatures encountered during flight.
used extensively in aircraft structures including highly
stressed components and engine parts. Clad Materials
An interesting property of Aluminium-Copper alloys is Dural and similar strong aluminium alloys are not as
that if it is quenched after heat treatment, and left at resistant to corrosion as pure aluminium and for
room temperature, the metals strength and hardness external use such as skin. The high strength sheet has
will dramatically increase. The reasons for this will be a thin layer (about 5% of the sheet thickness) of pure
explained in section 6.2.2 Heat Treatment of Non- aluminium hot-rolled onto the surfaces. These are
Ferrous Materials. then known as clad materials with commercial names
such as Alclad, and Pureclad.

Identification of Aluminium and its Alloys Aluminium alloys are grouped by major alloying
elements i.e. the alloying element present in the
Aluminium and its alloys are identified using the greatest mean percentage:
International Aluminium Designation System (IADS)
as developed by the American National Standards Copper 2xxx
Institute (ANSI). This system has separate standards, Manganese 3xxx
one covering wrought alloys and the other covering Silicon 4xxx
cast alloys. Although developed by ANSI, the UK is Magnesium 5xxx
signatory to the IADS agreement and BS EN 573- Magnesium and silicon 6xxx
1:2004 (wrought products) and BS EN 1780-1:2002 Zinc 7xxx
(cast products) use the agreed designation systems. Other elements 8xxx
Unused series 9xxx
Wrought Aluminium and its Alloys
In the 1xxx group, the series 10xx is used to
A four-digit numerical designation system is used to designate unalloyed compositions that have natural
identify wrought aluminium and its alloys. The first impurity limits. The last two of the four digits in the
digit of the four-digit designation indicates the group: designation indicate the minimum aluminium
percentage. For example 1085 is unalloyed aluminium
Aluminium >= 99.00% 1xxx with natural impurity limits and an aluminium
percentage of 99.85%.

In the 2xxx through 8xxx alloy groups, the second o T1 - Cooled from an elevated temperature
digit in the designation indicates alloy modification. If shaping process and naturally aged.
the second digit is zero, it indicates the original alloy, o T2 - Cooled from an elevated temperature
integers 1 through 9, assigned consecutively, indicate shaping process cold worked and naturally
modifications of the original alloy. aged.
o T3 - Solution heat-treated cold worked
The last two of the four digits in the 2xxx through and naturally aged to a substantially.
8xxx groups have no special significance, but serve o T4 - Solution heat-treated and naturally
only to identify the different aluminium alloys in the aged to a substantially stable condition.
group. o T5 - Cooled from an elevated temperature
shaping process and then artificially aged.
The condition in which the alloy is supplied is indicated o T6 - Solution heat-treated and then
by suffix letters after the 4 digit code as follows: artificially aged.
o T7 – Solution heat-treated and over-aged
 F means “as fabricated”. /stabilised.
 O means “annealed wrought products”.  W means the material has been solution heat
treated.
 T means that it has been “heat treated”. This
suffix has a digit after it which details the type  H refers to non-heat treatable alloys that are
of heat treatment applied as follows: “cold worked” or “strain hardened”. Like suffix

T, suffix H has digits after it detailing the work The first digit indicates the alloy group:
condition and degree of tempering as follows:
Aluminium, >= 99,00% 1xx.x
o H1X - Work hardened
o H2X - Work hardened and partially Aluminium alloys grouped by major alloying elements:
annealed
o H3X - Work hardened and stabilized by Copper 2xx.x
low temperature treatment Silicon, (with added copper
o H4X - Work hardened and stoved and or magnesium) 3xx.x
o HX2 - Quarter-hard – degree of working Silicon 4xx.x
o HX4 - Half-hard – degree of working Magnesium 5xx.x
o HX6 - Three-quarter hard – degree of Zinc 7xx.x
working Tin 8xx.x
o HX8 - Full-hard – degree of working Other elements 9xx.x
Unused series 6xx.x
Cast Aluminium and its Alloys
For 2xx.x through 8xx.x alloys, the alloy group is
A system of four-digit numerical designations determined by the alloying element present in the
incorporating a decimal point is used to identify greatest mean percentage except in cases in which
aluminium and aluminium alloys in the form of the composition being registered qualifies as a
castings and foundry ingot. modification of a previously registered alloy.

The second two digits identify the specific aluminium There are some serious disadvantages to using
alloy or, for the aluminium (1xx.x) series, indicate magnesium alloys in aircraft construction. These
purity. The final digit which is separated from the include a high susceptibility to corrosion and cracking.
others by a decimal point indicates the product form – However, magnesium alloys can still be found in use
0 for a casting and 1 for an ingot. for the skins and frames of older aircraft.
Magnesium Alloy The corrosion problem is minimised by treating the

surface of the metal with chemicals, which form an
Magnesium is about 2/3 the weight of aluminium and oxide film, to prevent oxygen reaching the metal.
is obtained primarily from electrolysis of seawater or Another way of minimising corrosion is to use
brine from deep wells. In its pure state it lacks hardware such as rivets, nuts, bolts and screws that
sufficient strength and characteristics for use as a are made from compatible materials.
structural metal. It can, however, be alloyed with a
range of other elements to greatly improve its The cracking problem contributes to the difficulty in
strength. These elements include aluminium, shaping magnesium alloys and, thus, limits its use.
manganese, thorium, zirconium, and zinc. One method used to overcome the tendency for
cracking is to form the metal whilst it is hot.
Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their
wrought form, are available as sheet, bar, tubing and Magnesium alloys can also be solution heat-treated,
extrusions. They are among the lightest metals having which will improve their tensile strength, ductility and
sufficient strength and suitable working characteristics resistance to shock. To improve their hardness and
for use in aircraft structures.

yield strength they can also be precipitation heat- K – Zirconium L – Lithium

treated after the solution heat treatment. M – Manganese N – Nickel
P – Lead Q – Silver
WARNING - Magnesium burns readily, especially in R – Chromium S – Silicon
small particles and dust. Great care must be taken T – Tin W – Yttrium
when filing and grinding this metal and, if a fire should Y – Antimony Z - Zinc
occur, it must be extinguished with dry sand or an
appropriate powder extinguisher. WATER MUST NOT The next two numbers indicate the percentages of the
BE USED TO EXTINGUISH MAGNESIUM FIRES. two main alloying elements in the same order as the
first two letters.
Identification of Magnesium Alloys
The next letter distinguishes between different alloys
Magnesium Alloys are identified in accordance with BS with the same percentages of main alloying elements.
EN 1754: 1997. The coding is in four parts as follows: The letter is assigned in alphabetical order.
The first two letters indicate the two main alloying The next letter, separated from the rest of the coding
elements (most abundant first) as follows: by a hyphen, indicates the temper condition of the
alloy as follows:
A – Aluminium B – Bismuth
C – Copper D – Cadmium F – As fabricated
E – Rare Earth F – Iron O – As annealed
G – Magnesium H – Thorium H10 / H11 – Slightly strain hardened

H23, H24 & H26 – Strain hardened and partially

annealed Inconel is a range of nickel alloys which contain
T4 – Solution Heat Treated approximately 80% nickel, 14% chromium and small
T5 – Artificially aged amounts of iron and other elements. These alloys are
T6 – Solution Heat Treated and artificially aged often found in gas turbine engines because of their
T8 – Solution Heat Treated, cold worked and ability to maintain strength and corrosion resistance
artificially aged under extremely high temperature conditions.
Nickel and its Alloys Invar is a trade name for an iron-nickel alloy.
Composed of 36% nickel, 63% iron and 2% carbon, it
The commonest nickel alloys that will be met in has a very low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion and is
aviation are Monel and Inconel. Monel contains 68% therefore useful in the manufacture of measuring tools
nickel and 29% copper with traces of iron, silicon, such as tapes, rules, micrometers and Vernier
carbon and manganese, and it can be welded and callipers etc. Invar can also be found in some scientific
machined. Those Monel alloys, which contain small instruments where low thermal expansion is an
amounts of aluminium, can be heat-treated to tensile important factor.
strengths equivalent to steel.
Nimonic is the trade name for an alloy series, used in
Monel is used in gears and parts that require high high temperature areas such as turbine blades. They
strength and toughness. It is also used in exhaust are based on a composition of 80% nickel, and 20%
systems, which require both high strength and chromium with smaller amounts of titanium,
corrosion resistance. aluminium, iron, carbon, cobalt, silicon, copper,

boron, zirconium and molybdenum. This alloy is is its excellent corrosion resistance, which is equal to
particularly resistant to thermal expansion and creep. or better than 18/8 stainless steel below 500oC.
Nimonic alloys are used extensively in gas turbines.
Although difficult to ignite, once started a titanium fire
Titanium is difficult to contain because the melting point of
titanium is about 200oC greater than steel. So,
This is a much newer material than the more common molten titanium can actually penetrate steel parts
aluminium and magnesium groups. Although heavier such as fuel pipes etc. Titanium fires usually start
than either of these two materials, titanium is only through high speed rubbing. The low thermal
approximately half the weight of steel. When alloyed conductivity of titanium prevents the rapid dissipation
it is capable of much greater strength and of heat which progressively builds up locally until
temperature resistance than the aluminium alloys and ignition finally occurs.
is as strong as many alloy steels. The fatigue
strength is also better than many steels. Some of the more common alloying elements are
Unfortunately it is considerably more expensive to aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum and chromium.
produce than the conventional light alloys. Titanium is One common aerospace alloy which is as strong as
very flexible, (approx. twice that of steel), and has a some high tensile steels contains 6% aluminium and
low coefficient of linear expansion (50% less than 4% vanadium. Commercially pure titanium is
aluminium and 25% less than steel). It is ‘non-heat treatable’ (It can be annealed, but its
non-magnetic and also has low thermal conductivity. strength / hardness cannot be improved by heat
One of the main attractions of titanium and its alloys treatment).

When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are Copper and its Alloys
heat treatable. The strengthening is immediate i.e. it
is not an age hardening material. Neither copper nor its alloys find much use as
structural materials in aircraft construction, though its
Titanium is used extensively in aerospace gas excellent electrical and thermal conductivity make it
turbines, but its use is limited on subsonic civil ideal for use in electrical wiring.
airframes to fasteners, and high temperature areas
such as engine bays, heat shields, hot bulkheads, air Of those alloys that are copper based; brass and
ducts etc. High speed military airframes use various bronzes (including beryllium bronze) are the
considerably more titanium (up to 20% of mass) due primary types used on aircraft.
to the higher temperatures encountered. Brass contains zinc and small amounts of aluminium,
iron, lead and other elements. Depending on the
Identification of Titanium percentage content of zinc, brass can be made ductile
(30%-35%) or strong (45%).
Wrought Titanium is classified in accordance with BS
EN 4800-001:2010. There are 28 grades of titanium Bronze is a copper alloy that contains tin. A true
but only grades 1 to 6 are used in aircraft / Gas bronze contains up to 25% tin, and bronze, along with
turbines. brass, is used in bushings, bearings, valves and valve
seats. Bronzes with less than 11% tin are normally
used for tubes and pipes.
There are other copper alloys that contain practically
no tin and yet are still referred to as ‘bronzes’.

Probably the most common of these is beryllium Identification of Copper and its Alloys
bronze. This contains 97% copper, 2% beryllium and
small amounts of nickel to increase its strength. Once Copper and its alloys are classified in accordance with
it has been heat-treated, beryllium bronze is very BS EN 1173:2008. It consists of a 6 character alpha-
strong and is used for diaphragms, precision bearings numeric code as follows:
and bushings, ball bearing cages and spring washers.
 Character 1 is the letter C which indicates a
Solder is a general term frequently used for joining copper based material.
metals together. The principal types are ‘soft solder’
which is a lead-tin alloy and hard solder which is an  The second character indicates the product
alloy of copper, silver and zinc. form as follows:
o B = Ingot for re-melting to produce cast

products
o C = Cast products
o F = Filler materials for brazing and
welding
o M = Master Alloys
o R = Refined unwrought Copper
o S = Scrap
o W = Wrought products
o X = Non-standard material

6.2.2 Heat Treatment and Application of Non-

 There is then a 3 digit number and letter Ferrous Materials
which represents the copper or alloy group:
In section 6.1.2 the heat treatments available for use
o 001 - 099 A or B - Copper on ferrous materials were discussed. In this section,
o 100 - 199 C or D - Copper Alloys, Min. the heat treatments available for use on non-ferrous
95% Cu materials will be discussed. However, annealing is a
o 200 - 299 E or F - Copper Alloys, < 95% common process for all metals and won’t be discussed
Cu further (only the temperature it is conducted at will
o 300 - 349 G - Copper-Aluminium Alloys vary depending upon the metal being annealed). For
o 350 - 399 H - Copper-Nickel Alloys each non-ferrous material the heat treatments
o 400 - 449 J - Copper-Nickel-Zinc Alloys available are slightly different and so will be discussed
o 450 - 499 K - Copper-Tin Alloys individually.
o 500 - 599 L or M - Copper-Zinc Alloys –
Binary Heat Treatment of Aluminium Alloys
o 600 - 699 N or P - Copper-Zinc-Lead
Alloys As seen section 6.1.2, the heat treatment of
o 700 - 799 R or S - Copper-Zinc Alloys – aluminium alloys is related to the equilibrium diagram,
Complex part of which is shown in Figure 9. It cannot be
stressed enough how important it is to understand
these diagrams and how the phases affect the
structure of the material.

Fig 9. Aluminium-Copper Equilibrium Diagram (Part of)

Solution Heat Treatment In this condition, the metal is strong, but is also more
ductile as the brittle, CuAl2 crystals have been
As aircraft engineers, the most significant part of the removed. As mentioned in section 6.2.1, if the alloy
equilibrium diagram is the line ABCD. It is quite clear is now left at room temperature for a few days, its
to see that as the temperature is increased, the hardness and strength will increase, reducing the
amount of dissolved copper, held in solid solution by ductility. This is because the quenched alloy is not in
the aluminium, also increases. Likewise, if the alloy is equilibrium and is trying to revert back to its original
allowed to cool slowly, the dissolved copper starts to structure before heating. Small amounts of the CuAl2
precipitate out of the solid solution as particles of precipitate out of the solid solution causing the change
CuAl2. As this is a hard and brittle compound, the in hardness and strength. This is known age
alloy will display these properties. In addition, the hardening.
alloy will not be very strong. Therefore, using
Duralumin as an example, in order to produce a Precipitation Hardening
strong material, the metal is slowly heated to a
temperature of around 548oC. At this temperature, all The age hardening process can be accelerated by
of the CuAl2 will be dissolved into solid solution (this precipitation hardening. This is effectively ‘tempering’
actually occurs at point C but, in practice the the metal. In this process, the solution heat treated
temperature is raised slightly ‘just to make sure’. metal is heated again to a lower temperature for
Once, the CuAl2 has fully dissolved, the metal is several hours. This accelerates the precipitation of
immediately quenched in water to ‘lock’ the structure. the CuAl2 out of the solid solution. Care must be
This process is called Solution Heat Treatment it is taken not to use too high a temperature during this
commonly referred to as SHT. treatment as the newly formed CuAl2 crystals will

become large causing the desired mechanical Precipitation hardening can also be applied to castings
properties to be lost. This is called over-ageing. without prior solution treatment or annealing in order
to relieve internal stresses. Modifications of these
Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys basic treatments have been developed for specific
alloys, to obtain the most desirable combinations of
Magnesium alloys are heat treated either to improve properties.
mechanical properties or as means of conditioning for
specific fabricating operations. The type of heat Heat Treatment of Nickel Alloys
treatment selected depends on alloy composition and
form (cast or wrought), and on anticipated service In addition to annealing, Nickel and nickel alloys may
conditions. be subjected to one or more of four principal types of
heat treatment, depending on chemical composition,
Magnesium alloys can be solution heat treated, like fabrication requirements and intended service.
aluminium alloys, to improve strength, maximum These treatments are described in the following
toughness and shock resistance. paragraphs.
Again like aluminium alloys, they can be precipitation Stress Relieving

hardened subsequent to solution treatment to improve
their maximum hardness and yield strength, but with A heat treatment used to remove or reduce stresses in
some sacrifice of toughness. work-hardened non age-hardenable alloys without
producing a re-crystallised grain structure. Stress-
relieving temperatures for nickel and nickel alloys

from 425 to 870oC, depending on alloy composition cooling as unlike other alloys, quenching is not a
and degree of work hardening. prerequisite to precipitation hardening; the alloys can
be hardened from the hot worked and cold worked
Stress Equalizing conditions, as well as from the soft condition.
A low-temperature heat treatment used to balance In addition, nickel alloys are usually hardened in
stresses in cold worked material without an sealed boxes placed inside a furnace. The box should
appreciable decrease in the mechanical strength hold the parts loosely packed, yet afford a minimum
produced by cold working. of excess space.
Solution Heat Treating Heat Treatment of Copper Alloys
Certain nickel alloys can be solution heat treated, like Due to the number and complexity of copper alloys, it
aluminium and magnesium in order to dissolve the is not intended to discuss the possible heat treatments
hard carbides into solid solution. at length in this section. All copper alloys can be
annealed and certain types can have stress relief,
Precipitation Hardening solution heat treatment and precipitation hardening
techniques carried out on them. However, as an
In general nickel alloys are soft when quenched from aircraft maintenance engineer, it is highly unlikely that
temperatures ranging from 790 to 1220oC however; you will ever need to perform these operations.
they may be hardened by holding material subject to
SHT at 480 to 870oC or above and then furnace or air-

6.2.3 Testing of Non-Ferrous Material for

Hardness, Tensile Strength, Fatigue Strength
and Impact Resistance
All non-ferrous materials can be tested for hardness,

tensile strength, fatigue strength and impact
resistance using the same tests as described in
section 6.1.3 for ferrous materials. Therefore, it is not
intended to discuss these again in this section except
to say that all testing of non-ferrous materials must INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
be conducted using the applicable testing criteria as
laid down in British Standards.

Chapter 6.3 Aircraft Materials – intended to furnish the reader with an understanding
Composite and Non-metallic of the basics of this fascinating are of materials
technology.
6.3.1 Composite and Non-metallic other than
Wood and Fabric Characteristics, Properties and Identification of
Common Composite and Non-metallic Materials,
Composite materials have been known about for a other than Wood used in Aircraft
quite some time, but until recently little use was made
of them as structural materials. In this ‘green age’ Common Composite Materials
composite materials have become utilised more and
more in areas where metals would have previously Composite materials consist of two or more different
been used. The most significant examples of this materials which are mechanically or metallurgically
within aircraft engineering is their widespread use a bonded together, and each component material
structural materials in the Boeing 787 and Airbus retains its identity, characteristic structure and
A380. More significantly, Airbus and Bombardier are properties. The resulting composite material
independently, starting to build wing structures from possesses physical properties (especially stiffness and
carbon fibre composites. strength) which are unattainable with the individual
constituents. A sheet of fibre reinforced material is
The science behind composite materials is complex anisotropic, that is, its properties depend on the
and forever changing as new technologies seem to be direction of the fibres. Random direction fibres would
emerging almost daily. Therefore, this section is result in a much lower strength than uni-directional
fibres parallel to the applied load. However, the

strength (and stiffness) of a uni-directional lay-up Glass Reinforced Plastic

would be very low with the applied load at 90º to the
fibres, as this is primarily a test of the resin. Hence Often referred to as Glass fibre or fibreglass, this
the usual practice of placing alternate layers at 90º to material is comprised of glass fibres bonded together
each other. by a suitable resin. The ultimate tensile strength of
undamaged very small diameter glass fibres
Fibre reinforced composites are used in Aircraft (approximately 0.01mm) is extremely high, (greater
construction and consist of strong fibres such as glass than 2000 N/mm2) although this figure is reduced
or carbon, set in a base (matrix) of polymer resin, significantly if the fibres are slightly damaged.
which mechanically and chemically protects the fibres.
These materials have had a dramatic effect on aircraft When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is
and engine construction in recent years and are used of considerably lower strength. Nevertheless, good
on an ever increasing scale. Among the many GRP structures are stronger than mild steel and on a
different types of composite materials available, the simple strength for weight basis, can be comparable
ones most commonly used in aerospace are: to high tensile steel if the fibre form and lay-up is near
optimum. It is however, considerably less stiff than
 Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) steel or even aluminium. A graphic example of GRP
 Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) flexibility is the enormous deflection which takes place
 Aramid Fibres in the pole during a pole vault. As the glass fibres are
about a hundred times stronger than the resin, it is
obviously necessary to get as much fibre packed into
the moulding as possible. Non-structural items may

be made from, or include a percentage of chopped The main reasons for using GRP are:
strand mat, (i.e. glass fibres in a random, non- woven
state) but where considerable strength is required,  Where metal must not be used e.g. radar domes
uni-directional glass cloth is used. To provide all or other non-electrical conduction applications.
round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can be  Ease / cost of producing very complex shapes.
laid at 90º to each other, like the grain in plywood.  Good strength / weight ratio.
 The ability to produce selected directional
Sometimes such sheets are used as facings for an strength.
internal honeycomb of plastic impregnated paper, to
give a very efficient structure in terms of strength, GRP’s main disadvantage is that it lacks stiffness and
stiffness and weight. as such is not suitable for applications subject to high
structural loading.
The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with
cloth already impregnated with resin and partially Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
cured (‘Pre – Preg’) in which case it is necessary to
keep the material in refrigerated storage. Resin Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) is a composite
curing is usually done at temperature (range 120 - material which was primarily developed to retain (or
170ºC) with the GRP component in its mould and improve on) the high strength to weight ratio
often under pressure, in an autoclave. characteristics exhibited by GRP but with very much
greater stiffness values.
Carbon fibres are very stiff and when formed into a
composite, the Young's Modulus value can be higher

than steel. CFRP is not only six times stiffer than GRP Because of CFRP's high stiffness modulus it is also
but is also over 50% stronger. It also has twice the used extensively to stiffen GRP or aluminium alloy
strength of high strength aluminium alloy and three structures.
times the stiffness. Carbon fibres are typically less
than 0.01 mm in diameter and are produced by Aramids
subjecting a fine thread of a suitable nylon type
plastic to a very high temperature to decompose the Aramid fibres are becoming more widespread in their
polymer, driving off all of the elements except carbon. use. One of the best known aramid fibres is known
It is then stretched at white heat 2000-3000ºC to commercially as Kevlar. Kevlar is formed from an
develop strength. Unfortunately, the process is aromatic polyamide by extruding the polymer through
complex and very costly. a die with very small holes. The resulting fibres are
collected and joined into yarns which are subsequently
Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, woven into suitable structural fabrics. It can be used
CFRP can offer considerable weight savings over in this form for ropes, cables, bullet proof vests,
conventional materials. CFRP components are torpedo netting etc. or made into a rigid composite
generally made from ‘Pre-preg’ sheet (fibres material like GRP or CFRP by using suitable adhesives.
impregnated with resin and hardener which only
require heat and pressure to cure). Some specialist The stiffness of Kevlar lays roughly mid-way between
items are made by a laborious but ideal process called GRP and CFRP, but its tensile strength is comparable
filament winding in which a carbon fibre string is to carbon fibre. As it is about 17% lighter than CFRP,
wound over a former in the shape of the workpiece Kevlar thus has the highest strength to weight ratio.
whilst bonded with resin. This latter advantage, plus the fact that the cost of

Kevlar is partway between GRP and CFRP, means that There are a number of different resin materials
it is being used on an ever increasing scale in the available for use. Different resins produce matrices
aerospace business. with different mechanical properties. Therefore, the
correct resin must be selected for a particular job.
Three peculiarities of Kevlar exist: The types of resins available are described in the
following paragraphs.
 Firstly, it has a significantly lower compressive
strength than tensile strength. This is not the Epoxy Resin
case with GRP or CFRP.
 Secondly, it will slowly deteriorate if exposed to The term epoxy is a general description of a family of
ultra violet (UV) light for prolonged periods. It polymers which are based on molecules that contain
is therefore, necessary to use a pigmented paint epoxide groups. An epoxide group contains one
or some other suitable barrier. oxygen and two carbon atoms. Epoxies are
 Thirdly, it is difficult to cut a Kevlar composite polymerisable thermosetting resins containing one or
cleanly with conventional tools, high pressure more epoxide groups curable by reaction with amines,
water jets are used. acids, amides, alcohols, phenols, acid anhydrides, or
mercaptans.
Resins
The polymers are available in a variety of viscosities
Fibres on any sort are no use to an engineer in their from liquid to solid.
natural form as structural materials. They have to be
encased in a resin matrix in order to make them rigid.

Epoxies are used widely in resins for pre-pregs and resistance. In general, for a fibre-reinforced resin
structural adhesives. The advantages of epoxies are system, the advantage of polyester is its low cost and
high strength and modulus, low levels of volatiles, its ability to be processed quickly.
excellent adhesion, low shrinkage, good chemical
resistance, and ease of processing. Their major Compared to epoxies, polyesters process more easily
disadvantages are brittleness and the reduction of and are much tougher, whereas phenolics are more
properties in the presence of moisture. The processing difficult to process and brittle, but have higher service
or curing of epoxies is slower than polyester resins. temperatures.
The cost of the resin is also higher than the
polyesters. Phenolic Resin
Polyester Resin Phenol-formaldehyde resins and their direct

precursors were first produced commercially in the
The term thermosetting polyester resin is a general early 1900's for use in the commercial market. Urea-
term used for orthophthalic polyester resin or formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde appeared
isophthalic polyester resin. Polyester resins are in the 1920 - 1930's as a less expensive alternative
relatively inexpensive and fast processing resins used for lower temperature use. Phenolics, in general, cure
generally for low-cost applications. In combination by a condensation route with the off-gassing of water.
with certain fillers, they can exhibit resistance to The resulting matrix is characterized by both chemical
breakdown under electrical arc and tracking and thermal resistance as well as hardness, and low
conditions. Isophthalic polyester resins exhibit higher smoke and toxic degradation products.
thermal stability, dimensional stability, and creep

Polyimides tapes, tow-pregs, and woven pre-pregs. Fibres

impregnated include carbon, nickel-coated carbon,
The polyimide resin family comprises a diverse aramid, glass, quartz, and others.
number of polymers. Polyimide matrix composites
excel in high temperature environments where their Semi-crystalline thermoplastics reinforced with short
thermal resistance, oxidative stability, low coefficient fibres have been used for over two decades in the
of thermal expansion and solvent resistance benefit injection moulding industry. However, the combination
the design. Their primary uses are circuit boards and of long and continuous fibres with higher performance
hot engine and aerospace structures. A polyimide may semi-crystalline thermoplastics is a recent
be either a thermoset resin or a thermoplastic. development, but several advantages over existing
materials have already been identified:
Thermoplastic Resins
 The chemical stability of the materials provides
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics are so named because for unlimited shelf life.
a percentage of their volume consists of a crystalline
morphology. The remaining volume has a random  Pot life problems and the need for cold storage
molecular orientation termed amorphous, the name are eliminated.
given to thermoplastics containing no crystalline
structure.  The semi-crystalline materials usually possess
When combined with reinforcing fibres, thermoplastics better corrosion and solvent resistance than
are available as injection moulding compounds, amorphous polymers, exceeding that of
compression-mouldable random sheets, unidirectional thermosets in some cases.

 Some semi-crystalline thermoplastics possess Amorphous Thermoplastics

properties of inherent flame resistance, superior
toughness, good mechanical properties at The majority of thermoplastic polymers are composed
elevated temperatures and after impact, and of a random molecular orientation and are termed
low moisture absorption which have led to their amorphous. The molecules are unable to align
use in the aerospace industry in secondary and themselves in an ordered manner, since they are non-
primary structures. uniform or composed of units which have large side
groups.
 Inherent flame resistance has made these When they are combined with reinforcing fibres,
materials good candidates for aircraft interiors primarily carbon, aramid, and glass, amorphous
and for ship and submarine applications. thermoplastics are used in many applications including
aircraft canopies and jet engine components.
 The superior toughness makes them viable
candidates for aircraft leading edges and doors The use of amorphous thermoplastics as matrix
where impact damage resistance is required. materials for continuous fibre reinforced composites is
an area of recent development. The properties of
 Nickel-coated carbon/thermoplastic systems are these composites have led to their consideration for
being used in EMI shielding applications. primary and secondary aircraft structures, including
interior components, flooring, fairings, wing skins, and
fuselage sections.

Fabrics Woven fabric selections for structural applications

have several parameters which may be considered.
Woven or knitted fabric product forms, unlike tapes These variables are strand weight, tow or strand
and rovings, are in most circumstances produced prior count, weave pattern, and fabric finish. The variables
to the resin impregnation step. Therefore, these for glass fabrics are considerably greater than carbon
product forms, in most part, offer product continuity fabrics due to the availability of a greater range of
or retention of fibre placement prior to, during, and yarn weights. The availability of carbon tow weights or
after the impregnation step. Most fabric constructions filament count tows are few in comparison.
offer more flexibility for lay-up of complex shapes
than straight unidirectional tapes offer. Fabrics offer Generally, the lighter or thinner the fabric, the greater
the option for resin impregnation either by solution or the fabric cost. Also factored into the cost is the
the hot melt process. Generally, fabrics used for complexity of the weave pattern or machine output for
structural applications use like fibres or strands of the heavy fabrics. For aerospace structures, tightly woven
same weight or yield in both the warp (longitudinal) fabrics are usually the choice for areal weight
and fill (transverse) directions. However, this is not a considerations, minimizing resin void size, and
set rule as the number of combinations of maintaining fibre orientation during the fabrication
reinforcement fibres and weave styles are essentially process.
unlimited for custom applications. Also some fabrics
are produced which incorporate thermoplastic strands
that then become the resin matrix when the fabric is
processed to its final state.

Conventional Woven Fabrics fabric areal weight or to accommodate different fibres

of varying weight.
Woven structural fabrics are usually constructed with
reinforcement tows, strands, or yarns interlocking
upon themselves with over/under placement during
the weaving process. The more common fabrics are
plain or satin weaves. The plain weave construction
results from each fibre alternating over and then
under each intersecting strand (tow, bundle, or yarn).
With the common satin weaves, such as 5 harness or
8 harness, the fibre bundles traverse both in warp and
fill directions changing over/under position less
frequently (Figures 10 and 11).
These satin weaves have less crimp and are easier to

distort than a plain weave. With plain weave fabrics
and most 5 or 8 harness woven fabrics the fibre Fig 10. 5 Harness satin weave construction. In this
strand count is equal in both warp and fill directions. weave construction each yarn goes over 4 and under
For example, 3K plain weave often has an additional 1 yarn in both directions.
designation such as 12 x 12, meaning there are
twelve tows per inch in each direction. This count
designation can be varied to increase or decrease

in place by stitching with fine yarns or threads, after

preselected orientations or one or more layers of dry
plies. This product form, much like pre-plied
unidirectional tapes, offers a wide range of multi-ply
orientations.
Although there may be some added weight penalties
or loss of some ultimate reinforcement fibre
properties, some gain of interlaminar shear and
toughness properties may be realized. Some common
stitching yarns are polyester, aramid, or
thermoplastics.
Fig 11. 8 Harness satin weave construction. In this

Pre-impregnated Fabrics (pre-preg)
weave construction each yarn goes over 7 and under
1 yarn in both directions.
In pre-impregnated fabrics, activated resin is added to
Stitched or Knitted Fabrics uncut fabric before assembly. In order to delay the
hardening of the resin, the material is refrigerated.
These fabrics can offer many of the mechanical The pre-preg fabric has a thin sheet of plastic used as
advantages of unidirectional tapes. Fibre placement a separator on both sides for ease of transportation.
can be straight or unidirectional without the When required for use, the cloth is cut to shape with
over/under turns of woven fabrics. The fibres are held the plastic attached, the bottom sheet is the peeled
off and the cloth is placed in position. The top plastic

sheet is then removed. The resins used in pre-pregs Wood

are cured at high temperature. Pre-preg fabrics form
the bulk of the composite fabrics used in the aircraft Wooden cores are used in light aircraft constructions
industry. and are usually plywood or Balsa wood. Panels with
plywood cores are often used for bulkheads which
Core Materials may carry engine mountings or wing attachments.
A common material used in aircraft construction is a Foam

composite sandwich. The sandwich consists of strong,
thin skins bonded to a relatively light ‘core material’. There are four main kinds of foam cores, each of
The purpose of the core material is to transfer shear which is available in numerous densities (fig 12).
forces between the skin surfaces. There are Again these are mainly used in the light aircraft
numerous core materials that can be used and these environment. The four main kinds of foam used for
fall into 3 main categories: core material are:
 Wood  Polystyrene Foam

 Foam  Polyurethane Foam
 Honeycomb  Urethane / Polyester Foam
 Polyvinyl Chloride Foam

Honeycomb Cores
A honeycomb core is an array of hollow columns made

of sheet material which is used as core material for a
composite sandwich structure. The material used to
form the honeycomb may be paper, woven fabric or
metal. Honeycomb sandwich structures are widely
used in the commercial aerospace industry, where
high performance is required. These panels are used
within a wide range of applications in aircraft such as
cabin floor panels, primary structure of helicopters
and cabin interior furnishing (fig 13).
Fig 12. Typical Foam Core Materials

Non-Metallic Materials
Plastics
Plastics are based on carbon and hydrogen. The

major raw material source is crude oil or coal. One
well known exception however, is cellulose, which
comes from wood or from cotton plants. Although the
basic chemical elements of plastics are carbon and
hydrogen, other elements which are present in some
plastics are oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine and sulphur.
Plastics are made up of characteristic long chain

molecules i.e. they have a very high length/thickness
ratio.
Fig 13. Composite Honeycomb Sandwich There are three major groups of plastics, namely:
 Thermoplastics
 Thermosetting plastics
 Elastomers

Thermoplastics have the following properties: return to their original size and shape, similar to
natural rubber.
 They are solid at room temperature
 They are soft (mouldable) on heating Plastics are being used on an ever increasing scale
 They become hard again when cooled and are frequently replacing some of the more
 They can be remoulded repeatedly conventional materials such as metals, wood and
natural rubbers. Different plastics have properties
Thermosetting plastics have the following properties: which make them a popular choice over conventional
aircraft materials. Some of the more important
 They are soft or even liquid in their natural state properties / characteristics of plastics which help to
 They become rigid when cured explain their popularity are:
 They cannot be re-softened by heating once
cured  Lightness most plastics have specific gravities of
 They are relatively hard and brittle. 1.1 to 1.6 whereas the lightest structural metal
(magnesium) has a value of 1.75. The more
Note: Thermosetting plastics are generally stronger, common engineering materials such as
have a lower ductility and lower impact properties aluminium and steel have values of 2.7 and 7.8
than the Thermoplastics. respectively.
 Corrosion Resistance excellent. Plastics will
Plastic elastomers have considerable elastic tolerate hostile corrosion environments and
properties. They will tolerate repeated elongation and many of them resist acid attack.

 Low Thermal Conductivity this property makes range of light transmission properties are
many plastics ideal for thermal insulators. possible. Optical properties can also be
achieved with some plastics.
 Electrical Resistance excellent. Consequently
plastics are used in enormous quantities for  Vibration Damping. Many plastics are naturally
electrical insulation applications. resistant to fatigue. Because of the high value
of internal damping present, resonances will
 Formability. Many plastics are easily formed into tend to be of relatively low amplitude.
the finished product by casting moulding or
extrusion, often in a single operation. Although plastics are extremely useful materials,
some shortcomings inevitably exist, particularly when
 Surface Finish excellent. Surface finishes can be compared to some metals. Their major deficiencies
achieved in the basic forming operation, so are:
finishing operations are not necessary.
 Lack of Strength. Most plastics are much weaker
 Relatively Low Cost. Although some of the than metals e.g. mild steel has approximately
materials may not be particularly cheap, the six times the strength of nylon.
lack of machining required and high production
rates keep overall costs down.  Low Stiffness plastics have a very inferior value
of Young’s Modulus compared with the common
 Light Transmission. Some plastics are naturally metals.
clear whilst other are opaque. Consequently a

 Low Impact Strength many plastics have poor Some of the more common plastics used in
impact strength, but there are a few exceptions engineering are:
such as certain polycarbonates.
 Acetate - widely used for tool handles, and
 Poor Dimensional Stability mainly due to high electrical goods.
values of thermal coefficient of expansion.
 Poly-Ethylene - commonly known as
 Poor High Temperature Capability. Metals are polythene. Uses include flexible tubing, cable
generally capable of retaining reasonable insulation and packaging.
strength at much higher temperatures than the
plastics. The long term maximum operating  Poly-Propylene - stronger, harder and more
temperature for the better plastics is not usually rigid than polythene. Uses include high
above 250ºC. High temperature metals can pressure air piping.
operate for long periods well in excess of 800ºC.  Poly-Vinyl-Chloride - commonly known as
 Moisture Absorption. many types absorb PVC. Varying degrees of rigidity / flexibility are
moisture which can result in a significant loss of achievable by varying the amount of plasticiser
strength in a humid environment. used. Rigid moulded sections or piping can be
produced or flexible electric cable insulation.
 Ultra Violet Light. some plastics deteriorate
when exposed to U.V. light for long periods.  Polystyrene - can be produced in rigid form,
Increased brittleness and loss of strength can but is more familiar when in the expanded form,
occur.

when it is useful for thermal insulation,  Nylon – This belongs to the polyamide family
buoyancy or shock resistant packaging. and is an extremely useful and versatile
material. It is strong, tough and also has low
 Acrylics - these are particularly useful where friction properties. It can be used as a fibre or
light transmission is necessary. Perspex and produced as a moulding. Popular uses include
Plexiglas belong to this family. They have textiles, furnishings, ropes, tyre reinforcement,
excellent light transmission properties and are bushes, pulleys, gears, lightweight mouldings
also resistant to splintering. There is a tendency such as brackets, handles etc.
for some fine craze cracking to develop if
exposed for long periods to ultra violet light.  Polytetrafluoroethylene - commonly known
These transparent plastics may be solid or as ‘PTFE’, it is similar to nylon in appearance but
laminated. When laminated two or more layers is denser, whiter and much more expensive. It
are bonded together with a clear adhesive and has a wax-like surface and this characteristic
in this form they are more shatter resistant and results in very low friction properties which
ideally suited to pressurised aircraft windows. makes it suitable for bushes and gears. It also
has a high temperature capability (over 300ºC)
 Poly-Carbonates - these have similar uses to and is also extensively used as a non-stick
the acrylics (Perspex etc.) but are more coating e.g. Teflon. PTFE tape is often used as a
temperature resistant and also have superior thread sealant for oxygen pipe threads, and
impact strength. They are also more expensive. backing rings for hydraulic seals

 Buna ‘S’ - relatively cheap material with a 250ºC. They are also solvent resistant and are
performance similar at natural rubber. It is mainly used for high temperature seals. A
often used for tyres and tubes, but its poor common name for this material is Viton. This
resistance to fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it material is expensive.
unsuitable for seals.
 Neoprene - has very good tensile properties
 Buna ‘N’ - also known as Nitrile, it has excellent and excellent elastic recovery qualities. It is
resistance to fuels and oils, and it is used for oil also solvent resistant and therefore has a wide
and fuel hoses, gaskets, and seals. It also has range of applications as fuel and hydraulic seals
low ‘stiction’ properties when in contact with and gaskets. However, because of its special
metal and is therefore particularly suited to elastic recovery properties it is ideally suited to
moving seal applications. diaphragms and hydraulic seals (DTS 585)
 Silicone Rubber - has very good high and low  Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses
temperature properties (-80ºC to + 200ºC). Is relatively poor physical properties it has
often used for seals but is also used for potting exceptionally high resistance to fuels and oils
of electrical circuits because of its ability to and is widely used for lining or sealing fuel
retain its rubbery state even at low tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals
temperatures. and hoses which come into contact with fuels or
oils. These compounds are commonly known as
 Fluoroelastomers - these have exceptional PRC or Thiokol.
high temperature properties and can be used at

Plastic Manufacturing Processes honeycomb or foam core. Very stiff but light
structures are achieved by this method.
The most common manufacturing methods are as
follows:  Compression Moulding. Where a sheet of
plastic is compressed between the two halves of
 Casting. Where the molten material is simply a die.
poured into a mould and allowed to set.
Note: Vacuum Forming uses a similar tooling
 Moulding. Where powder, liquid or paste is but in this case the plastic is sucked into contact
forced into a set of shaped dies. with the shaped die (often used to manufacture
aircraft interior trim).
 Extrusion. Where plastic is forced through a

suitable shape die. Rod, sheet tube, angle
sections etc. are produced this way.
 Lay-Up. Where load carrying plastic fibres and

an adhesive are layered in a mould or around a
former.
 Sandwich-Construction. Where plastic

facings have sandwiched between them a

Sealant and Bonding Agents

In practice, most adhesives use both of these
Adhesive bonding is being used on an ever increasing methods of bonding to form a joint.
scale and particularly in the aerospace industry.
Adhesives are used for tasks varying from aircraft Advantages and Disadvantages of Adhesives
control surfaces, fuselage construction, to helicopter over Mechanical Fasteners
rotor blades.
Advantages
The actual adhesive bond may be achieved in two
ways:  No weakening of the component due to the
presence of holes. Also providing a smooth
1. Mechanical. The adhesive penetrates into the finish due to lack of rivet heads.
surface and forms a mechanical lock by keying
into the surface. It also forms re-entrants  No local stress raisers which are present with
where the adhesive penetrates behind parts of widely pitched conventional fasteners, (Bolts,
the structure and becomes an integral part of rivets etc.).
the component to be joined.
 Can be used to join dissimilar materials and
2. Chemical (Specific). In this method of materials of awkward shapes and different
bonding, the adhesive is spread over the thicknesses (Riveting and welding is not
surfaces to be joined and forms a chemical bond always possible on very thin and very thick
with the surface. materials).

 Although the strength per unit area may be Disadvantages

inferior to a mechanical or welded joint,
adhesive bonding takes place over a greater  Limited heat resistance. This restricts the
continuous area and therefore gives comparable process to applications where environmental
or increased strength coupled with improved temperatures will not generally be above 200ºC.
stiffness.
 Poor electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Adhesive / sealants provide electrical insulation
and prevent galvanic corrosion between  High thermal expansion.
different materials.
 Limited resistance to certain chemicals (i.e.
 Leak-proof (fuel and gas) joints can be some paint strippers).
achieved.
 Integrity difficult to check by non-destructive
 The elastic properties of some adhesives give means.
flexibility to the joint and may help to damp out
vibrations.
 Heat sensitive materials can be joined.

Types of adhesives aircraft, and in addition to those discussed in the

composites section above, are:
Although an enormous range of adhesives exists, they
can be classified into two major groups - Structural  Solvent Activated and Impact Adhesives
and Flexible. Structural adhesives are primarily aimed (Evo-Stick). This type contains a solvent which
at applications where high loads must be carried softens the adhesive for easy application. A
without excessive creep. They are therefore relatively bond is formed when the solvent evaporates. In
rigid, but without being excessively hard or brittle. the case of impact adhesives, the adhesive is
Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing slight spread over both surfaces and left to dry by
relative movement of the joint is essential and where evaporation. When dry, the two surfaces are
high load carrying properties are not paramount. In brought together and they bond by inter-
general, structural adhesives are based on resins, (the molecular attraction.
most common ones being epoxy or polyester)  Epoxy-Resin (Araldite). These adhesives are
whereas flexible adhesives are based on flexible based on the reaction product of Acetone and
plastics or elastomers. In practice, structural Phenol and can cure at room temperature by the
adhesives often contain a small proportion of action of a hardener, or by the application of
elastomer and the flexible adhesives contain some heat. They will bond most surfaces, and as no
resin. Another group is the two-polymer type which gas or vapours are released during curing,
has a reasonably even balance of resin and elastomer require little or no pressure to form the joint.
which results in a flexible yet fairly strong adhesive. The bond is strong in tension or shear, but the
Examples of some specific adhesives in use on cured adhesive is very brittle and will fail in
cleavage and has poor peel strength. To

improve these characteristics, modified epoxies stringers to fuselage skin in aircraft such as the
have been produced with thermoplastics such as BAe 146 and BAe 125. The obvious advantage
nylon incorporated into the resin. This improves is that rivets are not used in a pressurised area.
the performance in peel and also improves the
flexibility and the wetting of non-porous It is only practical to use the Redux method in
surfaces such as metal or glass. the manufacturing process and repairs to this
type of structure would be done by riveting.
 Phenolic Adhesives (Aerodux). These are The components to be bonded are placed in an
based on an aldehyde and phenol reaction. The autoclave with the adhesive in sheet form
by-product of this reaction is to give off water between them. Heat and pressure are then
and formaldehyde so high pressures are used to form the bond.
necessary to prevent the join from being forced
apart. Curing requires a temperature of up to  Thiokol (PRC). One extremely useful flexible
480ºC. This is the type of adhesive used in the adhesive/sealant because of its great resistance
production of Plywood’s. The addition of to oils, fuels and other solvents is Polysulphide
thermo-plastic modifiers, such as synthetic rubber (common trade name Thiokol). Its high
rubbers has extended the use of this type of flexibility coupled with its solvent resistance
adhesive. makes it an ideal adhesive/sealant for fuel
tanks. It is also resistant to degradation by
 Redux. Probably the most common structural light, oxygen and heat and is used extensively
adhesive. It is widely used in the manufacture for sealing aircraft pressure cabins and windows.
of aircraft, particularly for the attachment of It is normally available as a two part mix and

may be applied by brush, spatula or by an used for securing bearings in housings or on

applicator. The two parts should not be mixed shafts.
until ready for use and the complete curing
process may take up to 48 hours. Warm air The Detection of Defects / Deterioration in
heating will speed up this process. The unused Composite and Non-metallic Material
adhesive has a limited life in storage, so the
date should be checked before use. Composite aircraft parts can be damaged during
manufacturing, shipping, and service. A primary focus
 Specialist Adhesives. One of the specialist in composites is low velocity impacts that can cause
adhesives is ‘Cyano-Acrylate’ (Super-glue). This significant damage that may not be clearly visible.
cannot become activated by itself, but is Sources of such impact damage include falling tools
catalysed by the presence of atmospheric and equipment, runway debris, hail, birds, and
moisture or to the presence of oxygen in the air collision with other airplanes or ground vehicles.
the curing process can occur, almost Airplanes can also be damaged by high velocity
instantaneously. impacts from discrete source events (e.g., parts of
rotating machinery that fail in turbofan engines and
Another specialist group of adhesives commonly penetrate the engine containment system, the aircraft
used in engineering are anaerobic. These are skin, and supporting structure). At the time of writing
liquid when exposed to air, but will cure when the most recent case of high velocity impact damage
confined to small spaces in the absence of air. occurred to a Qantas A380 after one of its Trent 900
Its main use is for adhesive locking of threaded engines suffered catastrophic failure (fig 14).
fasteners (Loctite) although it is sometimes

strength is affected by fibre failure. Impact damage

can also affect the environmental resistance of a
composite structural component or the integrity of
associated aircraft systems. For example, impact
damage may allow moisture to penetrate into the
sandwich core in light-gauge fairing panels or provide
a path for fuel leaks in stiffened wing panels. These
effects must be understood for safe and economic
composite applications
Damage can occur at several scales within the

composite material and structural configuration. This
ranges from damage in the matrix and fibre to broken
Fig 14. Composite Structural Damage to a Qantas
A380 Following Catastrophic Engine Failure (upper elements and failure of bonded or bolted attachments.
wing surface) The extent of damage controls repeated load life and
residual strength, and is, therefore, critical to damage
Concerns about the effects of impact damage can be tolerance.
quite different, depending on the specific design and
application. Compressive residual strength of Fibre breakage can be critical because structures are
laminated composite material forms is known to typically designed to be fibre dominant (i.e., fibres
depend on the extent of delamination and fibre failure carry most of the loads). Fortunately, fibre failure is
caused by transverse impacts. Tensile residual typically limited to a zone near the point of impact,

and is constrained by the impact object size and Delaminations form on the interface between the
energy. layers in the laminate. Delaminations may form from
matrix cracks that grow into the interlaminar layer or
Matrix imperfections (Cracks, porosity, blisters, etc.) from low energy impact. Debonds can also form from
usually occur on the matrix-fibre interface, or in the production non-adhesion along the bondline between
matrix parallel to the fibres. These imperfections can two elements and initiate delamination in adjacent
slightly reduce some of the material properties but will laminate layers. Under certain conditions,
seldom be critical to the structure, unless the matrix delaminations or debonds can grow when subjected to
degradation is widespread. Accumulation of matrix repeated loading and can cause catastrophic failure
cracks can cause the degradation of matrix-dominated when the laminate is loaded in compression. The
properties. For laminates designed to transmit loads criticality of delaminations or debonds depend on:
with their fibres (fibre dominant), only a slight
reduction of properties is observed when the matrix is  Dimensions
severely damaged. Matrix cracks can significantly  Number of delaminations at a given location
reduce properties dependent on the resin or the  Location - in the thickness of laminate, in the
fibre/resin interface, such as interlaminar shear and structure, proximity to free edges, stress
compression strength. For high temperature resins, concentration region, geometrical
micro-cracking can have a very negative effect on discontinuities, etc.
properties. Matrix imperfections may develop into  Loads - behaviour of delaminations and debonds
delaminations, which are a more critical type of depend on loading type. They have little effect
damage. on the response of laminates loaded in tension.
Under compression or shear loading, however,

the sub-laminates adjacent to the delaminations Penetrants, Bond Testers, Ultrasonic Inspection,
or debonded elements may buckle and cause a Radiography, Mechanical Impedance, and
load redistribution mechanism, which leads to Thermography. However, these methods tend to be
structural failure. used more by manufacturing industry and public
transport operators, than by small aircraft operators,
In general, impact events cause combinations of due to the relatively high cost of installation and
damages. High-energy impacts by large objects (i.e., operation. These techniques are often only used
turbine blades) may lead to broken elements and following the visual location of damage, or suspected
failed attachments. The resulting damage may damage. All inspections must be completed by
include significant fibre failure, matrix cracking, personnel qualified in accordance with suitably CAP
delamination, broken fasteners, and debonded 747 Mandatory Requirements for Airworthiness
elements. Damage caused by low-energy impact is Generic Requirement (GR) No. 23.
more contained, but may also include a combination
of broken fibres, matrix cracks and multiple Visual Inspection: Some composite damage can be
delaminations. located by visual inspection, whilst some may not.
Inspection may be complicated by the material
Inspection Methods surface finish. The material may remain in its natural
finished state, it may have been finished with a dye, it
Approximately 90% of all aviation inspections of may have a gel coat (possibly coloured), or it may
composite structure are visual, often being have been painted. Paint colour may be significant to
complemented by a Tap Test. Many other inspection damage detectability. These conditions should be
techniques are used by the aviation industry, e.g. Dye allowed for when completing inspection. Furthermore,

knowledge of the surface material type, e.g. the type Note. Visual inspection will not be adequate to allow
of weave etc., will help identify the existence of detection of some damage types i.e. NVD, e.g. some
damage. delaminations, impacts, and heat damage etc. The
design should allow for this, or further actions should
Note. It is common for a manufacturer to use a be called in the manufacturer’s data to deal with
sacrificial protective woven outer layer to protect the potential problems. Furthermore, note that some
structural plies, particularly unidirectional plies. This damaged structure may relax, e.g. impact damage, to
may give a drawings etc., should be consulted to the extent that 60%, or more, of the original profile
establish this point. If in doubt, then treat the outer may be recovered. Therefore, the time between a
ply as a structural ply. damage event and inspection may be significant to
detectability.
Visual inspection may allow for the detection of many
defect types, e.g. some impacts, delaminations, Delamination in GFRP components that do not have
disbonds, cracks, some heat damage, 2·54mm rigid foam or any similar obstructions inside, can often
(0·1in.) depth, scratches of 1·27mm (0·05in.) length be detected by pointing a bright light at the surface
etc. Lesser dimensions may be located in favourable whilst looking at the other side. Damage may be
conditions. The nature and extent of damage that may evident as a dark area. Care must be taken in
be detected may vary significantly, being a function of positioning the light source so as not to let the
many variables, e.g. cleanliness, lighting, inspector composite get hot, as this can cause damage. CFRP
skill and experience, surface finish, colour etc. does not allow for such inspection. This is an
inspection method widely used and recommended by
manufacturers such as Grob and Slingsby.

Tap Test. In its crudest form the Tap Test is the thickness, hidden attached structure, potting material,
simple tapping of the structure with a coin, or similar the presence of repairs etc. Therefore, knowledge of
small hard blunt object, such that a sound is the composite structure, and the surrounding
generated. A damaged structure usually produces a structure, is necessary to gain the most useful
'duller' sound than an undamaged structure. Although information from the Tap Test. Furthermore, a Tap
crude, the Tap Test can be a useful complimentary Test is difficult to use reliably over large areas
tool for a visual inspection, particularly when because an inspector may experience problems
confirming the presence and approximate dimensions maintaining concentration during such a repetitive
of disbands and delaminations. It may be possible to task.
detect such defects down to 12·7-25·7mm (0·5-1in.)
diameter in typical composite manufactures. A Note. Automated electronic Tap Test equipment is
structure should be explored in 6-13mm (0·25 – available which measures impact signal transmission
0·5in.) steps to locate such damage. duration or frequency.
Note. The minimum detectable dimension increases

with material thickness. The usefulness of the Tap
Test for sandwich structure is limited to damage
detection at the presented face, e.g. inter-ply
delamination or core to skin disbond. Significant
honeycomb cell fluid content may sometimes be
detected. Unfortunately, the sound will also change
due to factors other than damage, e.g. changes of

Repair of Composite and Non-metallic Material The SRM for the particular component will detail the
type of repair to be applied – bolted or bonded.
Before a repair can be carried out, the extent of the
damage must be assessed by a qualified engineer. Damage Removal and Site Preparation
Depending upon the severity of the damage, the
assessment process may require the need for Once the repair perimeter has been established
specialist non-destructive inspection methods. around the damage, the task of damage removal
begins. The first step is the removal of finish topcoat
The repair has the objective of restoring the damaged by hand sanding or other mechanical means. The use
structure to a required capability in terms of strength, of chemical paint stripper is prohibited as it can attack
stiffness, functional performance, safety, service life, the composite resin system and can also become
and cosmetic appearance. Ideally, the repair will entrapped in the honeycomb core. Once the topcoat
return the structure to original capability and and primer are removed and the damaged plies
appearance. To start the repair process the structural clearly defined, the damaged plies are then removed
makeup of the component must be known in order to either by sanding or other mechanical means, if the
re-establish the continuity in load transfer in a damage is partial through the thickness, or by
damaged part by attaching new material by bolting or trimming, if the damage is through the laminate. In
bonding, thus bridging the gap or reinforcing the either case, a well-prepared site should have a well-
weakened portion. Hence the repair is in reality a defined geometric shape with smoothed out corners.
joint where a load is transferred from the parent Any damaged core must be cut out, with special care
material into and out of the patch. taken not to damage the inner surface of the opposite
(non-damaged) composite skin.

Once the damage has been removed, the repair area introduction of load into and out of the repair
should be checked for evidence of moisture and/or material. For external patches, additional
contaminants. Contaminants, such as hydraulic fluids consideration for step patching is to minimize
or engine oils, will saturate the composite materials intrusion into the air stream. SRM’s usually specify
making it extremely difficult to obtain a clean bond the taper angle, overlap and step lengths.
surface. They may also degrade the mechanical
properties of the composite materials. Undetected Bolted Repairs
moisture will turn into steam during elevated
temperature cure. The steam will seek an escape Bolted repairs can comprise an external or an internal
path from within the panel causing blown core and patch that results in a single shear joint, or two
laminate disbonding. It has also been shown that patches, one on each side that leads to a double shear
patches bonded to parent composite material joint (fig 15). In both cases the load is transferred
containing more than a nominal 0.3% moisture through the fasteners and the patch by shear forces,
content by weight, experience, lower adhesive bond but in the case of the two-patch repair, transfer load
strengths. For honeycomb parts cured at room eccentricity is minimized. The main disadvantage of
temperature, presence of moisture is undesirable and bolted repairs is that the new holes created in the
the part should be cleaned and dried before parent structure weaken the structure by creating
proceeding with the repair. stress concentrations that become damage initiation
sites.
For bonded repairs, site preparation for installation of
the repair usually involves taper sanding or step
cutting of plies. This is done so that there is gradual

Fig 15. Typical Basic Repair Joint (Bolted)

The external bolted patch is the easiest repair to For complex repairs, multi-row fastener patterns will
fabricate. The patch overlaps the parent skin with be required to gradually introduce the load from the
sufficient area to install the required amount of part being repaired into the repair patch. It is
fasteners to transfer the load. For large repairs the virtually impossible to distribute the load evenly
patch may be stepped and different size fasteners between all the fasteners in a multiple row pattern,
may be used in different rows to ease the load but careful design of patch geometry, fastener
transfer. The external patch thickness may be limited diameter and spacing can alleviate the high loads at
by aerodynamic considerations and by the induced the first fasteners. Such complex repairs are not
load eccentricity due to neutral axis offset. However, usually identified in the SRM and will require specialist
this type of repair does not need access to both sides design and testing by the OEM.
as the fasteners can be blind. If the external patch is
unfeasible, an internal patch can be applied. When For bolted repairs, there is only the need to select
backside access is not possible, the patch is split to patch material and fasteners. Patches may be
allow insertion through an elliptical or circular cut-out aluminium, titanium or steel, or pre-cured composite,
in the skin. In some cases the damage must be carbon/epoxy or fiberglass epoxy. For aluminium
enlarged in the direction of the primary load in order patch repair on carbon parent material, a layer of
to carry out the repair. Because of hardware, internal fiberglass cloth is placed between them to prevent
bolted patches may have interference problems with galvanic corrosion. For repair of highly loaded
substructure members. The two-patch repair using components, titanium or pre-cured carbon/epoxy
external and internal patches is a desirable repair patches are usually preferred. For repair of high
from the load transfer point-of-view; however, the strain structure coupled with severe fatigue load
repair is more complicated and is heavier. environment, carbon/epoxy patches can be more

effective. Pre-cured carbon/epoxy patches will have Bolted Repair Procedure

the same strength and stiffness as the parent material
as they are usually cured and inspected similarly. The Bolted repair procedure consists of six distinct steps:
major disadvantages of this type of patch are that
they do not conform to curved or irregular surfaces 1. Patch Preparation and Pilot Drilling of
and that warpage during pre-cure can result in poor fit Holes - The first step is to cut, form and shape
which requires shimming. the patch before attaching the patch to the
damaged structure. The edges of metal patches
must be filed and polished to prevent crack
For the repair of composite parts, the choice of initiation. When drilling pilot holes in the
fasteners is limited to titanium, Monel, or stainless composite, the holes for repair fasteners must
steel. However, the choice of fastener type is strictly be a minimum of four diameters from any
controlled by the SRM. existing fasteners and have a minimum land of
2 1/2 fastener diameters. Specific pilot hole
There is a general misconception that bolted repairs sizes and drill types to be used are detailed in
the aircraft SRM.
require very little logistics support in terms of
materials. This is false, as many types of fasteners Note: The land for composite materials is
with different grip lengths need to be stored. As greater than that for metal to metal fasteners
fasteners for composites are expensive, the inventory where the standard practice is 2 fastener
can be costly. If pre-cured carbon/epoxy patches are diameters.
used, different patch sizes and thicknesses have to be
available, as cutting to size requires specialized
equipment.

Fig 16. Typical External Patch Bolted Repair Arrangement

2. Laying Out the Hole Pattern on the Parent 4. Drilling / Reaming of the Patch and Skin -
Skin and Pilot Drilling the Skin Holes - To Composite skins should be backed-up to prevent
locate the patch on the damaged area, two splitting. The patch is then reattached through
perpendicular centrelines are drawn on the part
the interior fasteners so that the corner fastener
that define the principal load or geometric
directions (fig 16). The hole pattern is then holes can be enlarged. All holes are then
laid-out and the pilot holes in the skin are reamed. A tolerance of (+0.0025/-0.000 in.
drilled. The principal directions of the patch are [+0.06/-0.00 mm]) is usually recommended for
then aligned between the patch and the parent aircraft parts. For composites this means
structure. The edges of the patch are marked interference fasteners are not used.
so that it can be returned to the same location.
After the patch is removed, it is advisable to 5. Patch and Fastener Installation - Once
check if there is sufficient edge distance
fastener holes are drilled full size and reamed,
between the patch perimeter and the outer
holes. The pilot holes in the patch are then permanent fasteners are installed. Before
enlarged. installation the fastener grip length must be
measured for each fastener using a grip length
3. The Transfer of the Holes in the Skin to the gauge. As different fasteners are required for
Patch if the Patch Covers Some Existing different repairs, the SRM should be consulted
Skin Holes – If the back of the repair site is for permissible fastener types and installation
accessible, existing holes in the aircraft skin are procedures. However, all fasteners should be
back drilled through the repair patch. If the back installed wet with sealant and with the correct
of the repair site is not accessible, existing skin torque for screws and bolts.
holes must be ’picked up’ using a hole finder.

6. Sealing of the Repair - Sealants are applied to into the joint and to prevent the adhesive from
bolted repairs for the prevention of escaping. This translates into a thickness to length
water/moisture intrusion, chemical damage, ratios between 1/10 and 1/40. The adhesive placed
galvanic corrosion and fuel leaks. They also between the repair material and the parent material
provide contour smoothness. The sealant has to transfers the load from the parent material to the
be applied to a clean surface. Masking tape is patch by shear. The external patch repair concept is
usually placed around the periphery of the the easier of the two to accomplish. Its drawbacks are
patch, parallel with the patch edges leaving a eccentricity of the loading causing peel stresses and
small gap between the edge of the patch and protrusion into the air stream. The stress
the masking tape. Sealing compound is then concentration at the edge of the patch can be reduced
applied into this gap. by stepping or tapering the patch (fig 17). Because
inspection of bonded repairs is difficult, bonded
repairs, as contrasted with bolted repairs, require a
Bonded Repairs higher commitment to quality control, better trained
personnel, and cleanliness.
The two most common bonded repairs use external
patches or are internal patches that are made flush The scarf joint (fig 17) is more efficient from the
with the parent material (fig 17). Combinations of viewpoint of load transfer as it reduces load
both types of repairs are also common. Although the eccentricity by closely aligning the neutral axis of the
external patches are usually stepped, the internal parent and the patch.
repair can be stepped or more commonly scarfed.
The scarf angles are usually small to ease the load

However, this configuration has many drawbacks in

making the repair:-
 To maintain a small taper angle, large quantity

of sound material must be removed.
 The replacement plies must be very accurately

laid-up and placed in the repair joint.
 Curing of replacement plies can result in

significantly reduced strength if not cured in the
autoclave.
 The adhesive can run to the bottom to the joint

creating a non-uniform bond line. This can be
alleviated by approximating the scarf with a
series of small steps.
For these reasons, unless the part is lightly loaded,

this type of repair is usually performed at a repair
Fig 17. Types of Bonded Repairs
facility, where if the part can be inserted into the

autoclave. This type of repair can result in the repair of the work area and its ambient temperature and
being as strong as the original material. humidity. Other important factors are workmanship
and geometrical fit of mating parts.
The patch can be pre-cured and then secondarily
bonded to the parent material. This procedure most The four major activities necessary to make a bonded
closely approximates the bolted repair. The patch can repair are:-
be made from pre-preg and then co-cured at the
same time as the adhesive and lastly the patch can be 1. Patch and parent surface preparation,
made using dry cloth, paste resin, and co-cured. This 2. Adhesive application
latter repair is called “wet” lay-up repair. The curing 3. Bagging
cycle can also vary in length of time, cure 4. Curing.
temperature, and cure pressure, thus increasing the
number of possible repair combinations. Each of these activities may be different for the type
of bonded repair being attempted, materials used, and
Bonded Repair Procedures the part being repaired. Size of the repair may be
limited by the allowable out-time of the adhesive. A
This section will describe typical bonded repair drawing of the patch is used to lay-up the composite
procedures. However, the aircraft SRM must be tape or fabric, sheet metal or dry fabric materials.
consulted for specific repair procedures. Bonded Standard shop procedures are used to make the
repairs require close control of the repair process and composite patch laminate from pre-preg. Dry fabric
the repair environment. Structural integrity of the plies for wet lay-up are cut first to size before
bonded joint is strongly dependent on the cleanliness

impregnating with resin. This is done to minimize heat. Starting from the top of the patch, the repair
repair time. bagging assembly contains porous separator release
film to prevent bleeder plies sticking to the repair
Before adhesive application, the repair patch and the plies, bleeder plies to absorb extra resin (it is
parent surfaces must be wiped clean with solvent and assumed that the pre-preg is not net resin type),
allowed to dry. At this point the composite surface Mylar separator ply perforated to allow venting, caul
should be abraded. A light grit blast gives a more or pressure plate to help provide smooth finish to the
uniform abrasion than hand sanding. The surface is repair, breather plies to provide for the air to be
then wiped dry with a clean, lint free cloth. Metal initially inside the bag to be drawn off by the vacuum
sheet patches have special surface preparation source, and finally a rubberized vacuum bag. The
requirements depending on whether the patch is vacuum bag is sealed on the periphery using tape.
aluminium or titanium. These are detailed in the SRM For a bonded repair with a metallic or pre-cured
and must be strictly followed. composite patch, bagging would still be needed to
apply vacuum pressure to the adhesive but would be
Film adhesives are first attached to the patch, simpler.
trimmed, and then applied to the damaged area.
Bagging is an operation wherein the repair is enclosed An integral part of the bagging process is the
for the curing operation. Vacuum bagging allows the placement of the thermocouples to monitor part and
repair to be cured under atmospheric pressure. repair temperatures during cure. Thermocouples on
Figure 18 shows a typical bagging arrangement in the part are needed to make sure that the part is not
which patch plies of pre-preg are co-cured with a layer overheated. Figure 18 shows only one thermocouple
of adhesive and a heating blanket is used to supply wire. (The more common practice is to place the heat

Fig 18. Schematic Cross Section of Vacuum Bagging Lay up

blanket within the vacuum bag.) For larger repairs, lower strength and stiffness of the replacement plies
more thermocouples are needed to map the because of vacuum pressure cure and to protect the
temperature distribution for the complete repair area. repair.
Distributing the heat evenly on the repair is one of the
goals of proper bagging technique. In some cases a The external plies are identical to each other to
thin aluminium or copper sheet is inserted inside the maintain symmetry. The 0o and the 45o plies are
bag for that purpose. Care must be taken not to serrated to prevent peeling of the longer plies.
puncture the bag. After the cure is completed the
repair assembly is cooled before relieving vacuum
pressure.
Scarf Repair
The scarf repair in figure 19 shows a simple scarf

repair of penetration damage to a 16-ply laminate.
The taper of the scarf is determined from the SRM.
The scarf plies replace parent plies with the same
orientation and thickness repair plies. Additional plies
on the outside and inside mould lines (OML and IML)
are placed on top of the repair to compensate for the

Fig 19. Single-Scarf Bonded Joint Repair

Honeycomb Repair external patch is usually applicable only for thin skin
repairs while scarf concepts are used to repair thicker
Most structural repairs that are performed due to skins.
service damage are on sandwich structure, metallic or
composite. For composites, it is due to the fact that a When the core material is damaged there are two
large proportion of current components are light methods of repairing it:
sandwich structures that are susceptible to damage
and are also easily damaged. Additional flexibility  Full-depth Core Replacement
with composites is possible as flush scarf repairs can  Partial-depth Core Replacement
be accomplished.
For full-depth core replacement there are three
Because sandwich structure is a bonded construction common methods, the core fill method, the paste
and the face sheets are thin, damage to sandwich adhesive method, and the film/foam method. The
structure is usually repaired by bonding. Repair three methods are shown in figure 20. The core fill
procedures are similar to the bonded repairs discussed method replaces the damaged honeycomb with glass-
above with the additional task of restoring the floc filled paste adhesive and is limited to small
damaged core. When repairing one face skin of the damage sizes. The weight of the repairs must be
sandwich, remember that half of the in-plane load is calculated and compared with flight control weights
transferred through that face sheet, and if the repair and balance limits set out in the SRM. The other two
does not approximate in stiffness the undamaged face methods can be used interchangeably depending on
sheet extraneous bending moment could induce peel the available adhesives. However, the paste adhesive
loads between the face sheets and core. Thus, an method results in a much heavier repair than the

film/foam method, especially if the damage diameter

is greater than 4 inches. The foaming adhesive
required to utilize the film/foam method is a thin
unsupported epoxy film containing a blowing agent
which is liberated during cure causing a foaming
action. The expansion process needs to be performed
under positive pressure to become strong, highly
structured foam. Like film adhesives, foaming
adhesives require high temperature cure and
refrigerator storage. Core replacement is usually
accomplished with a separate curing cycle and not co-
cured with the patch.
For partial-depth damage, different methods can be

used to attach the replacement honeycomb to the
parent honeycomb as shown in figure 21. The two
methods describe the pre-preg / film adhesive
bonding and the wet lay-up bonding.
Fig 20. Full-depth Core Replacement

Following the core replacement, the sandwich repair

proceeds as a bolted or bonded repair of the face
sheets as described earlier. One more step has to be
performed before proceeding with repair of the face
sheets and that is to bond a pre-cured fiberglass plug
on top of the exposed core. This preserves the
continuity of the bond between the core and the face
sheets.
Sandwich structures are usually repaired by bonding

patches. For bonded repair of the sandwich structure,
special considerations that have to be adhered to are:
the honeycomb must be thoroughly dried to prevent
face sheet disbond during curing, and the curing
pressure must be low to prevent honeycomb crushing.
If it is unfeasible to dry out the honeycomb, lower
temperature (200o F (93°C)) curing and be used if this
has been approved in the SRM.
Fig 21. Partial-depth Core Replacement
Occasionally, sandwich structure is repaired using
bolted external patches. In this case, the honeycomb
where the bolts would pass through has to be

strengthened by filling the core with the same filler as 6.3.2 Wooden Structures
for core replacement. The diameter of this area
should be at least three times the diameter of the Aircraft have been made from wooden ever since
bolt. Special bolts that have limited clamping force Leonardo Da Vinci’s experiments with flight circa
are used for such repairs. 1496. Wooden aircraft in the 21st century are
confined to General Aviation and the ‘self-build’
Finally, once the repair has cured it must be inspected enthusiast.
using one of the techniques described earlier.
Construction Methods of Wooden Airframe
Structures
Wooden aircraft depend entirely on glued joints for

their strength; nails are used but only to hold the joint
together whilst the glue sets, they supply no strength.
The design of the joint is important. The joint must be
loaded in shear only and the grains must be parallel.
The glues used for aircraft construction are plastic

resin or resorcinol in general but others such as
epoxies can be used with special approval.

The glued joint on a wooden structure should be least 4 nails per square inch and never more than ¾
stronger than the wood itself and when broken it of an inch apart.
should be the wooden fibres that break and not the
glued joint.
Preparation of the joint for gluing is vitally important.

The final surface preparation of the joint should be
completed no more than 8 hours before gluing. The
wood is cut with a fine-toothed saw and smoothed
with a planer or jointer. NAILS
PLYWOOD
APPLYING
GUSSET
Note: Don’t sand the surface, as this will allow PRESSURE
sanding dust to enter the fibres and thus prevent the
glue entering.
Some areas of the structure require extra strength at

the joints, for example, engine mounting frames. In Fig 22. Gusset Strengthened Joint
these areas gussets are fitted (fig 22). The gusset is
glued over the joint and brass cement coated aircraft
nails are used to apply the pressure whilst the glue
sets. These nails should be placed so that there are at

Characteristics, Properties and Types of Wood The process of seasoning reduces the moisture
and Glue used in Aeroplanes content of timber to a point where it is in equilibrium
with the surrounding atmosphere and enables
A good basic knowledge combined with many years’ protective treatments to be applied more effectively.
experience in the handling of timber is essential for
the accurate assessment of the characteristics and After the timber has been properly seasoned, samples
defects which make it either suitable or unsuitable for should be cut and tested for strength and brittleness
aircraft parts. to determine its suitability for use on aircraft. Before
taking the samples from a plank of timber,
Seasoning approximately 6 inches should be cut from the end
and discarded as this piece may be drier than the
Before the timber can be used in aircraft structures in remainder.
must be seasoned. The timber which has been cut
from selected trees is stacked for approximately 60 Moisture Content
days. During this time, the timber loses much of its
free moisture and it is in this condition that it should The moisture-content of the sample should be
be transported. determined by weighing it and then drying it in an
oven at a temperature of 100oC to 105oC (212oF to
Note: Timber is usually seasoned in air-drying sheds 221oF) until two successive weighing yield the same
for periods ranging from one to three years, or longer. result. Care should be taken to ensure that when the
If it is required for immediate use, it may be artificially sample is split up, no material is lost and that the
seasoned (i.e. kiln-dried). weighing is done promptly so as to avoid false results.

The moisture-content should be calculated from the

following formula:
Where:
W1 = Weight of the sample prior to drying
W2 = Weight of the sample after drying
A quicker method of determining the moisture-content

of timber is by the use of a Moisture Meter (fig 23).
This instrument will record the moisture-content in a
few seconds, whereas the method of weighing, drying
and calculating takes much longer. The meter should
however, be checked periodically to ascertain that it
remains accurate. For general guidance, the correct
moisture-content should be 15% with a tolerance of ±
2%.
Fig 23. Wood Moisture Meter

Density be broken in an impact test machine of the Izod type,

the blow being applied tangentially; the test piece
The density of the timber should be determined by should absorb not less than 6.78 Joules (5 foot-
weighing and measuring the volume of a sample cut pounds). Care should be taken that the blow is applied
from the plank. A practical method of calculating the in the right direction, for if broken the opposite way a
density in imperial units is to cut the sample 96 mm false reading will be obtained. A tolerance of 0.68
(3.8 inches) long, by 25 mm (1 inch) square, and Joules (0·5 foot-pounds) is generally allowed,
determine its weight in grams. The figure for the provided the fracture shows a satisfactory amount of
weight of the sample in grams is equal to the figure fibre.
for the density in pounds per cubic foot.
The weight-dropping machine provides an alternative
The weight of spruce generally varies between 320 kg method of testing timber for brittleness. A plain test
and 577 kg per cubic metre (20 lb. and 36 lb. per piece, 305 mm (12 inches) long by 25 mm (1 inch)
cubic foot). For Grade A spruce, the density should square, should be cut radially and tangentially, and
not be less than 384.45 kg per cubic metre (24 lb. per parallel to the grain. When placed in the testing
cubic foot) when the moisture-content is 15%. machine, the test piece should withstand one blow of
17.63 Joules (13 foot- pounds) without showing signs
Brittleness of tension failure on the vertical sides. Where doubt
exists, a further blow of 8.81 Joules (6.5 foot-pounds)
A notched test piece, the sides of which are cut may be applied and there should be no sign of failure.
radially and tangentially, of the dimensions 133 mm The opening out of a few fibres should not be
(5¼ inches) long by 22 mm (7/8 inch) square, should interpreted as a failure.

Splitting Test Types of Wood
The object of this test is to determine the inclination The wood used for construction of load bearing
of the grain. The sample should be split with a very components of an aircraft is soft wood because the
blunt chisel so that the wood will be split and not cut. cell structure leads to better uniformity.
The split surfaces give the true direction of the grain.
The split should be made some distance from the edge Sitka spruce is the preferred wood used for aircraft
of the sample otherwise a misleading result may be construction but other soft wood may be used and
obtained. these include:
Rate of Growth  Douglas fir - Difficult to work.
The number of annular rings per 25 mm (1 inch)  Noble fir - A satisfactory replacement for spruce.
varies to some extent. Timber with a rate of growth of
less than 6 rings per 25 mm (1 inch) should be  Western Hemlock - Less uniform than spruce.
rejected.  Northern White Pine - Only has 85% of the
Recording of Tests strength of spruce.
The results of the above-mentioned tests should be  White Cedar - May be used as a substitute for
recorded and related to the plank of timber to which spruce.
they refer. The actual test pieces should also be kept
for a period of not less than 2 years.  Yellow Poplar - Slightly less strong than spruce.

Types of Glue Synthetic resin adhesives usually consist of two

separate parts, the resin and the hardener. They can
Synthetic resin adhesives are used extensively for be obtained in either liquid or powder form and in
joints in wooden structures to avoid the localised general, powder resins have the longer storage life,
stresses and strains which may be set up by the use since they are less susceptible to deterioration which
of mechanical methods of attachment; the strength of can result from high ambient temperatures. The resin
such structures depends largely on the effectiveness develops its adhesive properties only as a result of a
of the glued joints and cannot be verified by means chemical reaction between it and the hardener, and
other than the destruction of the joints. Acceptance will not harden without it. With some adhesives, inert
has therefore, to be governed by adequate inspection filler may be added to increase viscosity and to
at various stages throughout the gluing process and improve gap-filling properties.
by assessment of the results obtained from
representative test pieces. Where repairs are to be carried out on old aircraft in
which the wooden structure is joined with a casein
Synthetic resin adhesives used for gluing aircraft glue, all traces of the casein should be removed from
structural assemblies must comply with the the joint, since this material is alkaline and is liable to
requirements prescribed in an acceptable affect the setting of a synthetic resin adhesive; local
Specification, usually British Standard BS EN 301: staining of the wood by the casein can however be
2006, for Weather and Boil Proof (WBP) or Moisture disregarded. Where urea formaldehyde (UF) glues are
Resistant (MR) adhesives. to be used, the surface should be wiped with a
solution of 10% w/w acetic acid in water, and allowed
to dry before applying.

Preservation and Maintenance of Wooden the wood. The primary objectives of the exterior finish
Structure are to protect the wood against weathering, provide a
suitable appearance, and present a smooth surface in
Any work carried out on the structural parts of the flight.
airframe involves finishing as the final step of the job.
The surface finish is the final line of defence to Finishing of Interior Surfaces
prevent the destructive effects of moisture entry into
the structure. The time and effort spent during the Repaired ribs, spars, interior of plywood skin, and
preparatory phase of the refinishing process will be other internal members, including areas of contact
reflected in the appearance and longevity of the between metal and wood, should be finished by
finished surface. Adherence to the instructions issued applying one thinned coat (for penetration into wood
by the finish manufacturer is necessary in order to grain) of varnish or other acceptable finish, followed
obtain the appearance desired and protective by two full coats.
characteristics for the product used. The primary
objective of interior finishes is to afford protection of The interior of built-up box spars and similar closed
the wood against serious change in moisture content structures should be finished in the same way. Where
when exposed to damp air or to water that gains better protection is required, for example, on the
entrance to closed spaces by condensation or by surfaces of wheel wells and the bottoms of hulls,
penetration of rain, mist, or fog. below the floor boards, an additional coat of
aluminised sealer, may be applied.
Coatings, on contact areas between wood and metal
protect the metal against corrosion from moisture in

Finishing of Exterior Surfaces extreme vulnerability to moisture entry, it is

necessary to take extra precautions to seal end grain
Exterior surfaces require more protection than interior by applying at least one thinned coat of acceptable
areas due to the effects of abrasion, weather, and sealer to ensure maximum penetration, and then
sunlight. Tests have shown that the interior follow with as many full strength coats as necessary to
temperature of wooden aircraft structures can reach achieve a smooth, glossy coating. Depending on the
185o F when the aircraft is finished in a dark colour type wood to be finished, two to four full coats will be
and parked outdoors on a hot, still day. Exposure to required. A final coat of aluminised varnish may be
prolonged high temperature is detrimental to wood, applied to end grain surfaces. If the surfaces are to be
adhesives, and finishes. Wood loses approximately 25 finished with dope or lacquer, a dope-proof sealer
percent of its strength at 125o F. For this reason, should be used.
temperature effects should be considered when
selecting finish colours or looking for areas of likely
deterioration. The lowest temperatures are found
when the aircraft is finished in white or very light
colours, while darker colours produce higher
temperatures.
Finishing of End Grain Surfaces
End grain portions of wooden members are much

more absorbent than side grain. Because of this

Types of Defects in Wood Material and Wooden Decay or Rot

Structure
A defect similar to dote disease can develop after a
Defects in Wood tree has been felled if the timber is exposed to
excessive soaking and partial drying. Dry-rot fungus
Before timber is used in aircraft structures it should be requires a certain amount of moisture to thrive on but
examined for defects. Some of the more common once the disease is established it thrives on the
defects are outlined in the following paragraphs. moisture already in the wood. The decayed wood is
brown in colour and appears as though it had been
Dote Disease charred; the timber is rendered soft and dry, and will
flake off easily.
This is the worst of all defects and does much damage
to the wood. It is an inherent disease which only Incorrect Grain Inclination
occurs at the base of the living tree. When the tree is
felled it is cut at a point ten feet or more above the The limit of grain inclination for spruce is 1 in 15 for
ground as a precaution against the possibility of dote. grade A, and 1 in 12 for grade B. The inclination
Converted pieces of timber should be examined not should be checked to ensure that the above limits are
only on the sides but also on the ends; dote will be not exceeded. The most usual method of determining
recognised by the presence of brownish yellow the inclination of the grain is by examining the flower-
patches, somewhat similar to thin mineral oil spots. face of the timber to find the resin ducts. It will readily
Dote is contagious and any infected wood should be be seen whether they are straight or inclined. If the
burnt.

inclination exceeds the limits specified, the timber

should be classified in a lower grade.
Heart-Shake
This defect usually follows the course of a sap duct

longitudinally, and is usually visible on the tangential
surface. The use of a small size feeler gauge will assist
in finding the depth of the shake. The defect should be
cut out of the timber (fig 24).
Ring-Shake
This defect is indicated by a parting of the annular

rings. Ring-shakes are usually caused by frost,
particularly after a heavy rainfall. The defect should
also be cut out of the timber (fig 25).
Fig 24. Heart-Shake

Compression-Shake
This defect appears on a cross-section and usually

takes the form of a thin wavy line. Compression-
shakes are most dangerous as they are a partial
fracture of the timber and any future loads may cause
the fracture to be completed (fig 26).
Fig 25. Ring-Shake Fig 26. Compression-shake

Knots usually gives a better result than the remainder of the

timber.
There are several kinds of knots which may be
encountered when examining converted timber; these Blue Stain
are the dead-knot, the bud-knot and the pin-knot. The
presence of any of these knots can have a detrimental This defect only occurs in sapwood which should not
effect. Generally they should not be more than a be used in aircraft parts.
quarter of an inch in diameter but no hard and fast
rules can be specified; each case must be decided on Defects in Wooden Structures
its merits. Timber with 'clusters' of pin-knots in it
should be rejected. Like metal objects, wooden structures are susceptible
to deterioration and the aircraft engineer must be able
Pitch Holes to spot the signs long before the defect becomes a
major problem. The common defects affecting
There are two kinds of pitch holes, one being the wooden structures are described in the following
horizontal type which usually appears at the base of a paragraphs.
knot, and the other the vertical type which is
sometimes referred to as a gum pocket. Gum pockets Wood Decay
may either be 'alive' (the gum-seam has not dried
out) or 'dead', and in the case of the latter, the timber Wood is an organic product which is subject to attack
should be rejected. Tests on 'live' gum pockets have by fungi. Fungi are plants that grow on and in wood.
shown that the timber in the region of the gum pocket The moisture content of the wood nominally will have

to be 20 percent or greater to sustain fungus growth. which shrinks less. The resulting stress in the spruce
The result of this growth is called decay. Decayed member exceeds its cross-grain strength, and a split
wood exhibits softness, swelling when wet and when occurs.
dry, excessive shrinkage, cracking, and discoloration.
Decayed wood must be repaired or replaced. Bond Failure
Splitting Bond joint failure is generally due to improper

fabrication technique or prolonged exposure to
Splits or cracks in wooden members occur along grain moisture in service. Although none of the older
lines. When the moisture content of wood is lowered, adhesives have been specifically found to fail by
its dimensions decrease. The dimensional change is simple aging, the mechanic is advised to inspect all
greatest in a tangential direction (across the fibres accessible joints carefully.
and parallel to the growth rings), somewhat less in a
radial direction (across the fibres and perpendicular to Finish Failure
the growth rings), and is negligible in a longitudinal
direction (parallel to the fibres). These dimensional The finish coat on wood structure (usually varnish) is
changes can have detrimental effects upon a wood the last line of defence to prevent water entry into
structure, particularly when two parts are bonded wood and the resulting decay. Finish failure can be the
together with grains in different directions. This effect result of prolonged water exposure, wood splitting,
can often be seen where a plywood doubler is bonded ultraviolet light exposure, or surface abrasion.
to a spruce member. As the spruce member dries, it
attempts to shrink, but is restrained by the plywood,

Damage Likely locations for wood structure deterioration

should be given special attention. Most damage is
Stress, impact, or mechanical damage to a wood caused by external influence such as moisture,
structure is caused by excessive aerodynamic loads or temperature extremes, or sunlight. Care should be
impact loads occurring while the aircraft is on the taken to note all possible entry points for moisture,
ground. Over tightening of fittings can also cause (i.e., cracks or breaks in the finish, fastener holes,
crushing of the underlying wood member and possible inspection / access openings, control system
bending of the metal fitting. openings, drain holes, and the interfaces of metal
fittings and the wood structure). The mechanic should
The Detection of Defects in Wooden Structures also look for evidence of swelling or warpage of the
aircraft’s wood structure, which would indicate
Whenever possible, the aircraft should be kept in a underlying damage or decay. Particular attention
dry, well-ventilated hangar, with all inspection covers, should be paid to the wood structure immediately
access panels, etc., removed for as long as possible beneath the upper surfaces, especially under areas
before final inspection. The aircraft should be given a that are finished in dark colours, for signs of
preliminary inspection when first removing the deteriorating adhesives. Cracks in wood spars are
inspection covers and access panels and inspected often hidden under metal fittings or metal rib flanges
with a moisture meter at this time. If the moisture and leading edge skins. Any time a reinforcement
content is high, the aircraft should be thoroughly plate exists that is not feathered out on its ends; a
dried. If the aircraft is dry, this will facilitate later stress riser exists at the ends of the plate. A failure of
inspection, especially when determining the condition the primary structure can be expected to occur at this
of bonded joints. point.

Tapping the wood structure with a light plastic Odour is an important indicator of possible
hammer or screwdriver handle suspect area sounds deterioration. During the initial inspection, as the
hollow and soft, further inspection is warranted by the access panels are being removed from the structure,
following methods. the mechanic should be aware of any areas that smell
musty or mouldy. These odours are indicative of the
Probe the area in question, if accessible, with a sharp presence of moisture and associated fungal growth
metal tool. The wood structure should be solid and and decay.
firm. If the suspect area feels soft and mushy the
mechanic should assume that the area is rotted. Visual inspection requires looking at the wood
Disassembly of the structure is warranted at this structure both externally and internally for visual signs
point. of decay or physical damage. Any accumulations of
dirt, bird nests, or rodent nests are likely places to
Prying the area of a bond joint will reveal any hold moisture and promote decay. Any such
mechanical separation of the joint. If the mechanic accumulations that are found should be removed and
detects any relative movement between two adjacent inspect the area for signs of decay. Decay will appear
wood members, a failure of the bond is evident. Any as a dark discoloration or grey stains running along
loose fittings should arouse the mechanic’s suspicion, the grain and often a swelling of the wood member if
and the fittings should be removed to check for still wet. Fittings will be imbedded in the wood instead
elongated bolt holes. Disassembly is warranted for of flush.
further inspection.

Highly suspected structurally damaged areas are the lift struts attach. Triple-check this area if the wing
shown in figure 27. A list of the most likely areas to has encountered any kind of ground strike.
incur structural damage includes the following:
(d) Check ribs on either side of strut attach points for
(a) Check front and rear spars for compression cracks missing or loose rib-to-spar attachment nails.
adjacent to the plywood reinforcing plates, where the
lift struts attach, and at the rib attach points on either (e) Check ribs on either side of strut attach points for
side of the strut attach points. Triple-check these cracks where the cap strips pass over and under the
areas and the spar to fuselage attach points for cracks spars.
if the wingtip has contacted the ground, a hangar
wall, etc. (f) Check for cracked leading edge skin and/or failed
nose ribs in the area directly in front of the jury strut.
(b) Check all metal fittings which attach to wooden
structure for looseness, corrosion, cracks, or warps. (g) Check the brackets which attach the struts to the
Areas of particular interest are strut attach fittings, spars for cracks.
spar butt fittings, aileron and flap hinges, jury strut
fittings, compression struts, pulley brackets, and any (h) Check the aileron, flap hinge, and hinge brackets
landing gear fittings. for cracks and loose or missing rivets.
(c) Check front and rear spars for longitudinal cracks (i) Check all exposed end grain wood, particularly the
at the ends of the plywood reinforcement plates where spar butts, for cracking or checking. Checking, or

splitting, of wood spar butts is common on aircraft (j) Check for any cracks that indicate a bond line
based in arid areas. failure or structural failure of the wood member. When
checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the glued joint)
for condition, all protective coatings of paint should be
removed by careful scraping; it is important to ensure
that the wood is not damaged during the scraping
operation and scraping should cease immediately the
wood is revealed in its natural state and the glue line
is clearly discernible.
The inspection of the glue line is often facilitated by
the use of a magnifying glass. Where the glue line
tends to part or where the presence of glue cannot be
detected or is suspect, then, providing the wood is
dry, the glue line should be probed with a thin feeler
gauge and, if any penetration is possible, the joint
should be regarded as defective.
NOTE: It is important to ensure that the surrounding

wood is dry otherwise a false impression of the glue
Fig 27. Areas Likely to Incur Structural Damage line would be obtained due to closing of the joint by
swelling. In instances where pressure is exerted on a
joint, either by the surrounding structure or by metal

attachment devices such as bolts or screws, a false (k) Any wooden member that has been overstressed
impression of the glue condition could be obtained is subject to compression failure (e.g., ground loop).
unless the joint is relieved of this pressure before the Compression cracking and failure of the wood spars in
glue line inspection is carried out. certain aircraft are a continuing problem. Compression
failures are defined as failure of wood fibres on a
The choice of feeler gauge thickness will vary with the plane perpendicular to the wood fibres’ longitudinal
type of structure, but a rough guide is that the axis. If undetected, compression failures may result in
thinnest possible gauge should be used. Figure 28 structural failure of the wing during flight.
indicates the points where checks with a feeler gauge Compression cracks have been found emanating from
should be made. the upper surfaces of the wing spars and progressing
downward.
Any evidence of movement of fittings, bushings, or
fasteners should be cause for concern, and further (l) The usual locations for cracks have been the front
inspection is warranted. Splits in fabric covering the spar at both ends of the reinforcement plate for the
plywood, especially on upper surfaces exposed to lift strut and the front spar rib attach points, both
ultraviolet light and water, dictate that the fabric inboard and outboard of the spar reinforcement plate;
around the split is removed so the underlying plywood and the rear spar lift strut and rib attach points. An
may be inspected for physical damage or decay. When inspection of both the front and rear spars for
removing metal fasteners from the wood check for compression cracks is recommended.
evidence of corrosion. Any corrosion present indicates
the presence of moisture and the strong probability of
decay in the adjoining wood structure.

Fig 28. Glue Line Checks

(m) The two areas where it is possible to identify a Repair of Wooden Structure
compression crack are on the face and top surface of
the spar. Using a borescope through existing The basic standard for any aircraft repair is that the
inspection holes is one method of inspection. An repaired structure must be as strong as the original
alternate method is to cut inspection holes in the skin. structure and be equivalent to the original in rigidity
If inspection holes are cut, they should be made on and aerodynamic shape. Repairs should be made in
the aft side of the front spar and the forward side of accordance with manufacturer specifications whenever
the rear spar. This will allow the fabric to be peeled such data is available.
away from the spar. Longitudinal cracks may also be
detected during this inspection. Loose or missing rib Drain Holes and Skin Stiffeners
nails may indicate further damage and should be
thoroughly investigated. An area of grain waviness Whenever repairs are made that require replacing a
would indicate a potential compression failure. In all portion that includes drain holes, skin stiffeners, or
cases the manufacturer’s inspection data should be any other items, the repaired portion must be
followed. provided with similar drain holes, skin stiffeners, or
items of the same dimensions in the same location.
(n) Moisture Meters as described earlier, are Additional drain holes may be required if
effective tools for detection of excessive moisture reinforcement under a skin repair interferes with
content in wood members. water flow to existing drain holes. Any additional drain
holes must be the same diameter as originals.

Control Surface Repairs members. Cut both parts accurately. The strength of
the joints depends upon good joint design and a thin,
When repairing or refinishing control surfaces, uniform bond line. The scarf cut must be made in the
especially on high performance airplanes, care must general direction of the grain slope (fig 29).
be exercised that the repairs do not involve the
addition of weight aft of the hinge line. Such a
procedure may adversely affect the balance of the
surface to a degree that could induce flutter. As a
general rule, it will be necessary to repair control
surfaces in such a manner that the structure is
identical to the original, and that the stiffness, weight
distribution, and mass balance are not affected in any
way. After repairing control surfaces consult the
aircraft maintenance manual or seek the
manufacturer’s direction for specific requirements on
checking control surface balance after repair and
refinishing of any control surface.
Scarf Joints
Fig 29. Consideration of grain direction when making
The scarf joint is the most satisfactory method of scarf joints.
making an end joint between two solid wood

No grain deviation steeper than 1 in 15 should be compression strut fittings is acceptable under the
present in an outer eighth of the depth of the spar. In following conditions:
adjacent eighths, deviations involving steeper slopes,
such as a wave in a few growth layers, are unlikely to  The reinforcement plates of the splice should not
be harmful. Local grain slope deviations in excess of interfere with the proper attachment or
those specified may be permitted in spar flanges only alignment of the fittings. Do not alter the
in the inner one-fourth of the flange depth. locations of pulley support brackets, bellcrank
support brackets, or control surface support
SPLICING OF SPARS brackets. Plates are to be tapered off, as shown
in figure 30.
Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer, a
spar may be spliced at any point except under the
wing attachment fittings, landing gear fittings, engine
mount fittings, or lift and inter-plane strut fittings.
These fittings may not overlap any part of the splice.
A spar splice repair should not be made adjacent to a
previous splice or adjacent to a reinforcing plate.
Spacing between two splices or between a splice and
a reinforcing plate should be no less than three times
the length of the longer splice. Splicing under minor
fittings such as drag wire, anti-drag wire, or Fig 30. Feathering of Reinforcement Plates

 The reinforcement plate may overlap drag wire, Spar Replacement and Repair
anti-drag wire, or compression strut fittings, if
the reinforcement plates are on the rear face of Replacement of spars is a major repair. Spars may be
the rear spar or the front face of the front spar. replaced by new parts made by the manufacturer or
In such cases, it will be necessary to install can be produced by the owner providing that they are
slightly longer bolts. The front face manufactured from a manufacturer-approved drawing.
reinforcement plate should not overlap drag In addition, a spar may be made by reference to an
strut fittings, except when it does not require existing spar providing sufficient evidence is presented
sufficient shortening of compression struts or to verify that the existing spar is an original part, and
changes in drag-truss geometry, to prevent that all materials and dimensions can be determined.
adjustment for proper rigging. Even though take The dimensions and type of wood used are critical to
up is sufficient, it may be necessary to change the structural strength of the aircraft. Care should be
the angles on the fittings. Reinforcement plates taken that any replacement spars accurately match
must be used as indicated on all scarf repairs to the manufacturer’s original design.
spars and the slopes of scarves shown in the
drawings are minimum slopes (Figs 31 and 32). Solid spars may be replaced with laminated spars or
vice versa, provided the material is of the same high
quality. External reinforcements (plywood or solid)
must always be replaced as on the original member.

Fig 31. Method of Splicing Solid or laminated Rectangular Spars

Fig 32. Method of Splicing Solid “I” Spars

Splicing of Box Spar Webs
Plywood box spar webs must always be spliced and

reinforced with the same type of plywood as found on
the original part. Solid wood must not be used as
plywood is stronger in shear, than solid wood of the
same thickness, due to the grain direction of the
individual plies. The face-grain of plywood
replacement webs and reinforcement plates must be
in the same direction as the original member to
ensure that the new web will have the required
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
strength (fig 33).

Fig 33. Splicing of Box Spar Webs

Longitudinal Cracking and Local Damage to CAA should be contacted for approval before making
Spars repairs not in accordance with the manufacturer-
approved instructions. Longitudinal cracking or the
Cracked spars (except box spars) may be repaired by recurrence of cracking can be minimized by ensuring
bonding plates of spruce or plywood of sufficient that the moisture content of the solid wood portion is
thickness to develop the longitudinal shear on both within the proper range before bonding. In arid desert
sides of the spar. The plates must extend well beyond areas, during bonding the moisture content should be
the termination of the cracks, as shown in figure 34. A in the range of 6-8 percent before bonding, but in
method of repairing small local damage to either the other areas 10-12 percent is satisfactory. If solid or
top or bottom side of a spar is also shown. plywood repair stock is procured from another climatic
region, it should be allowed to season, in the same
The presence of cracks does not necessarily mean that storage area as the part to be repaired, for no less
the spar must be discarded. If the crack is not too than 2 weeks.
long or too close to either edge and can be reinforced
properly, it will probably be more economical and Aircraft having wood spars and operating in arid
satisfactory to perform repair rather than install a new regions may develop longitudinal spar cracks in the
spar or section. vicinity of the plywood reinforcement plates. These
cracks result from the tendency of the spar to shrink
However, a generally acceptable procedure suitable when drying takes place. Plywood resists this
for all airplane models is not available. Because of the tendency to shrink and causes the basic spar stock to
possibility of strength deficiencies contact the split. Cracks start under the plywood plates, usually
manufacturer. In absence of the manufacturer, the (but not necessarily) at a bolt hole or cut-out, and

Fig 34. Method of Reinforcing a Longitudinal Crack and/or Local Damage in a Solid Spar

usually spread in each direction until they extend a Rib Repairs

short distance beyond the ends of the plates where
the resistance to spar shrinkage disappears. Cracks Ribs may be replaced by new parts made by the
have also been found in the butt end of spars. Other manufacturer or owner produced ribs may be installed
factors, which have been found to be conducive to the providing they are made from a manufacturer-
formation of cracks, are poor protective finishes, large approved drawing or by reference to an existing
cut-outs, and metal fittings that utilize two lines of original rib. A rib may be made by reference to an
large diameter bolts. existing rib providing sufficient evidence is presented
to verify that the existing rib is an original part and
Repairing Elongated Holes in Spars that all materials and dimensions can be determined.
The contour of the rib is important to the safe flying
In cases of elongated bolt holes in a spar, or cracks in qualities of the aircraft, and care should be taken that
the vicinity of bolt holes, a new section of spar must any replacement ribs accurately match the
be spliced in, alternatively the entire spar must be manufacturer’s original design.
replaced. If the elongation or cracking of a hole is
minimal and the bolt holes are for noncritical fittings, Acceptable methods of repairing damaged ribs are
repair (rather than replacement) may be feasible if shown in figure 35. Wood ribs should not be nailed to
approved by the manufacturer or the CAA. In many wood spars by driving nails through the rib cap strips,
cases, it has been found advantageous to laminate the as this weakens the rib materially. The attachment
new section of the spar, particularly if the spar butts should be by means of adhesive with cement coated,
are being replaced. barbed, or spiralled nails driven through the vertical
rib members on each face of the spar.

Fig 35. Repair of wooden Ribs

Compression Rib Repair the plywood reinforcement plate, shown in section B-

B, is continued the full distance between spars.
Acceptable methods of repairing damaged
compression ribs are shown in figure 36. Figure 36(A) Figure 36(C) illustrates a compression rib of the “I”
illustrates the repair of a compression rib of the “I” type with a rectangular vertical member on each side
section type; i.e., wide, shallow cap strips, and a of the web. The method of repair is essentially the
centre plywood web with a rectangular compression same as in figure 36(A) except the plywood
member on each side of the web. The rib is assumed reinforcement plates on each side, shown as striped
to be cracked through the cap strips, web member, blocks in section C-C, are continued the full distance
and compression member in the illustration. The between spars.
compression member is cut as shown in figure 36(D).
The aft portion of the cap strips is cut; replaced and
reinforce as shown in figure 35. The plywood side
plates are bonded on, as indicated in figure 36(A).
These plates are added to reinforce the damaged web.
Figure 36(B) illustrates a compression rib of the type

that is basically a standard rib with rectangular
compression members added to one side and plywood
web to the other side. The method used in this repair
is essentially the same as in figure 36(A) except that

Fig 36. Typical Wing Compression Rib Repairs

Plywood Skin Repairs edge near the area being patched if space permits. In
either method the repair part should be allowed to dry
Extensive repairs to damaged stressed skin plywood completely on the form. When bending plywood over a
structures must be made in accordance with specific leading edge, drying may be hastened by laying a
recommendations from the aircraft manufacturer. It is piece of coarse burlap over the leading edge before
usually recommended that the entire panel, from one using it as a bending form. To speed drying, a fan
structural member to the next is replaced, if the may be used to circulate air around the repair part.
damage is very extensive. When damaged plywood
skin is repaired, carefully inspect the adjacent internal When bending pieces of small radii or to speed up the
structure for possible hidden damage. bending of a large number of parts of the same
curvature, it may be necessary to use a heated
Repairs to Single Curvature Plywood Skins bending form. The surface temperature of this form
may be as high as 149 °C (300o F), if necessary,
Repairs to single curvature plywood skin may usually without danger of damage to the plywood. The
be formed from flat plywood, either by bending it dry plywood should be left on the heated form only long
or after soaking it in hot water. The degree of enough to dry to room conditions.
curvature to which a piece of plywood can be bent will
depend upon the direction of the grain and the Repairs to Double Curvature Plywood Skins
thickness.
The moulded plywood necessary for a repair to a
After softening, plywood may be bent on a cold damaged plywood skin of double curvature cannot be
ventilated form, or it may be bent over the leading made from flat plywood unless the area to be repaired

is very small or is of exceedingly slight double Plywood Skin Patch Repairs

curvature; therefore, moulded plywood of the proper
curvature must be on hand before the repair can be There are four types of patches acceptable for
made. If moulded plywood of the proper curvature is plywood skin repairs. These are:
available, the repair may be made using the same
procedure as on single curvature skins.  splayed patch
 surface (or overlay) patch
 scarf patch
 plug patch
Splayed Patch
Small holes with their largest dimensions not over 15

times the skin thickness, in skins not more than 1/10
inch in thickness, may be repaired by using a circular
splayed patch as illustrated in figure 37. The term
“splayed” is used to denote that the edges of the
patch are tapered, but the slope is steeper than is
allowed in scarfing operations.

Fig 37. Plywood Splayed Patch Repair

The repair is completed as follows: and the plywood pressure plate. This prevents
excess adhesive from bonding the pressure
1. Lay out the patch according to figure 37. Tack a plate to the skin. Centre the pressure plate
small piece of plywood over the hole for a centre carefully over the patch.
point and draw two circles with a divider, the
inner circle to be the size of the hole and the 5. As there is no reinforcement behind this patch,
outer circle marking the limits of the taper. The care must be used so that pressure is not great
difference between the radii is 5T (5 times the enough to crack the skin. On horizontal
thickness of the skin). If one leg of the dividers surfaces, weights or sandbags will be sufficient.
has been sharpened to a chisel edge, the On patches too far from any edge for the use of
dividers may be used to cut the inner circle. standard hand clamps, jaws of greater length
may be improvised.
2. Taper the hole evenly to the outer mark with a
chisel, knife, or rasp. 6. Fill, sand, and refinish the patch.
3. Prepare a circular tapered patch to fit the

prepared hole, and bond the patch into place
with face-grain direction matching that of the
original surface.
4. Use waxed paper or plastic wrap (cut larger

than the size of the patch) between the patch

Surface Patch times the skin thickness. The face-grain

direction must be the same as the original skin.
Plywood skins that are damaged between or along
framing members may be repaired by surface or 3. Cover completed surface patches with fabric to
overlay patches as shown in figure 38. Surface match surrounding area. The fabric must
patches located entirely aft of the 10 percent chord overlap the original fabric at least 2 inches.
line, or which wrap around the leading edge and
terminate aft of the 10 percent chord line, are
permissible. Surface patches may have as much as a
50 inch perimeter and may cover as much as 1 frame
(or rib) space.
Surface patch repairs are carried out as follows:
1. Trim the damaged skin to a rectangular or

triangular shape and round the corners. The
radius of rounded corners must be at least 5
times the skin thickness.
2. Bevel the forward edges of patches located

entirely aft of the 10 percent chord line to 4

Fig 38. Surface Patch Repairs

Scarf Patch not recommended as they are likely to be rough

or inaccurate.
A properly prepared and inserted scarf patch is the
best repair for damaged plywood skins and is 2. Nail strip or small screw clamping is often the
preferred for most skin repairs. Figure 39 shows the only method available for bonding scarf joints in
details and dimensions to be used when installing plywood skin repairs. It is essential that all scarf
typical scarf skin patches, when the back of the skin is joints in plywood be backed with plywood or
accessible. If the back of the skin is inaccessible the solid wood to provide adequate nail holding
repair detailed in figure 40 should be carried out. The capacity. The face-grain direction of the plywood
scarf slope of 1 in 12, shown in both figures, is the patch must be the same as that of the original
steepest slope permitted for all kinds of plywood. If skin.
the radius of curvature of the skin at all points on the
trimmed opening is greater than 100 times the skin 3. Whenever possible, the edges of the patch
thickness, a scarf patch may be installed. should be supported as shown in section C-C of
figure 39. When the damage follows or extends
If the back of the skin is accessible, the repair is to a framing member, the scarf may be
carried out as follows: supported as shown in section B-B of figure 39.
Damages that do not exceed 25 times the skin
1. Scarf cuts in plywood may be made by hand thickness in diameter after being trimmed to a
plane, spoke shave, scraper, or accurate circular shape and are not less than 15 times
sandpaper block. Rasped surfaces, except at the the skin thickness to a framing member, may be
corners of scarf patches and sawn surfaces, are repaired as shown in figure 39, section D-D.

a. The backing block is carefully shaped from spar. To prevent warping of the skin, backing
solid wood and fitted to the inside surface of strips should be made of a soft-textured
the skin, and is temporarily held in place with plywood, such as yellow poplar or spruce rather
nails. than solid wood. All junctions between backing
strips and ribs or spars should have the end of
b. Use waxed paper or plastic wrap to prevent the backing strip supported by a saddle gusset
bonding of the backing block to the skin. of plywood.
c. A hole, the exact size of the inside circle of 2. If needed, nail and bond the new gusset plate to
the scarf patch, is made in the block, and is rib. It may be necessary to remove and replace
centred over the trimmed area of damage. the old gusset plate with a new saddle gusset,
or it may be necessary to nail a saddle gusset
d. The block is removed, after the adhesive on over the original gusset.
the patch has set, leaving a flush surface to
the repaired skin. 3. Attach nailing strips to hold backing strips in
place while the adhesive sets. Use a bucking
If the back of the skin is inaccessible the repair is bar, where necessary, to provide support for
carried out as follows: nailing. After the backing strips are fully bonded,
install the patch.
1. After removing damaged sections, install
backing strips, as shown in figure 40, along all
edges that are not fully backed by a rib or a

Fig 39. Scarf Patch (Back Accessible) Fig 40. Scarf Patch (Back Inaccessible)

Plug Patch 3. Lay the oval plug patch over the damage and
trace the patch onto the skin. Saw to the line,
Either oval or round plug patches may be used on and trim the hole edges with a knife and
plywood skins provided the damage can be covered by sandpaper.
the patches whose dimensions are given in figure 41
and figure 42. The plug patch is a skin repair, and 4. Mark the exact size of the patch on one surface
should be used only for damage that does not involve of the oval doubler and apply adhesive to the
the supporting structure under the skin. The face- area outside the line. Insert doubler through the
grain direction of the finished patch must match the hole and bring it, adhesive side up, to the
surrounding skin. The steps in making an oval plug underside of the skin with the pencil outline of
patch are as follows: the patch matching the edges of the hole. If the
curvature of the surface to be repaired is
1. Explore the area about the hole to be sure it greater than a rise of 1/8 inch in 6 inches, the
lays at least the width of the oval doubler from a doubler should be pre-formed by hot water or
rib or a spar. Refer to figure 41 for repair steam bending to the approximate curvature. As
details. an alternative to preforming of the 1/4 inch
stock, the doubler may be laminated from two
2. Prepare a patch and a doubler of the same thicknesses of 1/8 inch ply.
species plywood as the surrounding skin using
the dimensions shown in figure 41. 5. Apply nailing strips outlining the hole to apply
bonding pressure between doubler and skin. Use
a bucking bar to provide support for nailing.

When two rows of nails are used, stagger nail from only one side, the round doubler cannot be
spacing. Allow adhesive to cure. inserted unless it has been split.
6. Apply adhesive to remaining surface of the

doubler and to the mating surface on the patch.
Lay the patch in position over the doubler, and
screw the pressure plate to the patch assembly
using a small nail to line up the holes that have
been previously made with patch and plate
matching. No. 4 round head screws are used.
Lead holes in the plywood doubler are not
necessary. Waxed paper or plastic wrap INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
between the plate and patch prevents adhesive

from bonding the plate to the patch. No clamps
or further pressure need be applied, as the
nailing strips and screws exert ample pressure.
Round plug patches may be made by following the

steps in figure 42. The steps are identical to those for
making the oval patch except for the insertion of the
doubler. In using the round patch, where access is

Fig 41. Oval Plug Patch Assembly

Fig 42. Round Plug Patch

6.3.3 Fabric Covering
Characteristics, Properties and Types of Fabrics

Used in Aeroplanes
FABRIC
Cotton and Irish linen fabrics were the airframe ROLL SELVAGE
coverings of choice from WWI through the 1950’s. EDGE
However, increases in cost and the short lifespan of
natural fabrics became the driving factors which
resulted in almost 100 percent replacement of original
airframe fabrics by man-made, Supplementary Type
BIAS
Certificate approved, polyester, and glass filament
fabric.
WARP
Aircraft fabrics are woven from spun threads or
'yarns'; those running lengthwise are termed the FILL
WEFT
'warp'; and those running crosswise are termed the
'weft'. The number of yarns per centimetre (inch)
varies with different weights of fabric and is not Fig 43. Common Cloth Terms
necessarily the same in both warp and weft. The non-
fraying edge of the fabric is termed the 'selvage' (fig
43).

When an unsupported fabric cover is required to carry Fabric Tapes

air loads, unbleached linen to British Standard (BS) F1
is normally used, but some aircraft have coverings of Linen tapes complying with B8 F1 and cotton tapes
cotton fabric complying with BS F8, BS F57, BS F116 complying with BS F8 are available in various widths
or DTD 575A. A light cotton fabric complying with BS for covering leading edges, trailing edges and ribs,
F114 (referred to as Madapolam) is generally used for and for repair work. The materials are supplied with
covering wooden surfaces. This acts as a key to the serrated edges. Cotton tape complying with BS F47
doping scheme, giving added strength and improving (referred to as 'Egyptian tape') is generally used on
surface finish. those members where chafing may occur between the
structure and the fabric and is also used externally to
There is a wide selection of STC-approved covering protect the fabric against damage by the stringing
materials available which utilize synthetic fabric falling cord.
within the generic class “Polyester” and may vary in
characteristics. Differences in the fabric may be
denier, tenacity, thread count, weight, shrink, tension,
and weave style.
Some of the types of fabrics available and their

characteristics are detailed in figure 44.

Fig 44. Types of Fabrics used to Cover Aircraft

Inspection Methods for Fabric covering as a whole, or replacement of some local

areas which have deteriorated. In cases of doubt as to
The fabric covering of an aircraft will deteriorate in the strength of the fabric, further tests will be
service, the rate of deterioration depending, to a large necessary.
extent, on the type of operation, climate, storage
conditions and the maintenance of a satisfactory One method of checking the strength of an aircraft
surface finish. In addition, as a result of water covering is by the use of a portable tester. These
soakage, chafing against structure and local wear, the testers are, generally, only suitable for checking the
covering will not deteriorate uniformly. In the case of condition of coverings on which the dope finish has
fabric covered components on large aircraft, an penetrated the fabric. Finishes such as cellulose
arbitrary life may be placed on the fabric, but with acetate butyrate dope do not normally penetrate the
light-aircraft coverings the fabric should be checked at fabric and experience has shown that the absorption
the periods specified in the approved Maintenance of moisture in humid conditions can produce
Schedule and prior to renewal of the Certificate of unreliable test results. In addition, butyrate dope,
Airworthiness. even when some penetration of the fabric has
occurred, produces a finish which hardens with age;
A visual examination in which particular attention is as a result the conical point on the tester will not
given to places where water soakage, local wear, readily penetrate the covering and the test will tend to
fretting or oil contamination are likely to occur, or are indicate that the fabric is stronger than it actually is.
known to occur on that particular aircraft type, Thus where butyrate dope has been used, or the
supplemented by a knowledge of the aircraft history, dope, irrespective of type, does not penetrate the
will often be sufficient to justify acceptance of the fabric, laboratory tests should be carried out. For a

laboratory test the dope should be removed from the in a rotary motion, until the sleeve flange
fabric, using a suitable solvent where necessary. touches the surface. The degree to which the
Fabric having a strength of at least 70% of the cone has penetrated the fabric is indicated by
strength of new fabric to the appropriate specification the length of plunger showing above the sleeve
(as assessed by either test), may be considered and this is marked either by coloured bands or a
airworthy, but fabric which falls only just within the graduated scale (fig 45).
acceptable range should be checked more frequently
thereafter to ensure continued serviceability. A table is provided with the tester giving the
colour or scale reading required for a particular
Portable Testers type of fabric.
There are two types of cloth tester available: The test should be repeated at various positions
and the lowest reading obtained, other than in
1. Seyboth Tester - This consists of a penetrating isolated repairable areas, should be considered
cone and plunger housed within a sleeve representative of the surface as a whole.
assembly. When pressed against a surface the
cone is forced up through the sleeve against All punctures produced by the tester should be
spring pressure and the plunger projects repaired with a 50 mm or 75 mm (2 in or 3 in)
through the top of the sleeve in the same way diameter doped fabric patch.
as a tyre pressure gauge. When inspecting
fabric, the tester should be held at 90º to the NOTE: It is important to ensure that the test is
surface and pressure applied towards the fabric not made through double layers of fabric, since

this would not be representative of the entire 2. Maule Tester - This is a spring-loaded
surface. instrument (fig 46) with a blunt point on its end
and a calibrated scale in pounds per square
inch. The instrument is pressed down on the
fabric, point first, until the laid down breaking
point of the fabric is registered on the scale, if
the fabric has been punctured the fabric has
failed the test, if it is not punctured it has
passed.
Fig 46. Maule Tester
Fig 45. Seyboth Tester

Types of Defects in Fabric wrinkled areas, or excess tension which can warp and
damage the airframe.
Polyester fabric deteriorates only by exposure to
ultraviolet radiation used in an aircraft covering Excess Tension
environment. When coatings completely protect the
fabric its service life is infinite. Therefore, it is very There are no methods or specifications for measuring
important to thoroughly protect the structure from acceptable fabric tension other than observation.
deterioration before covering and provide adequate Excess tension may warp critical components, such as
inspection access to all areas of fabric-covered longerons, wing rib, and trailing edges out of position,
components to allow inspection for corrosion, wood weakening the airframe structure.
rot, and mice infestation. Multiple drain holes in the
lower ends of all fabric-covered sections also provide Excess tension with cotton, linen, and glass fibre
needed ventilation to remove condensation. fabric covering is usually caused by excessive dope
film on a new covering, or continuous shrinking of an
All components of the covering should be inspected originally satisfactory dope film as the plasticizers
for general condition. Loose finishing tape and migrate from the dope with age. Heat from sun
reinforcing patches; chafing under fairings; brittle, exposure accelerates plasticizer migration.
cracking, peeling, or deteriorated coatings; fabric
tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib lacing; Excess tension with polyester fabric, coated with
and rodent nests are unacceptable. The entire fabric dope, is usually caused by the combined tension of
covering should be uniformly taut with no loose or the heat tautened polyester fabric and continuous

shrinking of the dope film as the plasticizers migrate Glass fabric covering should be tested with a large
from the dope with age. suction cup for rib lacing cord failure and reinforcing
tape failure caused by chafing on all wing ribs and
Loose Fabric other structural attachments throughout the airframe.
Particular attention should be given to the area within
Fabric that flutters or ripples in the propeller the propeller slipstream. If failure is indicated by the
slipstream, balloons, or is depressed excessively in covering lifting from the static position, the rib lacing
flight from the static position, is unacceptable. cord and reinforcing tape must be reinstalled with
double the number of original laces.
Loose or wrinkled cotton, linen, and glass fabric
covering may be caused by inadequate dope film; NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will develop in any fabric
poor quality dope; fabric installed with excess slack; coated and finished with dope, when moisture from
or by a bent, broken, or warped structure. rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed into a poor-quality
dope film, causing the film to expand. Temporary
Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric covering, finished wrinkles may also develop with any type of thick
with coatings other than dope, may be caused by coatings, on any type of fabric, when an aircraft is
inadequate or excessive heat application; excess slack moved from a cold storage area to a warm hangar or
when the fabric was installed; or bent or warped parked in the warming sunshine, causing rapid
structure. Polyester fabric which does not meet thermal expansion of the coating.
aircraft quality specifications will very likely become
loose after a short period of time.

Coating Cracks and low-elongation characteristics of the polyester

filaments to develop tension and transmit the air loads
Fabric exposed through cracks in the coating may be to the airframe without excess distortion from a static
initially tested for deterioration by pressing firmly with position.
a thumb to check the fabric’s strength. Natural fibres
deteriorate by exposure to ultraviolet radiation, Cracks in coatings will allow any type of exposed
mildew, fungus from moisture, high acid-content rain, fabric to deteriorate. Cracks should be closed by
dew, fog, pollution, and age. Polyester filaments will sealing or removing the coatings in the immediate
deteriorate by exposure to UV radiation. area and replace with new coatings, or recover the
component.
Glass fabric will not deteriorate from UV exposure, but
will be deteriorated by acid rain, dew fallout, and Repair of Fabric Covering
chaffing if loose in the prop blast area.
All materials used to make repairs to fabric covering
Cotton, linen, and glass fabric coverings are must be of a quality at least equal to the original
dependent solely on the strength and tautening materials. Workmanship and repair methods must be
characteristics of the dope film to carry the air loads. made in a manner that will return the fabric covering
Dope coatings on heat-tautened polyester fabric will to its original airworthy condition.
also absorb all the air loads because the elongation of
polyester is considerably higher than the dope film. Any combination of seams hand-sewn and
Polyester fabric that is coated with materials other overlapped and doped may be used to make repairs
than dope is dependent solely on the heat tautening and install new fabric sections.

All pigmented dope coats, including aluminium- Where the edge of a new fabric section will be located
pigmented coats, should be removed to the clear dope within 1 inch of a structural member to which the
preliminary coats before installing a new fabric section fabric is attached by rib lacing or other methods, the
or finishing tape on the old fabric. The appropriate new fabric section should be extended 3 inches past
dope may be applied with a brush to soften the old the structural member.
dope. The softened coats can then be removed down
to the clear dope coats by scraping with a dull-bladed NOTE: Before installing new finishing tape, duplicate
knife while supporting the fabric from the back side. the original rib lacing or other attachments without
Removing the old dope by sanding is optional. removing the original rib lacing or attachment.
Removing the original finishing tape is optional.
The dope must not be allowed to run down the back
side of the fabric or drip through the wing onto the When repairing a covering material other than cotton
back side of the opposite surface as this will cause or linen, which was approved with the manufacturer’s
cosmetic damage and will show in a high gloss finish. type certificate (TC), or approved under the authority
of an STC, the repair instructions supplied by the
Repairing a new fabric section over two adjacent wing aircraft manufacturer or supplier of the STC-approved
ribs is considered a major repair. covering materials must be followed.
All fabric patch edges not covered with a finishing tape

should have a pinked edge or a 1/4-inch ravelled
edge.

REPAIR OF TEARS AND ACCESS OPENINGS If the opening is more than 8 inches long but less
than 16 inches long in any direction, the finishing tape
When all the original fabric is intact, an opening may width should be increased to 4 inches.
be repaired by sewing the two sides together with a
curved needle as illustrated in figures 47 and 48. The The finishing tape width should be increased to 6
fabric edges should be pulled together uniformly with inches if the opening is more than 16 inches long in
no wrinkles. Before sewing, remove the old dope coats any direction, is located on a wing top surface, or the
down to the clear dope coats a distance of 2 inches on aircraft Vne speed is greater than 150 mph.
each side of the opening. The hand-sewn thread
quality should be at least equal to that specified in
table 2-2 and treated with wax (paraffin-free or
beeswax) to prevent fraying, or use the proper thread
on the STC application. After sewing, apply a coat of
clear dope over the cleaned area and install a 3-inch
wide finishing tape, centred over the stitches.
Finishing tapes should be well saturated with dope and

smoothed out with no voids or wrinkles during
installation. After drying for 1 hour at 70 °F, additional
coats of clear dope followed with pigmented dope are
applied.

Fig 47. Typical Fabric Tear Repair Methods

Fig 48. Hand Stitching Detail

SEWN-PATCH REPAIR with dope and smoothed out with no voids or

wrinkles. Additional coats of clear dope and pigmented
Openings that cannot be repaired by closing with dope are then applied to obtain the desired tautness
stitches may be repaired by sewing in a new fabric and finish.
section using baseball stiches. The edges of the fabric
around the opening should be trimmed straight on If the opening is more than 8 inches but less than 16
four sides to facilitate the installation of straight inches long in any direction, the finishing tape should
sections of finishing tape over the stitches. be 4 inches wide.
After cutting out the damaged section and removing The finishing tape width should be 6 inches wide if the
the coatings, the new fabric section should be sized to opening is over 16 inches long in any direction, is
allow folding both edges of the fabric back 1/2-inch to located on a wing top surface, or the aircraft Vne
increase the stitch tear resistance. Temporarily attach speed is greater than 150 mph.
the four corners in position with thread. Start with a
double thread with a square knot at the end (Fig 48) DOPED-ON PATCH REPAIR
and continue stitching in the manner described in
figures 47 and 48. When the stitching is complete, wet An opening not over 8 inches in length in any
the new fabric section to remove any creases. After direction, on an aircraft with a Vne speed less than
drying, apply one coat of clear dope on the new fabric. 150 mph, may be repaired with a 2-inch overlapped
When the first coat of dope has dried 1 hour at 70 °F, and doped patch. The opening should be trimmed to
apply a 3-inch wide finishing tape, centred over the eliminate any irregular edges and old pigmented dope
stitches. The finishing tape should be well saturated coats removed.

When installing a fabric patch over a small opening, If the opening is more than 8 inches but less than 16
the loose edge of the fabric around the opening may inches in length, in any direction on an aircraft with a
be secured by extending a series of small threads, Vne speed less than 150 mph, it may be repaired with
from the edge across the opening, to the opposite a doped patch, which is overlapped 1/4 of the opening
side. After the patch is completed, the threads may be maximum dimension. The maximum overlap should
clipped and removed through an access port or left in not exceed 4 inches.
place.
If the opening is more than 8 inches but less than 16
The fabric patch is installed by applying a coat of clear inches in length in any direction, the repair is located
dope around the opening, then positioning the patch on a wing top surface, and the aircraft Vne speed is
over the opening. Brush out any void or wrinkles while greater than 150 mph, the patch overlap should be 4
saturating only the fabric overlap area. After the first inches and a 2-inch wide finishing tape installed on all
coat of clear dope around the edge has dried 1 hour at sides, centred on the edge of the patch.
70 °F, wet the fabric patch to remove any creases.
After drying, apply additional coats of clear dope and If the opening is more than 16 inches in length in any
pigmented dope over the entire patch. direction and the Vne speed is less than 150 mph, the
patch overlap should be 4 inches and the finishing
If the opening is less than 8 inches in length in any tape should be 4 inches in width, centred on the edge
direction and the aircraft Vne speed is greater than of the patch. If the Vne speed is greater than 150
150 mph, a 2-inch wide finishing tape should be mph, the patch overlap should be 4 inches and the
installed on all sides, centred on the edge of the 2- finishing tape should be 6 inches in width, centred on
inch overlap patch. the edge of the patch.

Chapter 6.4 Corrosion Materials can be metals, polymers (plastics, rubbers,

etc.), ceramics (concrete, brick, etc.) or composites-
The purpose of this chapter is to provide information mechanical mixtures of two or more materials with
that will help maintenance personnel prevent, control different properties. Because metals are the most
and identify various types of corrosion. The treatment used type of structural materials, most corrosion of
of corrosion is covered in Module 7 – Maintenance metals is electrochemical in nature.
Practices, Section 7.18 – Disassembly, Inspection,
Repair and Assembly Techniques. Four conditions must exist before electrochemical
corrosion can occur (fig 49). They are:
6.4.1 Chemical Fundamentals
 A metal subject to corrosion (Anode)
Corrosion can be defined as the degradation of a  A dissimilar conductive material (Cathode)
material due to a reaction with its environment. which has less tendency to corrode
Degradation implies deterioration of physical  Presence of a continuous, conductive liquid path
properties of the material. This can be a weakening of (Electrolyte)
the material due to a loss of cross-sectional area, it  Electrical contact between the anode and the
can be the shattering of a metal due to hydrogen cathode (usually in the form of metal to metal
embrittlement, or it can be the cracking of a polymer contact such as rivets, bolts, and corrosion)
due to sunlight exposure.
If any one of these conditions is removed, the
electrochemical corrosion will stop (fig 50).

Fig 49. Simplified Corrosion Cell (Showing the conditions which must exist for electrochemical corrosion)

Fig 50. Elimination of Corrosion by the Application of an Organic Film to the Metal Surface

NOTE: Paint can mask the initial stages of corrosion.  Lead/graphite pencil marks on aircraft surface
Since corrosion products occupy more volume than metals.
the original metal, painted surfaces should be
inspected often for irregularities such as blisters, 6.4.2 Formation by Galvanic Action Process,
flakes, chips, and lumps. Microbiological, Stress
Some factors which influence metal corrosion and the Galvanic Action Process
rate of corrosion are:
Most pure metals are not suitable for aircraft
 Type of metal construction and are used only in combination with
 Heat treatment and grain direction other metals to form alloys. Most alloys are made up
 Presence of a dissimilar, less corrodible metal entirely of small crystalline regions, called grains.
 Anodic and cathodic surface areas (in galvanic Corrosion can occur on surfaces of those regions
corrosion) which are less resistant and also at boundaries
 Temperature between regions, resulting in the formation of pits and
 Presence of electrolytes (hard water, salt water, intergranular corrosion. Metals have a wide range of
battery fluids, etc.) corrosion resistance. The most active metals, (those
 Availability of oxygen which lose electrons easily), such as magnesium and
 Presence of biological organisms aluminium, corrode easily. The most noble metals
 Mechanical stress on the corroding metal (those which do not lose electrons easily), such as
 Time of exposure to a corrosive environment gold and silver, do not corrode easily. If two dissimilar
metals are placed in close proximity to each other in

the presence of an electrolyte, an electrically- Corrosion is also quickened by high temperature

conducting solution, galvanic corrosion will take place. environments that accelerate chemical reactions and
This is where the ions of the less noble metal (the increase the concentration of water vapour in the air.
anode) migrate to the more noble metal (the
cathode). This ‘plating’ of the cathode causes its rate Microbiological
of corrosion to be significantly reduced or even
stopped. Slime, moulds, fungi, and other living organisms
(some microscopic) can grow on damp surfaces. Once
Electrolytes form on surfaces when condensation, salt they are established, the area usually remains damp,
spray, rain, or rinse water accumulate. Dirt, salt, increasing the possibility of corrosion. Bacteria may be
acidic gases, and engine exhaust gases can dissolve either aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria require
on wet surfaces, increasing the electrical conductivity oxygen to live. They accelerate corrosion by oxidizing
of the electrolyte, thereby increasing the rate of sulphur to produce sulphuric acid. Bacteria living
corrosion. When some of the electrolyte on a metal adjacent to metals may promote corrosion by
surface is partially confined, (such as between faying depleting the oxygen supply or by releasing metabolic
surfaces or in a deep crevice) the metal around this products. Anaerobic bacteria, on the other hand, can
area corrodes more rapidly. This type of corrosion is survive only when free oxygen is not present. The
called crevice corrosion. Corrosion occurs more rapidly metabolism of these bacteria requires them to obtain
because the reduced oxygen content of the confined part of their sustenance by oxidizing inorganic
electrolyte causes the adjacent metal to become compounds, such as iron, sulphur, hydrogen, and
anodic to other metal surfaces on the same part that carbon monoxide. The resultant chemical reactions
are immersed in electrolyte or exposed to air. cause corrosion.

Fungi are the growths of micro-organisms that feed on water. Removal of microbial growth is easier if the
organic materials. While low humidity does not kill growth is kept wet with water. Microbial growth may
microbes, it slows their growth and may prevent also be removed with steam at 100 psi. Protective
corrosion damage. Ideal growth conditions for most clothing must be used when using steam for removing
micro- organisms are temperatures between 68 and microbial growth.
104 °F (20 and 40 °C) and relative humidity between
85 and 100 percent. Hydrocarbon utilizing micro-organisms are commonly
present in jet fuel (fig 51). They live in the water-fuel
Damage resulting from microbial growth can occur interface of the water droplets caused by
when any of three basic mechanisms, or a condensation and form dark black/brown/green, gel-
combination of these, is brought into play. First, fungi like mats. They cause microbial corrosion to plastic
have a tendency to hold moisture, which contributes and rubber parts of the aircraft fuel system by
to other forms of corrosion. Second, because fungi are consuming them and to the metal parts by the means
living organisms, they need food to survive. This food of their acidic metabolic products.
is obtained from the material on which the fungi are
growing. Third, these micro- organisms secrete
corrosive fluids that attack many materials, including
some that are not fungi nutrient.
Microbial growth must be removed completely to

avoid corrosion. Microbial growth should be removed
by hand with a firm non-metallic bristle brush and

Stress
Normally ductile metals subjected to tensile loads in a

corrosive environment can suddenly fail. In addition
to this Manufacturing processes such as machining,
forming, welding, or heat treatment can leave residual
stress in aircraft parts which can also fail unexpectedly
in a corrosive environment.
Fig 51. Microbiologically Contaminated Aviation Fuel

6.4.3 Types of Corrosion and Their General Surface Corrosion

Identification
General surface corrosion (also referred to as Uniform
All corrosive attacks begin on the surface of the metal Etch or Uniform Attack Corrosion) is the most
making the classification of corrosion by physical common form of corrosion and results from a direct
appearance a convenient means of identification (fig chemical attack on a metal surface and involves only
52). the metal surface (fig 53) General surface corrosion
usually occurs over a wide area and is more or less
equal in dispersion. On a polished surface, this type of
corrosion is first seen as a general dulling of the
surface, and if allowed to continue, the surface
becomes rough and possibly frosted in appearance.
The discoloration or general dulling of metal created
by exposure to elevated temperatures is not to be
considered general surface corrosion.
Fig 52. Corrosion Attack

It is first noticeable as a white or grey powdery

deposit, similar to dust, which blotches the surface.
When the deposit is cleaned away, tiny holes or pits
can be seen in the surface (figs 54 and 55). These
small surface openings may penetrate deeply into
structural members and cause damage completely out
of proportion to its surface appearance.
Fig 53. General Surface Corrosion
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is one of the most destructive and

intense forms of corrosion. It can occur in any metal
but is most common on metals that form protective
Fig 54. Pitting Corrosion
oxide films, such as aluminium and magnesium alloys.

foreign material. There are three types of

concentration cell corrosion:
 Metal ion concentration cells

 Oxygen concentration cells
 Active-Passive Cells
Metal Ion Concentration Cells
The solution may consist of water and ions of the

metal which is in contact with water. A high
concentration of the metal ions will normally exist
Fig 55. Pitting Corrosion (magnified cross section) under faying surfaces where the solution is stagnant,
and a low concentration of metal ions will exist
adjacent to the crevice which is created by the faying
Concentration Cell Corrosion
surface. An electrical potential will exist between the
two points; the area of the metal in contact with the
Concentration cell corrosion is corrosion of metals in a
low concentration of metal ions will be anodic and
metal-to-metal joint, corrosion at the edge of a joint
corrode, and the area in contact with the high metal
even though the joined metals are identical, or
ion concentration will be cathodic and not show signs
corrosion of a spot on the metal surface covered by a
of corrosion (fig 56).

Typical locations of oxygen concentration cells are

under gaskets, wood, rubber, and other materials in
contact with the metal surface. Corrosion will occur at
the area of low oxygen concentration (anode). Alloys
such as stainless steel are particularly susceptible to
this type of crevice corrosion (fig 57).
Fig 56. Metal Ion Concentration Cell
Oxygen Concentration Cells
The solution in contact with the metal surface will

normally contain dissolved oxygen. An oxygen cell can
develop at any point where the oxygen in the air is
not allowed to diffuse into the solution, thereby
creating a difference in oxygen concentration between Fig 57. Oxygen Concentration Cell
two points.

Active-Passive Cells effectively concentrates the focal point of the reaction,

often resulting in deep pits in a short time and a
Metals which depend on a tightly adhering passive greater rate of corrosion.
film, usually an oxide, for corrosion protection are
prone to rapid corrosive attack by active-passive cells.
Active-passive cells are often referred to as a type of
concentration cell corrosion.
However, the active-passive cell is actually two forms

of corrosion working in conjunction.
Fig 58. Active-Passive Cell
The corrosive action usually starts as an oxygen
concentration cell. As an example, salt deposits on the
Filiform Corrosion
metal surface in the presence of water containing
oxygen can create the oxygen cell. The passive film
Filiform corrosion is a special form of oxygen
will be broken beneath the salt crystals. Once the
concentration cell which occurs on metal surfaces
passive film is broken, the active metal beneath the
having an organic coating system. It is recognized by
film will be exposed to corrosive attack (fig 58). Rapid
its characteristic worm-like trace of corrosion products
pitting of the active metal will result. This reaction can
beneath the paint film (fig 59). Polyurethane finishes
become locally intense due to several factors. First the
are especially susceptible to filiform corrosion. Filiform
reaction is augmented by the affected area, since the
occurs when the relative humidity of the air is
proportion of the exposed base metal is small
between 78 and 90 percent and the surface is slightly
compared to the surrounding nonreactive metal. This

acidic. This corrosion usually attacks steel and

aluminium surfaces. The traces never cross on steel,
but they will cross under one another on aluminium
which makes the damage deeper and more severe for
aluminium. If the corrosion is not removed, the area
treated, and a protective finish applied, the corrosion
can lead to inter-granular corrosion, especially around
fasteners and at seams.
Filiform corrosion can be removed using glass bead

blasting material with portable abrasive blasting
equipment or sanding. Filiform corrosion can be
prevented by storing aircraft in an environment with a
relative humidity below 70 percent, using coating Fig 59. Filiform Corrosion
systems having a low rate of diffusion for oxygen and
water vapours, and by washing the aircraft to remove Intergranular Corrosion
acidic contaminants from the surface.
Inter-granular corrosion is an attack on the grain
boundaries of a metal. A highly magnified cross
section of any commercial alloy shows the granular
structure of the metal. It consists of quantities of
individual grains, and each of these tiny grains has a

clearly defined boundary which chemically differs from High-strength aluminium alloys such as 2014 and
the metal within the grain. The grain boundary and 7075 are more susceptible to inter-granular corrosion
the grain centre can react with each other like as an if they have been improperly heat-treated and then
anode and cathode when in contact with an exposed to a corrosive environment (fig 61).
electrolyte. Rapid selective corrosion of the grain
boundaries can occur (fig 60).
Fig 60. Intergranular Corrosion

Fig 61. Intergranular Corrosion of 7075-T6 Aluminium Adjacent to a Steel Fastener

Exfoliation Corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion is an advanced form of inter-

granular corrosion and shows itself by lifting up the
surface grains of a metal by the force of expanding
corrosion products occurring at the grain boundaries
just below the surface (fig 62). It is visible evidence of
inter-granular corrosion and is most often seen on
extruded sections where grain thickness are usually
less than in rolled forms.
Galvanic Corrosion INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals

make contact in the presence of an electrolyte (fig
63). It is usually recognizable by the presence of a
build-up of corrosion at the joint between the metals.

Fig 62. Exfoliation Corrosion

Fig 63. Galvanic Corrosion of Aluminium Sheet adjacent to a Stainless Steel Screw.

Stress Corrosion Cracking necessary to promote stress corrosion cracking (fig

64). However, failures may occur at lower stresses.
This form of corrosion involves a constant or cyclic
stress, acting in conjunction with a damaging chemical
environment. The stress may be caused by internal or
external loading.
Internal stress may be trapped in a part of structure

during manufacturing processes such as cold working
or by unequal cooling from high temperatures. Most
manufacturers follow up these processes with a stress
relief operation. Even so, sometimes stress remains
trapped. The stress may be externally introduced in
part structure by riveting, welding, bolting, clamping,
press fit, etc. If a slight mismatch occurs, or a Fig 64. Stress Corrosion Cracking
fastener is over-torque, internal stress will be present.
Internal stress is more important than design stress,

because stress corrosion is difficult to recognize before
it has overcome the design safety factor. The level of
stress varies from point to point within the metal.
Stresses near the yield strength are generally

Specific environments have been identified which Fatigue Corrosion

cause stress corrosion cracking of certain alloys:
Fatigue corrosion involves cyclic stress and a corrosive
 Salt solutions and sea water cause stress environment. Metals may withstand cyclic stress for
corrosion cracking of high-strength, heat- an infinite number of cycles so long as the stress is
treated steel and aluminium alloys. below the endurance limit of the metal. Once the limit
 Methyl alcohol-hydrochloric acid solutions will has been exceeded, the metal will eventually crack
cause stress corrosion cracking of some titanium and fail from metal fatigue. However, when the part
alloys. or structure undergoing cyclic stress is also exposed
 Magnesium alloys may stress corrode in moist to a corrosive environment, the stress level for failure
air. may be reduced many times. Thus, failure occurs at
stress levels that can be dangerously low depending
Stress Corrosion may be reduced by: on the number of cycles assigned to the life-limited
part.
 Applying protective coatings
 Stress relief heat treatments Fatigue corrosion failure occurs in two stages. During
 Using corrosion inhibitors the first stage the combined action of corrosion and
 Controlling the environment cyclic stress damages the metal by pitting and crack
formations to such a degree that fracture by cyclic
stress will occur, even if the corrosive environment is
completely removed.

The second stage is essentially a fatigue stage in

which failure proceeds by propagation of the crack
(often from a corrosion pit or pits). It is controlled
primarily by stress concentration effects and the
physical properties of the metal. Fracture of a metal
part due to fatigue corrosion, generally occurs at a
stress level far below the fatigue limit of an
uncorroded part, even though the amount of corrosion
is relatively small.
Fig 66. Result of Fatigue Corrosion
Fig 65. Fatigue Corrosion

Fretting Corrosion
Fretting corrosion can occur at the interface of two

highly-loaded surfaces which are not supposed to
move against each other. However, vibration may
cause the surfaces to rub together resulting in an
abrasive wear known as fretting (fig 67). The
protective film on the metallic surfaces is removed by
this rubbing action. With continued rubbing, metal
particles sheared from the surface of the metal
combine with oxygen to form metal oxide.
As these oxides accumulate, they cause damage by

abrasive action and increased local stress. The most
common example of fretting corrosion in an aircraft
environment is ‘working’ rivets. This is one corrosion Fig 67. Fretting Corrosion.
reaction that is not driven by an electrolyte, and in
fact, moisture may inhibit the reaction. Application of
a lubricant or installation of a fretting-resistant
material between the two surfaces can reduce fretting
corrosion.

6.4.4 Causes of Corrosion The major atmospheric corrosive agents are oxygen
and airborne moisture. Corrosion often results from
Substances that cause corrosion are called corrosive the direct action of atmospheric oxygen and moisture
agents. The most common corrosive agents are acids, on metal and the presence of additional moisture
alkalis, and salts. The atmosphere and water, the two often accelerates corrosive attack, particularly on
most common media for these agents, may also act ferrous alloys. The atmosphere may also contain other
as corrosive agents. corrosive gases and contaminants, particularly
industrial and marine salt spray.
Any acid will severely corrode most of the alloys used
in airframes. The most destructive are sulphuric acid 6.4.5 Material Types, Susceptibility to
(battery acid), halogen acids (hydrochloric, Corrosion
hydrofluoric, and hydrobromic), nitrous oxide
compounds, and organic acids found in the wastes of All metals are susceptible to corrosion and their rate
humans and animals. of corrosion is determined by their position in the
Galvanic Series. For example Gold is the least
Alkalis, as a group, are not as corrosive as acids. susceptible to corrosion and Beryllium is the most
Aluminium and magnesium alloys are exceedingly susceptible. The effects of corrosion on each metal
prone to corrosive attack by many alkaline solutions can be advanced dramatically if the metal is in
unless the solutions contain a corrosion inhibitor. proximity to another, more noble metal, and / or an
Substances particularly corrosive to aluminium are electrolyte. The table in figure 68 indicates the
washing soda, potash (wood ashes), and lime (cement susceptibility of a number of metals to corrosion,
dust). starting with the least susceptible.

Fig 68.Susceptibility of Metals to Corrosion

Chapter 6.5 Fasteners 6.5.1 Screw Threads
Fasteners, or fastening devices, are used to create Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened
secure joints between two or more components. Types together with all of the strength that unthreaded
of fastening devices, used on aircraft, vary in fasteners provide. However, unlike rivets and pins,
accordance with the materials, which require joining, threaded fasteners may be disassembled and
and the importance of the joined components, or reassembled an almost infinite number of times.
structures, to the safety of the aircraft.
Aircraft, bolts, nuts, screws and studs are
The environment in which the joint must operate and manufactured to the many, different, International
the frequency (and ease) with which the joint may Standards and in a variety of different thread forms.
need to be disassembled, for inspection, replacement
or repair, will also influence the choice of fasteners to Due to the large range of different available fasteners,
be employed. great care must be always taken to select the correct
fastener for each particular installation.
Fasteners may be metallic or non-metallic (or
composites of both types). They may be flexible or
rigid (or a combination of both) and may be used to
form the three basic categories of joints.

The Inclined Plane and the Helix Friction, between the surfaces, may, however, prevent
movement from actually occurring.
The value of the wedge as a means of transmitting
motion is well known. For a constant effort applied in When a continuous, inclined plane is cut around the
driving a wedge, a smaller angle of inclination outside (or the inside) of a cylinder, then a spiral (also
between the planes will cause a greater force to be known as a ‘helix’) is produced. The helix angle is
exerted through a shorter distance, whilst conversely, important in screw threads, because it dictates the
a larger angle will cause less force to be exerted number of threads, which can be cut, per axial linear
through a greater distance). increment (millimetres or inches) on, or in, the
cylinder (fig 69).
Transmission of Motion with an Inclined Plane
Whilst the wedge is, generally, used as a means of

transmitting motion, it must be remembered that the
action may be reversed and the wedge can be caused
to move when a force is applied to the inclined
surfaces. This is readily appreciated when the angle is
large (and the larger the angle of inclination becomes,
then, the more readily is the motion reversed) but, no
matter how small the angle may be, the resultant of
forces applied will still tend to produce movement.

Fine threads are, normally, associated with small and

delicate instruments or in equipment, where secure
holding power is often required of miniature-sized
fasteners. The greater ‘wedging action’ of fine threads
also makes them much more dependable in situations
where vibration (or a change of temperature) has the
tendency to loosen threaded joints.
Most aircraft components are assembled using fine

threads on the various bolts, nuts, screws and studs,
which are then, often, further secured by some other,
mechanical, process, to reinforce their resistance to
the effects of temperature changes and vibration.
Helix Angle
Screw Nomenclature
Fig 69. Helix Angle of a Screw Thread
Screw threads are usually formed with a ‘clockwise’
In a similar manner to the previously mentioned
turning groove and are referred to as ‘right-hand’
wedges, a thread with a small helix angle (a fine
threads, but there are occasions where the thread is
thread), will exert a greater force than one with a
formed with the groove spiralling in an ‘anti-clockwise’
larger helix angle (a coarse thread) for a given
direction and, in this instance, they are designated as
cylinder diameter.
‘left-hand’ threads.

While a truncated thread can be used to illustrate the Lead - The distance a screw moved axially in one
terminologies, associated with screw threads, the complete turn. In the case of multi-start threads, the
actual profile, of any thread, will be determined by the lead is equal to the pitch multiplied by the number of
Standard or specification to which it is manufactured. starts.
This of course, will also be influenced by the use to
which the threaded item is to be put. Single Start Thread - This is when there is only one
screw thread cut in the material.
The following terms and definitions are commonly
used regarding screw threads (fig 70). Multi-Start Thread - This consists of two or more
separate, parallel threads cut into the material
Major Diameter - The largest diameter of the thread, carrying the thread. This is used in order to achieve a
measured at right angles to the axis. quick acting motion between two threaded items.
Minor Diameter - The smallest diameter of the Run-out - The part of the thread where the minor
thread, measured as right angles to the axis. diameter increases until it equals the major diameter
and merges with the plain portion of the shank. The
Pitch - The distance from the centre of one crest to run-out cannot be used and nut rotated on the run-
the centre of the next, measured parallel to the axis. out would become thread-bound.
Depth of Thread - The distance between the root

and crest, measured at right angles to the axis.

Thread Forms, Dimensions and Tolerances for

Standard Threads used in Aircraft
The form of a screw thread will depend on the way it

is to be used. Where the thread is used to join
components together (nuts, bolts, screws and studs)
then the conventional ‘V’-shaped threads, similar to
the ISO Metric thread, will be found.
Turnbuckles and similar devices, (which are employed

as adjusters of either the tension or of the distance
between components), may also use ‘V’-shaped
threads, while the Acme, Buttress and Square threads
are utilised to transmit movement or power (as may
be seen in lathes, vices and Flap Jacks).
Screw Thread Forms

Fig 70. Screw Thread Terms
Thread forms have developed over the years, from the
early standardisation on the British Standard
Whitworth (BSW) thread (with a rather coarse thread,
which was prone to slackening when subjected to

vibration), to the modern, finer threads which are maximum fatigue resistance is required of a bolt), by
more suitable for use on aerospace components and rolling.
structures. In an attempt to provide a common
standard, the Unified system of threads was adopted In the United States, a parallel but differing group of
by Canada, the United States of America and the thread systems is used. The four main systems are
United Kingdom. ANC, ANF (also referred to as AF), UNC and UNF, with
the NC and NF having a finer thread than the UNC and
The International Standard Organisation (ISO) UNF.
recommended that the Unified system be used
internationally, in parallel with a system using Metric The common standard thread forms in use today are:
units of measurement, but with a similar form of
thread profile and standards of tolerances. International Standard Common Abbreviation
American National Coarse ANC

Unified Coarse (UNC) and Unified Fine (UNF) threads American National Fine ANF
may be found wherever their use is appropriate, but Unified Coarse UNC
special threads, such as UNS (for high-temperature Unified Fine UNF
applications) and UNJ (increased fatigue strength) British Association BA
British Standard Fine BSF
have become more common.
ISO Metric M
Screw threads may be formed by such processes as

tapping, die cutting and machine cutting or (where

Dimensions
Thread Angle = 600
Each of the different thread forms have different Basic Radius ‘r’ = 0.1443P
dimensions for the thread and are as follows: Pitch ‘P’ =
Basic Height of External Thread ‘hs’ = 0.61344P
UNC and UNF
Basic Height of Internal Thread ‘hn’ = 0.54127P
Number of Teeth Per Inch

UNC UNF
64 72
56 64
48 56
40 48
40 44
32 40
32 36
24 32
24 28
Fig. 72 Number of TPI for UNC & UNF Forms (Extract)
Fig 71. UNC & UNF Thread Dimensions

BA
Thread Angle = 47.50

Basic Radius ‘r’ = 0.1808346P
Pitch ‘P’ = 0.9n where n = number of the screw
Basic Depth of Thread ‘h’ = 0.6P
Angular Depth of Thread ‘ha’ = 1.13P
BA screws are referred to as a number, for example

1BA, 2BA, 3BA etc.
BA threads are typically used in electrical applications,

but are slowly being replaced by metric threads.
Fig 73. BA Thread Form

Metric
Fig 74. Metric Course and Metric Fine Thread Form
Thread Angle = 600

Thread Depth ‘Dt’ = 0.614P
Vee Depth ‘Dv’ = 0.866P
Note: Metric thread forms are described using the

pitch of the thread unlike imperial threads which use
the number of TPI.
Fig 75. Typical Metric Thread Pitches

BSF
Thread Angle = 550

Basic Radius ‘r’ = 0.137329P
Basic Depth of Thread ‘h’ = 0.640327P
Pitch ‘P’ =
Fig 76. BSF Thread Form

Tolerances for Standard Threads and may require the application of an anti-seize
compound before installation.
In addition to being identified as either coarse or fine,
threads are also classified by their class of fit. By comparison, a fastener which is going to be
subjected to the high tension or shear loads
Class of Fit Type of Fit associated with the securing of aircraft engine parts
would need to be a Close tolerance fit.
1 Loose
2 Free Measuring Screw Threads
3 Medium
4 Close It is not considered a normal operation to measure a
5 Tight screw thread, as its identification can be found in the
Classes of Thread Fit Parts Manual and supplied under a manufacturer’s
part number. Whilst this is true and the manuals
A Class 1 fit can be tightened all the way down by should always be used, there are other ways of
hand (such as with a wing nut), whilst a Class 4 or 5 identifying screw threads.
fit requires a spanner throughout the tightening
operation. One method is to identify the screw by means of
various marks normally found on the head of the
The Class 3 fit is the type mostly employed on screw. These marks may give a clue as to which type
aircraft, and would be typical of a thread, which is of thread the screw has (AF, BSF, or Metric etc.). A
designed for use in a high-temperature environment measurement across the thread crests, using a

micrometer, would give the diameter of the screw in  Pitch Gauge - The pitch gauge can be used to
question. Finally, the identifying head markings would find the thread size by simply fitting the various
also give the material from which the screw is made. blades of the gauge against the screw thread
until a match is achieved (fig 78).
Two tools may be used for different stages of thread
measurement:
 Profile Gauge - The profile gauge can be used

to ensure that the tool, which is cutting the
thread, is of the correct type (fig 77).
47½
60
55°
Fig 78. Pitch gauge
Fig 77. Profile Gauge

6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws Bolt Types
Bolt Types, Specification, Identification and There are hundreds of different bolt lengths, pitches
Marking of Aircraft Bolts, International and diameters in use on aircraft but they all conform
Standards to a few standard head types as follows:
Most bolts used in aircraft structures are either  Hex-Head Bolts

general-purpose, internal wrenching, or close-  Flush-Head Bolts
tolerance bolts. In certain cases, fastener  Drilled-Head Bolts
manufacturers produce bolts of different dimensions  Twelve-Point, Washer-Head Bolts
or greater strength than the standard types. Such  Internal Wrenching Bolts
bolts are made for a particular application, and it is of  Clevis Bolts
extreme importance to use like bolts in replacement.  Eye Bolts
They are also available in a number of different
materials such as nickel steel, aluminium alloy, Hex Head Bolts
corrosion-resistant steel and titanium.
These are the standard bolt used in airframe and
engine construction and are designed to carry tensile
and shear loads (fig 79). The strength of joints made
with Hex head bolts depends on the being fitted to the
correct torque loading. Most bolts of this type are

cadmium plated for corrosion resistance and have a Flush Head Bolts
class 3 fit.
These bolts are designed to fit flush with the outside
Some hex head bolts are also supplied with holes skin of the aircraft and can carry high loads. As such
drilled through the head for locking wire and/or a hole they are made from either alloy steel or titanium.
through the shank near the end for a split pin. Most bolts have a 1000 head, but are also available
with an 820 head. They are turned with a special
The ground surface of close-tolerance bolts, tolerance screwdriver which fits into a recess in the head. There
±0.0005”, is not plated, but is protected from rust are a number of different recess designs (fig 80).
with grease.
Fig 79. Hex Head Bolts Fig 80. Flush Head Bolts

Drilled Head Bolts Twelve Point, Washer Head Bolts
Drilled head bolts are similar to the standard hex bolt, These bolts are designed for special high strength and
but have a deeper head (fig 81) which is drilled to high temperature airframe and powerplant
receive locking wire. The physical differences applications. The heads of these bolts are available
preventing direct interchangeability are the slightly with both drilled and undrilled heads (fig 82).
greater head height, and longer thread length. They
are used in locations where high tensile strength is
required.
Fig 81. Drilled Head Bolt Fig 82. Twelve Point, Washer Head Bolt

Internal Wrenching Bolts Clevis Bolts
These bolts are made from high strength steel alloy Clevis bolts (fig 84) are designed to withstand shear
and are used in special airframe applications where forces only. They have a shallow head, which is
severe loads are placed on the structure (fig 83). They slotted for turning with a screwdriver. The threads
have a radius between the shank and the head to are short so they must be used with a thin nut. Most
improve shear stress resistance. They are used with clevis bolts have a drilled shank for use with split pins.
special chamfered steel washers that have been heat They are typically used to attach a cable to a control
treated. They are turned with a hex wrench which fits horn.
into a socket in the head. These bolts are supplied
with either a drilled or undrilled head.
Fig 83. Internal Wrenching Bolts Fig 84. Clevis Bolt

Eye Bolts International Standards, Specification and

Identification and Marking of Aircraft Bolts
Eye bolts (fig 85) are used to attach wires and cables
to aircraft structure. They are made of alloy steel Aircraft bolts are manufactured using a number of
which is cadmium plated. They are supplied with different internationally recognised standards. The
either drilled or undrilled shanks. most common standards are:
 AN – Air Force / Navy Standards

 NAS – National Aerospace Standards
 MS – Military Standards
 AMS – Aeronautical Material Specifications
 SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers
 MIL- Military Specifications
 AGS – Aircraft General Standard
 M – Metric
 BA – British Association
 BSF – British Standards Fine
Fig 85. Eye Bolts

Identification and Marking of Bolts To find the Standard number of a given item proceed
as follows:
Bolts with BA or BSF Threads
 Identify the head from Figure 87, for example
In this series, BSF threads are used on bolts of ¼ inch '(l)'.
diameter and larger; smaller bolts have BA threads.
BA sizes larger than 2 BA are not specified. The table  Referring to the table in figure 86, it can be
in figure 86 gives a list of the relevant Standards, seen that '(l)' refers to an A61 bolt. If the
superseding Standards and identification data illustration applies to more than one
appropriate to the series. Figure 87 illustrates the specification, further information contained in
types of head used. the table, such as the type of finish, should
enable the identification to be completed.
Fig 86. BA and BSF Bolts

Fig 87. Identification of BA and BSF Bolt Head and Screw Types

The code system used for the identification of the 7/16 inch nominal size and larger have the
bolts listed in figure 86 consists of the standard appropriate part number applied to the upper face of
number followed by the part number of the particular the head. Parcels of bolts have the number of the
relevant British Standard and the appropriate part
bolt. The part number consists of a number indicating
number clearly stated on the labels.
the nominal length of the plain portion of the shank in
tenths of an inch, followed by a letter indicating the The position at which the plain length is measured on
nominal diameter (fig 88). For example: The complete hexagon bolts is indicated in Figure 89. It should be
part reference number for an A57 bolt of 3.1 inches in noted that with BA and BSF bolts, the plain portion of
length and 3/8 inch in diameter is; A57 31J. the shank includes the thread 'run-out'. A 'washer
face' (e.g. Figure 87(b)) on the under-surface of a bolt
head is not included in the plain length of the shank
i.e. the measurement is taken from the underside of
the ‘washer face’.
Fig 88. Code system for BA / BSF Bolts
All bolts to British Standards A25, A26, A30, A57,

A59, A60 and A61 of ¼ inch nominal diameter and
over are marked with the appropriate British Standard Fig 89. Length of BA / BSF Bolts
on the upper face of the head. Additionally, bolts of

Bolts Having Unified Threads When the British Standard number is not marked on
the bolt head, identification should be made as
The table in Figure 90 gives a list of current and follows:
obsolescent bolts in the Unified range. Figure 91
illustrates the type of head used in this range and also  Identify the head from Figure 91, for example
shows the general 'Unified' symbols, including (h) the (g).
cylindrical extension (dog point) sometimes used on
parts not having hexagon shaped heads. It will be  Reference to Figure 90 shows that the bolt could
noticed that there are several shapes of hexagon be an A113, A114 or A170.
head; these are alternative methods of manufacture
and do not necessarily provide a means of Complete identification is possible in this example
identification, although A108 and A111 bolts, which from the type of finish; in other instances it may be
have close tolerance shanks, have a cylindrical derived from further information, such as diameter or
extension on top of the head and shear bolts always thread length, contained in Figure 90.
have thin heads. Bolts and screws of similar shape
may be further identified by the material; aluminium
alloy is dyed green, high tensile steel is cadmium
plated and corrosion resistant steel or brass are
normally uncoated.

Fig 90. Identification of Unified Bolts
Fig 91. Head Forms of Unified Bolts and Screws

The code system used for the identification of the inch, e.g. a ¼ inch UNJF A229 bolt with plain
bolts listed in Figure 90 consists of the Standard length of one inch = A229–-E16.
number followed by the part number of the particular
bolt. The diameter code shown in Figure 92 is used on NOTE: The position at which the nominal length of
all parts but the measurement of length varies with bolts is measured is shown in Figure 93. It should be
different Standards as follows:- noted that the plain portion of the shank, on bolts
with Unified threads, does not include the thread run-
 All bolts from A102 to A212 inclusive, nominal out.
length in tenths of an inch followed by the
diameter, e.g. an A102, 10–-32 UNF bolt with
plain length of one inch = A102–-10D.
NOTE: Hexagon and mushroom head bolts are also

supplied in lengths of 0·05 inch in some specifications,
e.g. an A170–-1/2D bolt has a plain length of 0·05
inch.
 All screws from A204 to A221 inclusive,

diameter followed by length in thirty seconds of Fig 92. Unified Bolt Diameter Code Letters
an inch, e.g. a 4–-40 UNC A217 screw 1 inch
long = A217–-A32.
 All bolts from A226 to A232 inclusive, diameter

followed by nominal length in sixteenths of an

NOTE: At some future date, to be agreed, the

'Unified' marking of screws will be discontinued and
identification of these items will be solely from the
label on the package.
Most hexagon head bolts 10–32 UNF and larger are

marked with the full code, i.e. Standard plus size
code, but pan and mushroom head bolts may only be
Fig 93. Nominal Length of Unified Bolts
marked with the bolt length and countersunk head
bolts are not usually marked at all. The code is not
The markings actually applied to a bolt depend on the
applied to bolts smaller than 10–-32 UNF.
particular specification and whether marking is
practical. Adding the code 'A217–Z32' to the head of a
'AS' Bolts
2–-64 UNF pan head screw (head diameter 0·155 to
0·167 in), for example, would be very difficult, and
having raised characters on a countersunk head bolt This paragraph is concerned with the identification of
would, in certain circumstances, defeat the object of bolts and screws complying with the Society of British
using that shape of head. Aerospace Companies 'AS' series of specifications. The
specifications provide a range of bolts and screws in
Most bolts 4–40 UNC and larger, are marked with a sizes and head shapes not found in British Standards
symbol to show that they have 'Unified' threads. The
specifications. Bolts manufactured from special
markings consist of contiguous circles (hexagon
headed bolts only), a recessed head or shank dog materials (e.g. heat resistant steel) and having Unified
point, and are illustrated in Figure 91. threads are also included.

Figure 94 shows the AS specifications for bolts with

BA/BSF threads, together with complete identification
details.
Fig 95. AS Round Head Bolt Specifications
Double Hexagon Head Bolts
Figure 96 shows the AS specifications for double

hexagon head bolts manufactured from heat resistant
steel and having UNS or UNJF threads. Requirements
for protective treatment vary between specifications,
some bolts being silver plated while others have a
Fig 94. AS Specifications for Bolts natural finish.
The table in Figure 95 shows the AS specifications for

'round head' bolts with a locking flat and Unified
threads. These bolts are manufactured from high
tensile steel and are cadmium plated.

applications and should be fitted with nuts complying

with specifications AS20620 to AS20639.
AS1, AS2 and all the bolts listed in Figure 96 are

marked with the AS specification to which they
conform. Other AS bolts are unmarked except for the
'Unified' symbol which is applied to anchor bolts
(recessed head) and the round head bolts shown in
Figure 95 (shank dog point).
Although a large number of AS bolts are not marked

in any way, codes are necessary for ordering and
storage purposes.
The code system used for the identification of the

bolts listed in Figures 94, and for AS1 and AS2 bolts,
is the same as that used for British Standards bolts,
i.e. AS number followed by a number indicating length
Fig 96. AS Double Hex Head Bolts
in tenths of an inch and a letter indicating diameter
NOTE: The UNS bolts listed in the table have reduced (Figures 88 and 92 as appropriate). The length is
diameter threads for use in high temperature measured in the same way as for British Standard
parts.

NOTE: AS2504 and 4569 bolts are only manufactured reference number. It should be noted that this series
in 2 BA; the diameter code is therefore not required. of bolts has a threaded length greater than that
normally found on aircraft fasteners. A minimum
Figure 95 shows that a batch of AS numbers is length of plain portion is also maintained, so that the
allocated to each diameter of bolt in this series. A thread length in the shorter bolts is reduced below the
separate number within each batch is reserved for a normal for the particular diameter.
particular length of bolt so that a code system is
unnecessary; any particular AS number in this series AN Bolts
applies only to a bolt of specified length and diameter.
The plain length is graduated in steps of 0·05 inch These specifications are in two series. The early series
from 0·05 inch to 0·9 inch, and steps of 0·1 inch has numbers from 3 to 9000, with the fasteners
thereafter up to 3·4 inch. A 10–32 UNF bolt 1·2 inch occupying a range from 3 to 1000; these fasteners are
long and having a small head will therefore be of comparatively low strength, and are manufactured
AS6780. in steel or aluminium alloy. The steel parts are
generally manufactured from low-alloy steel and if
The bolts shown in Figure 96 also have a batch of AS non-corrosion resistant, are cadmium plated, whilst
numbers allocated to each diameter but in this case the aluminium parts are anodised. The later series
the range of available lengths varies between parts have six figure numbers commencing with 100
specifications. The length of the bolt is taken as the 000, are of more recent design and are generally
whole length of the shank, including the thread in manufactured from higher-strength materials.
sixteenths of an inch up to 2 inches long, and eighths
thereafter, each particular size having a unique

Early Series AN Bolts
Figure 97 gives a list of the early series AN Bolts, and

Figure 98 shows the types of heads and the
identification marking used to indicate the material
from which the parts are made.
Fig 98. AN Series Head Types
All of the bolts listed in Figure 97 may be identified as

to type by reference to the head marking or position
of the locking wire holes. Diameter may be identified
by experience, or by measurement and reference to
the specification. Other dimensions such as grip
length, head size and thread length must be obtained
from the specification.
Fig 97. Early Series AN Bolts

For identification purposes the AN number is used to The length of a bolt as quoted in the specifications, is
indicate the type of bolt and its diameter, and a code the overall length from under the head to the end of
is used to indicate the material, length and thread the shank (L in Figure 1), but the length is generally
(where these vary) and the position of the locking regarded as from under the head to the first full
wire or cotter pin (split pin) hole. thread (excluding the chamfer) and is quoted in 1/8 in
increments as a ‘dash’ number. The last figure of the
The last figure or last two figures of AN number dash number represents eighths of an inch, and the
indicate the diameter of the thread. 1 = No. 6, 2 = first figure of the dash number represents inches.
No. 8, 3 = No. 10, and 4 = ¼ in, and subsequent Thus an AN 4–12 is a ¼ in hexagon-head bolt 1¼ in
numbers indicate the diameter in 1/16 in increments; (i.e. 12/8) long, and an AN 12–24 is a 3 in hexagon-
above 5/8 in the available sizes are in 1/8 steps, but head bolt 2½ in long.
are still coded in sixteenths. Thus an AN 4 is a
hexagon head bolt with ¼ in thread, an AN 14 is a The total lengths quoted in the specifications for these
hexagon head bolt with a 7/8 in (14/16) thread and bolts, is actually 19/32 in and 221/32 in, respectively.
an AN 182 is a close-tolerance bolt with a ¾ in Clevis bolts (AN 21 to 36) do not follow this coding,
(12/16) thread (the numbering in this case starting at but the length is indicated in 1/16 in increments by
173). An exception to this is the eye bolt, where the dash number; thus an AN 29–9 is 9/16 in long.
different diameter pin holes affect the coding; AN 42
is No.10, AN 43 is ¼ in, AN 44 is 5/16 in with a ¼ in
diameter pin hole, and AN 45 is 5/16 in with a 5/16 in
diameter pin hole.

Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the Where the bolt is supplied with either UNF or UNC
threaded part of the shank, but different threads, a UNC thread is indicated by placing an ‘A’ in
arrangements may be obtained by use of the following place of the dash, e.g. AN 74A6.
code:
Late Series AN Bolts
 Drilled shank = normal coding, e.g. AN 24–15.
 Undrilled shank = A added after dash number, These fasteners are all marked to show the material
e.g. AN 24–15A. from which they are made. When ordering a particular
 Drilled head only = H added before dash fastener, the part number should be taken from the
number (replacing the dash sign) and A added tables in the appropriate specification, since the size
after dash number, e.g. AN 6H10A. cannot be determined from a standard coding. Figure
 Drilled head and shank = H added before dash 99 lists the various bolts which are currently available
number, e.g. AN 6H10. in this series of specifications, and give the range of
numbers allocated to each type. The bolts are
The standard coding applies to a non-corrosion- available in sizes 10–32, ¼–28, 5/16– 24, 3/8–24,
resistant, cadmium plated steel bolt. Where the bolt is 7/16–20, ½–20, 9/16–18, 5/8–18 and ¾–16.
supplied in other materials, letters are placed after the
AN number as follows:
 C = corrosion-resistant steel (CRS)

 DD = aluminium alloy, e.g. AN 6DD10.

MS Fasteners
A wide variety of bolts are available in the MS range.

All of them are marked on their heads to show the
material from which they are made or the MS
specification to which they conform; in addition, most
fasteners are marked with the manufacturer’s
identification.
Figure 100 lists a wide range of bolts in the MS series.

It should be noted however, that the term ‘bolt’ is
applied to the whole range of sizes in which a
particular item is supplied. In the specifications, an
item with a No. 8 or smaller thread is generally
termed a ‘screw’, regardless of the fact that it is
identical in shape and material to a larger item, which
is termed a ‘bolt’. However, in some cases the term
‘bolt’ is also applied to an item with a No. 8 thread.
Fig 99. Late Series AN Bolts

Fig 100. MS Bolt Specifications (Extract)

For most of the items listed in Figure 100, the MS inch, and the last two figures indicate grip
number relates to an item of a particular diameter, length in sixteenths of an inch.
and a table provided in the specification details the
range of lengths available in that size.  For MS 20004 to 20024, and MS 21250 bolts, an
H in place of the dash indicates a drilled-head
Length is indicated by a dash number, but the length bolt.
indicated by a particular dash number varies with the
diameter, so that the complete part number of a NAS Bolts
particular item can only be determined by reference to
the specifications. NAS Specifications provide a wide range of bolts with
a variety of head shapes and wrenching recesses (Fig
Notes: 101). The range of bolts includes both self-locking and
non-locking versions, and many varieties are also
 Bolts in the ranges MS 20004 to 20024 and MS available with oversize shanks for repair work.
20033 to 20046, the thread size is indicated by
the part number and the length is indicated by a All NAS bolts are marked for identification purposes,
dash number, which represents grip length in but the extent of the marking depends on the size of
sixteenths of an inch. the head and on the requirements of the particular
specification.
 Bolts in the MS 21250 series, the dash number
indicates both diameter and length. The first two
figures indicate diameter in sixteenths of an

Fig 101. NAS Bolts and Screws

Many components are marked in accordance with NAS size of the recess in accordance with NAS 4000.
1347, which provides for four types of identification: Oversize bolts are also marked with an ‘X’ or ‘Y’.
 Type I - is the material code and is the same NOTE: Provision is also made for including the
as that shown in Figure 1 for AN bolts; manufacturer’s identification mark on the head.
 Type II - is the basic part number, i.e. the NAS
number;
 Type III - is the basic part number and a
material code letter;
 Type IV - is the complete part number,
including basic part number, material code,
figures for diameter and length, and a letter for
type of finish.
These markings are shown in Table 11 and explained

in paragraphs 5.3 and 5.4. It should be noted,
however, that in the smaller sizes a shortened version
of the code may be permitted by the specification.
On fasteners with a Tri-Wing recess the marking also

includes a figure, inside a circle, which indicates the

Fig 102. NAS Bolt Specifications (Extract)

The bolts and screws listed in Figure 102 are coded NAS xxx0 = 4–40, xxx1 = 6–32, xxx2 =
according to their type, diameter, length, type of 8–32, xxx3 = 10–32, xxx4 = ¼–28, xxx5
plating and material. Where a component is made in = 5/16–24, xxx6 = 3/8–24, xxx7 = 7/16–
more than one material, an alloy steel part is given 20, xxx8 = ½–20, xxx9 = 9/16–18, xx10
the basic part number; similarly, where applicable, the = 5/8– 18, xx12 = ¾–16, xx14 = 7/8–14,
basic part number implies that the part is not drilled xx16 = 1–12, xx18 = 11/8–12, and xx20
for locking purposes. = 11/4–12.
Most bolts and screws are coded according to thread  The threads are usually UNC, UNF, UNJC or
size in a similar way to AN and MS parts; however, UNJF, but some bolts and screws are also
there are some exceptions: available with American National threads, and
these are coded separately. Those parts which
 NAS 1261 to 1265 and NAS 1266 to 1270 are comply with the Unified standard are indicated
available in sizes 9/16–18, 5/8–18, ¾– 16, 7/8– by a ‘B’ in Figure 102.
14, and 1–12; they are coded in numerical order
and indicated by an ‘A’ in Figure 102.  For bolts and screws which are given a single
NAS number, the diameter is given by the first
 For bolts and screws which are given a range of dash number as follows:
numbers (except as detailed in d)), the last
figure or two figures indicates the size as NAS xxxx–02 = 2–56, xxxx–04 = 4–40,
follows: xxxx–06 = 6–32, xxxx–08 = 8–32, xxxx–
3 = 10–32, xxxx–4 = ¼–28, and so on, in

steps of 1/16 in, following the sizes given  W = QQ–P–416 Type I Class 3 plating.
in b). Parts following this code are marked  B = Blackened Type II plating.
‘C’ in Figure 102.  H = CRS with Type II plating.
 P = CRS or titanium with Type II plating.
 NAS 1271 to 1280 are available in sizes from ¼  U = Unplated.
to 1 in, and are coded in numerical order.  A = Aluminium coating to NAS 4006.
The length of the bolt is indicated by the second dash Unless otherwise stated, the type of locking is
number for parts with the ‘C’ diameter code, or the indicated as follows:
first dash number for all other parts. The length dash
number indicates the total length of a part with a full  D = Drilled shank.
thread or the grip length of a part with a shorter  H = Drilled head.
thread, in sixteenths of an inch; exceptions are NAS  L = Nylon strip locking element.
563 to 572, for which the length dash number  N = Nylon button or pellet locking element.
represents thirty-seconds of an inch, and NAS 428, for  LK = KEL-F strip locking element.
which the dash number represents eights of an inch.  NK = KEL-F pellet locking element.
 K = KEL-F locking element, type optional.
Alloy-steel bolts and screws are normally cadmium
plated in accordance with QQ–P–416 Type II Class 3. NOTE: The lack of a letter for a self-locking bolt
If different plating is used, or if CRS or titanium parts indicates that the type of locking element is
are plated, the following code may be used: unimportant.

Where a choice of wrenching recesses is available, the Examples of Coding

following code is used to indicate the type required:
NAS 564–15 is a full-threaded bolt in cadmium-plated
 T =Torq-Set. alloy steel, with ¼–28 thread and length of 15/32 in.
 H =Hi-Torque.
 P or R = Phillips (cruciform). NAS 1146E12P is a screw with a modified pan head,
close-tolerance shank and Torq-Set recess, made from
The NAS Bolts listed in Figure 102 are manufactured CRS (160 000 lbf/in2), with Type II plating. It has a
from alloy steel, corrosion-resistant steel (CRS), 3/8–24 thread and a ¾ in grip length.
corrosion-and-heat-resistant (C and HR) steel, and
titanium alloy. Except in the case of titanium alloy, NAS 1189–3T8L is a self-locking screw with a 100°
which is sometimes indicated by a ‘V’, the type of countersunk head and full-thread. It has a 10–32
material is not specified unless the fastener is made in thread, is ½ in long, and is in alloy steel with Type II
more than one material. plating. It has a strip-type nylon locking element and
a Torq-Set recess.
The basic code applies to alloy steel, and the following
code indicates other materials: NAS 6804D10X is a hexagon head, close-tolerance
bolt in titanium alloy, with along thread. It has a ¼–
 CR = corrosion-resistant steel, 125 000 lbf/in2. 28 thread and 5/8 in grip length, and a drilled shank
 C =corrosion-resistant steel, 140 000 lbf/in2. which is 0·0156 in oversize.
 E =corrosion-resistant steel, 160 000 lbf/in2.
 V =titanium alloy.

Nuts: Self-locking, Anchor, Standard Types Standard Nuts
An ordinary standard nut will depend upon friction Standard nuts are hexagonal in shape, and normally
between the engaging threads to ensure its tightness. have the same dimensions as the head of the bolt or
The enemy of this system is vibration, which can screw to which they are attached. Typical standard
cause the nut to slacken off, and in extreme cases, nut types are (fig 103):
unwind itself completely from the bolt or screw.
 Plain Hexagon Nut
In areas where this might occur, locking devices are  Slotted Nut
used. These either increase the frictional resistance  Castle Nut
between the threads, or take the form of positive  Wing Nut
securities that prevent any movement of the nut once
they have been applied. The Plain Nut is a general-purpose nut that requires
separate forms of locking. The normal form of locking
As a general rule nuts are manufactured from the is a spring-type locking washer. The Plain Nut, due to
same material as the bolt or screw to which they are its depth, can be used both in shear and in tension,
attached, with the exception of high tensile steel
bolts, when mild steel nuts are used. The Slotted and Castle (castellated) Nuts both require
the use of cotter (split) pins to prevent loss of torque
due to vibration and movement.

Wing Nuts are used in situations where the assembly Stiffnuts

is frequently removed and where the desired tightness
is ‘hand tight’. Wing nuts usually have a locking wire Standard nuts depend upon the friction generated
hole in one of the ‘wings’. between the engaging threads of the bolt and nut to
ensure tightness. However, vibration can cause the
nut to slacken off. In areas where normal locking
methods (locking wire, split pins etc.) are in
appropriate, for example, helicopter tail-rotor drive
shaft attachment bolts, stiffnuts are used.
There are a number of different types of stiffnut but

they all work on the principle of increasing the friction
forces generated between the threads. Types of
stiffnut are:
Fig 103. Types of Standard Nut
 Nyloc - This looks like a standard hexagonal
All of the nuts shown in Figure 103 can be obtained in
nut, but with a nylon insert in the end (fig 104).
a wide variety of sizes, materials and surface finishes.
This insert is initially not threaded and has an
Their use is dictated by the designer and identified in
internal diameter slightly smaller than the nut
the Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC).
thread. As the nut is screwed on the bolt, the
nylon insert is displaced and a high degree of
friction is set up on the nut threads. Another

type of nyloc nut is named the ‘capnut’ (fig

105); this type is completely sealed and used in
pressurised compartments and fuel and oil tanks
etc.
Fig 105. Capnut
Note As the insert is nylon, this type of stiffnut

should not be used in high or low temperature
Fig 104. Nyloc Nuts
areas. A typical maximum temperature would
be 120ºC. A similar type of stiffnut has a fibre
insert instead of nylon and is called a ‘fibrelock
nut’. Neither nylon nor fibrelock stiffnuts should
be re-used.

 Oddie - The top of this nut has a slotted end rest of the thread, so that increased friction is
forming six tongues which form a circle slightly achieved when the nut is fitted (fig 107).
smaller than the bolt or stud diameter. As the
nut is fitted, a friction load is imparted onto the
thread.
Fig 106. Oddie Nut
 Philidas - This nut has a circular crown which is

slotted horizontally in two places. The thread on Fig 107. Philidas Nut
the slotted part is slightly ‘out of phase’ with the

 Aerotight - This is similar to the Philidas except

that the slots are vertical. Its locking method is
also the same.
Fig 109. Lightweight Stiffnut
Note. Metal hexagonal type stiffnuts may be re-

used provided they are not being used in vital
areas such as flying controls and they still retain
Fig 108. Aerotight Nut
their friction effect. A recognised rule for
 Lightweight - The locking section of this serviceability is that they are discarded when
stiffnut is slightly oval in shape and so causes they can be screwed all the way down using the
increased friction when the thread passes fingers.
through it.

Anchor Nuts
Anchor nuts are used wherever access is limited to the

rear of the parts being joined. They are nuts that are
held within a cage or mounting, which can itself be
riveted to the aircraft structure (fig 110). This permits
the screw or bolt to be turned through the nut, which
does not require a spanner to prevent it from turning.
Anchor nuts will be found in many places, such as
panels, fairings and other removable parts of the
structure.
Floating or ‘ganged’ anchor nuts will be used in

locations where the alignment of the screw to the nut
cannot be accurately guaranteed.
Fig 110. Types of Anchor Nut

Machine Screws: Aircraft Specifications
Machine screws (fig 111) are used extensively for

attaching fairings, inspection plates, fluid line clamps
and other light structural parts. The main difference
between aircraft bolts and machine screws is that the
threads of a machine screw usually run the length of
the shank, whereas bolts usually have an unthreaded
grip length.
The most common machine screw used in aviation is

the fillister-head screw, which can be wire-locked
using the drilled hole in the head. The flat-head
(countersunk-head) screw is available with single or
cross-point slotted heads. The round-head screw and
the truss-head (mushroom-head) screw, provide good
holding properties on thin metal sheets.
Fig 111. Typical Machine Screws

Specifications Note. Some of early series screws are obsolescent,

and may not be available in the full range of sizes.
Machine screws are specified using the same
standards as the aircraft bolts previously mentioned.
Early Series AN Screws
AN series screws differ from bolts in being made from

a lower strength material, having a looser fit (class 2A
thread instead of class 3A) and having a slotted or a
cruciform-recessed head, for rotation by a suitably-
shaped screwdriver. The thread is usually continued
up to the head, but the shank of ‘structural’ screws
(i.e. AN 509 and 525) has a plain portion and may be
Fig 112. Typical Machine Screw Head Types
used in locations where shear loading is present.
Some screw heads are marked to indicate the material
from which they are made, and these markings are
listed in Figure 112. The markings, head shape and
material will enable identification of a particular screw
to be made. Figure 112 illustrates the various head
shapes and Figure 113 lists the AN machine screws.

Fig 113. Early Series AN Machine Screws

Screws are coded by the AN number, to indicate the sixteenths of an inch, followed by the number
type (e.g. round head), with letters to indicate of threads per inch. For example, No. 6–32
material (and in some cases the shape of the (UNC) = –632, No. 8–36 (UNF) = –836, ¼–20
screwdriver recess), and two dash numbers indicating (UNC) = –420, ¼–28 (UNF) = –428, etc.
diameter and length. In addition, some are coded to
indicate whether the head is drilled or not. iii) AN 525 screws are available in only one coarse
thread size (No. 8) and this is coded –832. The
The coding for the diameter depends on whether the remaining sizes are coded in accordance with
screw is available with only fine or coarse threads, or i).
with either type of thread. Diameter is indicated by
the first dash number. The second dash number indicates the length (L in
Figure 2) of a screw in sixteenths of an inch. AN 509
i) Screws available with only one type of thread screws are an exception to this rule, the actual length
are coded by the thread number or diameter in of the screw being 1/32 in longer than the size
sixteenths of an inch. For example, No. 4 (UNC indicated by the code.
or UNF) = –4, No. 10 (UNC or UNF) = –10, ¼
in (UNC or UNF) = –416, 5/16 in (UNC or UNF) Material is indicated by a letter (or letters) placed
= –516, etc. after the AN number as follows:
ii) Screws available with both coarse and fine  Steel = no letter
threads (AN 507, AN 525 and AN 526) are  CRS = C
coded by the thread number or diameter in

 Brass (unplated), AN 507 = UB, and other

screws = B
 Brass (black oxide), AN 507 = B
 Aluminium alloy, AN 507, 509 and 526 = DD,
and other screws = D
 Bronze (cad.plated), AN 509 = P
 Bronze (unplated), AN 509 = Z
Where a screwdriver slot is required the basic code

only is used.
Where a cruciform recess is required, ‘R’ is added INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
instead of the second dash.
AN 500 and 501 screws are provided with plain or

drilled heads. The letter A before the first dash
number indicates a screw with a drilled head.

Examples of Coding cannot be determined from a standard coding. Figure

114 lists the screws which are currently available in
i) An AN 500A6–32 is a fillister head screw with a this series of specifications, and give the range of
locking wire hole. It is made of cadmium-plated numbers allocated to them.
steel, has a No. 6 (UNC) thread, has a slotted head
and is 2 in long.
ii) An AN 507C832R8 is a 100° flat head screw in

corrosion resistant steel. It has a No. 8–32 (UNC)
thread, has a cruciform recessed head and is ½ in
long.
iii) An AN 509DD416–20 is a 100° flat head, structural

screw in aluminium alloy. It has a ¼ in (UNF)
thread, has a slotted head and is 19/32 in long.
Late Series AN Screws
These fasteners are all marked to show the material

from which they are made. When ordering a particular
fastener, the part number should be taken from the Fig 114. Late Series AN Screws
tables in the appropriate specification, since the size

MS Screws Structural Screws
A wide variety of screws are available in the MS Structural screws are made of alloy steel, are heat-
range. All of these are marked to show the material treated and can be used in many structural situations.
from which they are made or the MS specification to They have a definite grip and the same shear strength
which they conform; in addition, most screws are as a bolt of the same size. They are available with
marked on their head with the manufacturer’s fillister, flat or washer heads. The washer head screw
identification. has a washer formed into its head to increase its
holding ability with thin materials, much like the truss
or mushroom head.
Studs: Types and Uses, Insertion and Removal
Studs are metal rods that are threaded at both ends.

In general they are used where it is not possible, or
desirable for a bolt to be used. Like many screw types
of fastener, most studs are produced in a standard
form, with variants used for special purposes. For
example, such as when being used in a soft metal,
then a stepped stud (which has a greater holding
Fig 115. MS Screws (Extract) power) would be used. A stepped stud would also be

used where a damaged thread had been removed, the

hole drilled out and re-tapped.
It should be appreciated that the security of a stud

depends upon the friction between its thread and that
Fig 116. Standard Stud
of the tapped hole (the ‘metal’ thread) into which it is
inserted. If this friction fails to hold the stud, it will Other variants of the standard stud are available
work loose and all precautions to prevent the nut from for use in circumstances that require special
slackening will be negated. Studs are manufactured consideration.
in a number of types:
To meet special requirements, the various types
 Standard Stud - By far the most widely used of standard studs may also be supplied with
stud is the standard (plain, or parallel) type, in non-standard lengths of plain portion and
which the diameter of the whole stud, along its ‘metal’ end. A simple method of fitting and
length, is constant. Standard studs are classified removing a stud is by running two plain nuts
by the thread type, diameter and overall length. down the ‘nut’ end of the stud and cinching
The ‘metal’ thread is, usually, finished very (locking) them together using two spanners. The
slightly oversize to give a tight fit into the stud can then be screwed into or removed from
tapped hole.
the material. Breaking the cinch then separating
and removing the nuts completes the operation.

 Waisted Stud - Waisted studs are used where Stepped studs are also used as replacements for
reduction of weight, without the loss of strength, standard studs when the tapped stud-hole has
is of paramount importance. The diameter of the to be re-drilled and tapped with a larger thread,
plain portion of the stud is reduced to the minor due to damage.
diameter of the end threads, thus lightening the
stud without impairing its effective strength.
Fig 118. Stepped Stud
Fig 117. Waisted Stud  Shouldered Stud - Shouldered studs are used
where maximum rigidity of assembly is of prime
 Stepped Stud - Stepped studs provide a importance. The stud is machined from oversize
stronger anchorage than the standard type, if bar and a projecting shoulder is left between the
the ‘metal’ end of the stud has to be housed in ‘metal’ end of the thread and the normal
soft metal. The thread of the ‘metal’ end is one diameter plain portion. This shoulder seats
size larger than that of the ‘nut’ end. For firmly on the surface of the ‘metal’ and gives
example, a ¼ inch BSF stepped stud has a plain additional resistance to sideways stresses. The
portion of ¼ inch thread on the ‘nut’ end and a clearance hole in the second component,
3/16-inch thread on the ‘metal’ end. through which the ‘nut’ end and plain portion of
the stud pass, must be machined at the inner

end to give clearance to the stud shoulder. passed through the hole in the end of the plate until
the plain portion of the stud is positioned within the
hole in the cage. The locating screw is adjusted to
prevent further entry of the stud into the tool. When
the tool is rotated, the cage tends to remain
stationary owing to the light frictional grip of the cam
Fig 119. Shouldered Stud followers on the stud shank. The rotating cam faces
force the cam followers inwards, thus providing a tight
A stud must be a good fit and remain in positional grip on the stud shank. The stud then turns with the
when the nut is removed. The use of a locking agent tool in the direction of rotation.
such as Loctite may be recommended in the
maintenance manual but care should be taken to use Studs can also be inserted by running two plain
the correct grade. Studs may be inserted by the use washers down the ‘nut’ end of the stud and locking
of a stud tool (Fig 120), which can also be used for them together using two spanners. The stud can then
stud removal. be screwed into the material and the nuts removed.
This method can also be used to remove studs.
Figure 120 shows an exploded view of the stud tool.
When assembled, the cam followers are contained
within the case and are free to move radially within
the limits of the slotted holes. The end plate is
pressed into the end of the tool and located or by
peening. The stud to be inserted or extracted is

Damaged or broken above the surface may be

removed by filing flats on the stud or cutting a slot in
the top of the stud so that a spanner, tap wrench or
screwdriver may be used to remove the broken stud.
For studs broken flush with or below the surface of the
component, one the following methods should be
used:
 Centre pop the centre of the stud. Use a drill

half the diameter of the stud, drill a hole
centrally in the stud. Lightly drive in a square
taper drift till its edges cut into the stud, then
unscrew by using a spanner on the squared
edge of the drift. Do not drive in the drift too
hard as the stud will expand and therefore be
more difficult to remove.
 Drill a tapping size hole in the end of the broken

stud. Tap with a thread of opposite hand to that
of the stud. Insert a bolt into the tapped hole
Fig 120. Stud Tool and unscrew by applying a spanner to the bolt
head.

 Select the appropriate size screw extractor and Self-Tapping Screws, Dowels
using a suitably sized drill bit, drill a hole of
suitable depth. Using a wrench to operate the Self-Tapping Screws
extractor, screw out the broken thread.
Self-tapping screws have coarse threads and are used
 As a last resort, drill through the remainder of to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic and plywood
the stud with a drill slightly smaller than the together. The type ‘A’ screw has a gimlet (sharp)
core diameter of the stud, and very carefully re- point, and the type ‘B’ has a blunt point with threads
tap the hole, picking up the original thread. that are slightly finer than the type ‘A’.
 If none of the foregoing methods are There are four types of head in normal use (fig 121),
practicable, it may be permissible to drill out the a round head, a countersunk oval-head, a truss or
broken portion of the stud and re-tap the stud mushroom-head and a flat countersunk-head.
one size larger to take an oversize or stepped
stud.

Dowels
Dowels (fig 122) are precision ground metal rods

which are fixed (often permanently) in one of the
components of a joint such that the protruding shank
of the dowel locates with a corresponding hole in the
item being attached, thus ensuring repeatable
accurate assembly.
Examples of the use of dowels are:
 The mating faces of a Propeller Control Unit to

an engine casing ensuring absolute accuracy in
the alignment of the oil tubes.
 The mating faces of a Helicopter Tail-Rotor

Gearbox to the Tail Pylon, ensuring accurate
placement of the gearbox during installation.
Fig 121. Types of Self-Tapping Screw

6.5.3 Locking Devices
Tab and Spring Washers, Locking Plates, Split

Pins, Pal-nuts, Wire Locking, Quick Release
Fasteners, Keys, Circlips, Cotter Pins
Vibration can cause a nut to slacken or even separate

from its bolt or stud. A slack bolt or nut can cause
equipment failure and can become dangerous as a
loose article. Various methods of locking fasteners in
position have been devised and are in common use on
aircraft equipment.
Many locking devices used are ‘once only’ items and it

is important that the Aircraft Maintenance Manual is
Fig 122. Typical Dowels followed regarding the number of times a particular
device can be used. It is also important that when
replacements are made, the old items or parts of the
items are not left in the aircraft to become a
potentially lethal loose article.

Tab and Spring Washers When the washer is installed, one tab is bent against
the component or inserted into a hole provided, whilst
Tab washers (fig 123) are normally used on plain a second tab is bent against the flat (or flats), of the
nuts. The washers are manufactured from thin nut, after it has been torqued down correctly (fig
metallic sheet material and have two or more tabs 124).
projecting from the external diameter. They can also
be designed for locking two or more nuts.
Fig 124. Correct Fitting of a Tab Washer
Note: Multi-tab washers can be re-used until all tabs

have been used once.
Fig 123. Typical Tab Washer

Spring Washers  Single and Double Coil Washer -

Manufactured from rectangular-sectioned steel
Spring washers are available in a variety of forms. In sheet and formed into a portion of a helix, the
some instances (particularly with light alloy single and double coil are the most common
assemblies), spring washers are assembled with plain types of spring washer to be found on aircraft
facing washers between the spring washer and the components.
component. This is done to prevent damage to the
surface finish when the spring washer is compressed
although, with steel assemblies, the plain washer is
usually omitted.
It is good practice to renew spring washers during

overhaul or repair. This procedure is most essential in
engines and engine components as well as where
units have reciprocating parts, such as compressors or
pumps.
In normal circumstances, however, spring washers Fig 125. Single and Double Coil Spring Washers
can be re-used if they have retained their ‘springiness’
and ‘sharpness’. Types of spring washers include:

 Crinkle Washer - Crinkle washers are usually nut to lose torque. Assembly should always be
manufactured from either copper alloy or in accordance with the manufacturer’s
corrosion- resistant steel. They are often used in instructions.
lightly loaded applications such as instruments
and electrical installations.
Fig 127. Cup Washer

Fig 126. Crinkle Washers
 Cup Washer - Cup washers are manufactured

from spring steel and are ‘dished’ to form a
spring of high rating. The flattening of the
washer, during tightening, exerts an axial load
to the nut, which will resist any tendency of the

Locking Plates plate is then placed over the nut and the small
setscrew fastened into the tapped hole adjacent to the
In certain circumstances, the torque applied, the nut. Removal of the nut simply involves removing the
thread, or the type of nut, being used may not setscrew, lifting off the plate and unwinding the nut.
guarantee that the nut would not unwind in use (such
as during vibration). Lock plates are used where Note: A tab washer could be used to do the same
positive retention of a nut is required. task. However, the lock plate is used where the nut is
frequently removed. The plate can be used
indefinitely providing it retains a good fit with the nut.
Split Pins
Split Pins (fig 129) are usually manufactured from

either cadmium-plated carbon steel or from corrosion-
resistant steel. Their primary purpose is to lock slotted
and castellated nuts as well as for securing clevis pins.
Fig 128. Lock Plate
The nuts are locked onto their bolts by passing the pin
through the hole in the bolt and the nut castellation’s.
The nut is torque loaded and then (only if necessary)
turned a small amount, (< 1/12 revolution) until its
The legs of the pin are spread in one of two methods
flats align with the hole in the lock plate. The plate
(fig 130). Whilst either of these methods will secure
usually has 12 facets to allow for this adjustment. The

the nut to the bolt, different airworthiness authorities locking pins. Details of the correct method for each
prefer one method to the other. task will be in the AMM.
The pins are measured by diameter and length. It
must be noted that the nuts must never be over-
torqued to get the holes into line. The nut must either
be backed-off, if this is permitted, or washers added
under the nut.
Fig 130. Two Methods of locking Nuts using Split Pins
Fig 129. Split Pins
Often a stated torque value will be over a small range

rather than a set figure. This allows very small
movement of the nut to facilitate alignment of the

Pal-Nuts
A ‘pal nut’ is a second plain nut that has been

tightened on top of the first one. The combination of
two nuts locked together prevents either of them from
loosening.
Fig 131. Pal-Nut
Fig 132. Pal-Nut in use on a Helicopter Flying Control

Wire Locking  Double twist method.

 Single strand with twist (2.5 turns) at the
The use of wire for locking has long been a feature of origination end and closing loop at second end.
aircraft engineering. It should be understood that  Single strand with closing loop at both ends.
there is more than one reason why wire may be used.
Wire may be used to lock components, to prevent Double Twist Method
inadvertent operation of a control or switch or to show
whether a control or switch has been operated. The In this method (fig 133), one piece of wire is threaded
different uses are known as: through the lock hole to approximately the mid-length
of the wire and then bent through 180º, the double
 Standard wire locking. strand so formed is then twisted together, keeping the
 Restraint wire. wire taught. The strands should be twisted until just
 Tell-tale wire. short of the next locking wire hole. After inserting the
 Tell-tale / restraint wire. wire in the last hole, the wire should be locked off with
about five twists and the remainder cut off. The cut
Methods of Locking end should be bent to form a loop, thus preventing
snags. Only three components should be locked
For aircraft, their equipment, engines and auxiliary together by this method.
equipment, locking wire must be of an approved type
i.e. of the correct gauge and be corrosion resistance.
The following techniques are equally effective and
each may be used in specific situations:

Fig 133. Double Twist Wire Locking
Single Wiring Method
This method may be used where lightly loaded Fig 134. Single Wiring Method
adjacent parts may be locked together. A typical
application might be a circle of screws, or a series of
electrical screws holding a cover plate on. This
method would be more convenient than the double
twist method as more than three individual items can
be locked together. The maximum practical number
of items is that which can be locked together by a
single 24” strand of wire.

Wire Locking Principles D. Locking wire should not be installed in such a

manner as to cause the wire to be subject to
A high standard of wire locking can only be achieved or cause chaffing or fatigue through vibration,
by practice. The following basic principles should be looseness or excessive tension, other than the
adopted from the outset: tension imposed to prevent loosening.
A. Locking wire should never be re-used and

E. Wire locking of flexibly mounted components
must therefore be renewed whenever
shall be so arranged that neither the flexibility
disturbed.
of the mounting or the efficiency of the locking
is impaired.
B. There should be approximately eight turns to
every 25.4 mm length of wire and no length of
F. Lengths of wire between points of contact
more than 9.5 mm should be left untwisted.
should be kept to a minimum and wherever
possible, less than 3 inches.
C. Caution should be observed during twisting to
keep the wire tight without over-stressing or
allowing it to become kinked, nicked or
otherwise mutilated. Abrasions caused by
pliers are however acceptable.

G. The lay of the wire should be such as to resist I. The angle of approach of the wire is not to be
any tendency for the locked parts to work less than 45º to the rotational axis of the
loose, taking care to differentiate between left component being locked, whilst the line of
hand and right hand threads. approach should be as near as possible
tangential to the arc of maximum radius.
H. Where locking wire is inserted through a
locking hole and bent round the head of an
item, the direction of wrap and twist should be
such that the loop round the part comes under
the strand protruding from the hole, so that
the loop will not tend to slip up and form a
slack loop.
J. Where locking tabs are used, they should be

aligned with the locking wire in such a manner
as not to impair radial movement of the tab.
Wherever possible the close end of the wire
should be in the tab and the open end at the
component to be locked.

K. Where a pipe adapter is used, the pipe union Turnbuckle Wire Locking
is to be locked to the component, not to the
adapter. Adjacent union nuts may be locked As with any threaded fastener, turnbuckles must be
together. locked to prevent them from coming loose and
jeopardising the control runs they are connecting.
L. The use of Lead Seals attached to locking wire
There are a number of different types of wire-locking
is not permitted.
used on turnbuckles and the AMM must be consulted
to find which method is specified. Methods used
include the single wrap and single wrap spiral as well
as the double wrap and double wrap spiral.
The single wrap and single wrap spiral (fig 135) use a
single strand of the appropriate wire that passes
through the hole in the centre of the turnbuckle,
finishing up wrapped around each end. The single
wrap spiral also uses a single piece of wire that is
spiralled around the turnbuckle barrel and passed
through the centre hole twice. Two pieces of wire are
used in the double wrap method, which are basically
two single wraps, one in each direction. A double wrap

spiral is two single wrap spirals, again one in each

direction. Tab Tab
positioned positioned
correctly incorrectly
Closed end of wire Tang end of wire

at tab is correct at tab is incorrect
Fig 136. Correct and Incorrect Use of Locking Tabs

Fig 135. Wire Locking of Turnbuckles
Use of Locking Wire with Locking Tabs
When locking tabs are used (fig 136) they should be

installed in such a way that the tabs and the wire are
in complete alignment. Whenever possible, the closed
end of the wire should be in the tab and the twisted
end at the component to be locked, although the
exact method may be found in the AMM.

Thin Copper Wire NOTE: Normal locking wire must never be used
where restraint or tell-tale locking is the requirement.
The term ‘Wire Locking’ has frequently been used in Conversely, thin copper wire must never be used in
connection with controls and switches to describe place of normal locking wire where a positive lock is
three distinct applications, i.e. locking, restraint and needed.
tell-tale.
Thin copper wire is always used to hold some switches

and levers in a ‘set’ position and thus prevents the
accidental operation of switches, which control certain
critical systems such as emergency circuits. When the
switch is required to be operated, then a deliberate
movement is made which will break the copper wire
and permit movement of the switch. This is
RESTRAINT locking
A secondary purpose of copper wire is as an indicator

or ‘witness’, where a broken wire indicates that the
Fig 137. Tell-Tale Locking Wire
switch or control has been operated. This method is
employed on systems where it is necessary to know
when a system has been operated (such as in a Fire
Protection system). This is TELL-TALE locking.

Quick Release Fasteners the airframe. The stud is mounted onto the panel (or
removable part), using a metal grommet.
Special fasteners have been designed to hold fairings,
cowlings and inspection panels in position and to allow
When the panel is closed, a quarter turn of the stud
their rapid removal and replacement during servicing.
pulls the wire into the curved slot of the stud, securing
the panel to the airframe. Panels (and cowlings)
Fasteners in common use include the ‘Dzus’, ‘Oddie’
usually have a number of fasteners installed to ensure
and ‘Camloc’ types.
full security and, to indicate that all fasteners are
correctly secured the cowling will have a series of lines
Quick-release ‘Pip-pins’ are used in assemblies where
marked (painted) on the surface.
it is necessary to rapidly remove or reposition
components. They usually take the place of more
When the studs are correctly fastened, then their
permanent bolts.
screwdriver slots will be in-line with the lines marked
on the surface of the panels. Some Dzus fasteners
DZUS Fasteners
have a built-in receptacle, which guides the legs of the
stud onto the wire, to facilitate correct engagement.
Cowling and other inspection access doors will usually
be found with Dzus fasteners (fig 138) that can be
locked and unlocked by a quarter turn of the stud.
These fasteners consist of a hard spring-steel wire,
which is riveted across an opening on a fixed part of

Oddie Fastener
Oddie fasteners (fig 139) have a central stud, which is

held in position in the panel with a rubber washer or a
coiled spring. A two-legged clip is fastened to the
fixed component (usually with rivets). The stud is
bullet-shaped and has two recesses opposite each
other at the joint end.
The Oddie fastener is locked by positioning the recess

in line with the legs of the spring, and then pressing
the stud home. This is achieved by ensuring the
screwdriver slot is in line with marks on the panel.
There should be a definite click as the fastener
engages. A quarter turn of the stud will release it from
the spring, and free the panel.
Fig 138. Dzus Fastener and its Construction

To lock the fastener, the stud is pushed against its

spring with a screwdriver and given a quarter of a
turn clock-wise. As a result, the cross-pin, on the
stud, rides up a cam in the receptacle and draws the
two components together. Finally the stud spring
pulls the cross pin into a locking groove at the end of
the cam. The fastener is unlocked by a quarter turn
anti-clockwise when the stud spring causes the stud to
snap outwards.
Fig 139. Oddie Fastener
Camloc Fastener
Camloc fasteners (fig 140) consist of a spring-loaded

stud assembly and a receptacle. The stud assembly is
fastened to the removable panel whilst the receptacle
is fastened to the airframe. Fig 140. Camloc Fastener

Airloc Fastener Pip-Pin
Airloc fasteners (fig 141) consist of a stud with a The ‘pip-pin’ quick-release fastener (fig 142) operates
cross-pin in the removable cowling or door, and a on a push-pull principle. It consists of a hollow body
sheet spring-steel receptacle in the structure. The containing a spring-loaded plunger. When the pin is
fastener is locked by turning the stud through a pushed into a hole, two steel locking balls, held in the
quarter turn. The pin drops into an indentation in the shank of the pin, move into a recess in the plunger.
receptacle and holds the fastener locked. When the pin is fully home, and the pushing pressure
is released, the balls are forced to protrude from the
shank, as the spring around the plunger expands, and
so lock the pin in position.
A pip-pin is removed by a simple pull on the ring. This

action aligns the groove in the plunger with the two
Receptacle
locking balls that retract to allow the pin to be
withdrawn.
Fig 141. Airloc Fastener
Pip-pins are usually found places where two

components have to be separated at regular intervals
and require a hinging action. An example of where
pip-pins would be required is on engine cowlings.
These have to be opened daily to allow for engine

inspection, and are removed completely for engine Keys

changes.
Keys are used to connect the transmission shaft to
rotating elements such as chain-wheels or pulleys.
The two basic functions of a key are:
1. Transmit the torque from the transmission shaft

to the hub of the mating element and vice
versa.
2. Prevent relative rotational motion between the
shaft and the joined element. In most cases the
key also prevents axial movement between the
two parts.
Fig 142. Typical Pip-Pin

Keys are inserted into a machined recess in the shaft
and the hub. This recess is called a keyway.

There are a number of different key types in use and circular part of the key. The projecting part of the key
their selection is determined by the following factors: fits into the keyway of the attaching part (fig 144).
Once installed the key tilts up, aligning itself on the
 Power to be transmitted shaft.
 Stability of Connection
 Tightness of fit The advantages of a woodruff key are:
 Cost
 It can be used on a tapered shaft because it
As an aircraft engineer, you may come across the aligns itself by slight rotation on its seat.
following types of keys:  The depth of the key in the shaft prevents
slipping over the shaft.
 Woodruff Key
 Hollow Saddle Key
 Flat Saddle Key
 Gib Key
 Feather Key
Woodruff Key
A woodruff key (fig 143) is almost semi-circular in

form with a uniform thickness. It fits into a machined Fig 143. Woodruff Key
recess in the shaft which is to the same shape as the

Feather Key
A feather key (fig 145) is a parrallel key that fits into

either the shaft or hub and allows axial movement
between them. The key can be fitted to either the
shaft or the hub, with a clearance fit. This allows the
hub to slide over the key. A feather key transmits the
torque and at the same time permits axial movement.
They can be found in clutch and gear shift
Fig 144. Woodruff Key Installed
mechanisms.
The disadvantages of woodruff keys are:
 The depth of the recess in the shaft increases

stress concentration and reduces strength.
 The key prevents axial movement between the
shaft and the hub.
Fig 145. Feather Keys and associated keyways

GIB Head Key Saddle Keys
GIB Head keys are parallel or taper keys with a ‘GIB’ A saddle key fits into a keyway in the hub only. There
head formed at one end to facilitate removal. is not keyway machined into the shaft. There are two
types of saddle key – Hollow and Flat.
Hollow saddle keys have a concave face which

matches the curve of the shaft. Flat saddle keys have
parallel faces and the bottom face sits on a flat
surface machined on the shaft.
Saddle keys rely on the friction between the shaft, key

and hub to transmit power. Therefore they are only
suitable for light duty only.
Fig 146. Gib Head Keys

Circlips is usual practice to discard the wire type circlips

whenever they are removed.
Circlips and locking rings (fig 147) are manufactured
from spring steel wire, or spring sheet metal. They
may also be specially designed for a particular
purpose. Hardened and tempered to give either and
‘inward’ or ‘outward’ spring, they can be used for
locking several parts together, locating components
within bores or for locating components onto shafts.
Spring sheet circlips have holes in the ends to allow

circlip pliers to be inserted, enabling the circlip to be
removed or installed as required. Wire-locking rings
usually have one bent end that is inserted into a radial Fig 147. Circlips and Lock Rings
hole, drilled through the component, which matches
an inner or outer ring.
All circlips are subject to some damage at times and it

will usually be a requirement, after they have been
removed, to inspect them thoroughly. Any that show
damage or corrosion should be discarded, although it

Cotter Pins A roll pin (fig 148) is normally made from flat spring
steel that is rolled into an incomplete cylindrical shape
The term ‘cotter pin’ can cause confusion to the that allows the pin to compress when it is pressed into
unwary. In America, cotter pin is the tem used to the hole, and creates a spring action that holds the
describe split pins. However, in the UK, the term pin tight within the bore of the hole. To remove a roll
‘cotter pin’ is used to describe a ‘pin or wedge passing pin it must be driven from the hole with a correct-
through a hole to fix parts tightly together’. It is this sized punch.
latter definition that will be used in this section.
There are a number of different types of pins used in

aircraft these are:
 Roll Pins
 Clevis Pins
 Taper Pins
Roll Pins
Fig 148. Roll Pin

Roll pins are often used to secure a pulley to a shaft
or to provide a pivot for a joint where the pin is
unlikely to be removed.

and a split pin is inserted, through the pre-drilled hole

in the clevis pin, to lock it in place.
Fig 149. Installed Roll Pin
Clevis Pins
Clevis or flat-head pins are used for hinge pins in

some aircraft control systems. They are made of
cadmium-plated steel and have grip lengths in 1/16-
inch increments. When a clevis pin is installed, a plain
washer is usually placed over the end of the shank Fig 150. Clevis Pins

Taper Pins
Both the plain and threaded taper pins have a taper of

1 in 48 and are used in various locations during
aircraft construction. They are designed to carry shear
loads and are manufactured from high-tensile steel.
The pins do not allow any loose motion or play and
are used for joining tubes and attaching collars to
shafts.
Fig 151. Plain Taper Pin
The plain taper pin (fig 151) is forced into the hole,
which is reamed to the specified size with a Taper Pin
Reamer, and is held in place by friction alone. To The Threaded Pin (fig 152) is similar to the plain pin
ensure security, it can also be wire locked in place, by except that its small end is threaded to accept either a
passing the lock wire through the pre-drilled hole in self-locking shear nut or a shear castle nut with split
the pin then securing the wire around the shaft. pin.
Plain taper pins, which have no lock wire holes, may Some taper pins can be found with a split small end,
have their smaller ends peened, after being installed, which can be spread much like a split pin, to prevent
to secure them in their holes. it loosening. These pins are sometimes referred to as
bifurcated taper pins.

All taper pins are measured by the diameter of their 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets
small end and their overall length.
Types of Solid and Blind Rivets: Specifications
and Identification, Heat Treatment
An aircraft, even though made of the best materials

and strongest parts, would be of doubtful value unless
those parts were firmly held together. Several
methods are used to hold parts together; welding or
soldering, threaded fasteners and riveting being three
of the main methods. Rivets are an alternative
method of fastening structure, a rivet being a metal
Fig 152. Threaded Taper Pin pin on which a head is formed, during manufacture.
The other end or ‘shank’ is placed through two
matching holes in the structure and a second head
formed, clamping the structure together. Rivets are
normally strong in shear, but they should not be
subjected to excessive tensile loads. There are two
main categories of rivet; solid rivets which are ‘set’
using a riveting gun on the manufactured head and a
reaction (bucking bar on the other side, and blind

rivets, which may be installed where access is limited Brazier Head – has a head of larger diameter,
to the other side of the rivet. making them suitable for riveting thin sheet. It offers
only a slight resistance to airflow and is often used on
Note. British and American rivets are not exterior skins, especially on aft sections of fuselage
manufactured to identical specifications or from and empennage. A modified brazier head rivet is also
identical materials, but British rivets are often used to produced which has a reduced head diameter.
repair American aircraft and vice versa. Care should
be taken to choose the correct specification rivet and Universal Head – rivet is a combination of
both British and American rivets may be identified by roundhead, flathead and brazier head. It is used in
head and shank end markings or colour. aircraft construction and repair in both interior and
exterior locations. It may be used as a replacement
Solid Rivet Head Types for all protruding head types.
Roundhead – used in the interior of the aircraft and Countersunk Head – this rivet is flat topped and
has a deep rounded top section. The head is large bevelled towards the shank so that it fits into a
enough to strengthen the sheet around the hole and countersunk or dimpled hole and is flush with the
to offer resistance to tension. material’s surface. The countersunk angle may vary
from 78º to 120º, the 100º rivet being the most
Flathead – used on interior structures where there is common type. Countersunk rivets are used to fasten
insufficient clearance to use a roundhead rivet. sheets over which other sheets must fit. They are
also used on exterior surfaces of the aircraft because

they offer only a slight resistance to airflow and long. The AS 162 indicating head type and
therefore minimise turbulence. material, the ‘4’ indicates 4/32” diameter (1/8”)
and ‘08’ indicating 8/16” lengths (1/2”).
Solid Rivets (British)
Figures 153 and 154 give details on materials and
Standards for British Solid rivets are issued by the specifications for the various types of AS rivets. Many
Society of British Aerospace SBAC (As series) or the of these rivets are obsolescent and have been
British Standards Institute (SP series). The standards superseded by rivets conforming to SP standards.
overlap to a certain extent with obsolete rivets in the
AS range being replaced by SP rivets. Rivets are Material Identification (AS Rivets)
identified by a standard number and a part number. Mat. Spec. Material Ident. Marks Finish
The standard number identifies the head shape, L37 Dural ‘D’ on shank end Natural
material and finish. This is followed by a three or four L58 Al. Alloy ‘X’ on shank end Dyed or Anodised
figure code, the first one or two figures indicating the (5% Mg.)
Green
shank diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch and the L86 Hidiminium ‘S’ on shank end Dyed Violet
last two, the length in sixteenths of an inch. DTD204 Monel ‘M’ on shank end Natural or Cadmium
Plated
Example:
Fig 153. Material Identification of ‘AS’ Rivets
A rivet with code ‘As 162-408’ would be a 90

degree countersunk, aluminium alloy 5%
magnesium rivet, 1/8 diameter and 1/2 inch

Material Identification (SP Rivets)

Typical AS Rivet Specification Numbers Mat. Spec. Material Ident. Marks Finish
Material Snap Mush 90º Csk 100º Csk 120º Csk 90º (On shank end)
Spec. Close
Tol. L36 Aluminium ‘I’ Black Anodic
L37 Dural ‘7’ Natural
L37 AS156 AS158 AS161 - AS164 AS2918
L58 Al. Alloy ‘8’ Green Anodic
L58 AS157 AS159 AS162 AS4716 AS165 -
(5% Mg.)
L86 AS2227 AS2228 AS229 - AS2230 AS3362
L86 Hidiminium ‘0’ Violet
DTD204 - - AS5462 - AS465 -
BS1109 Steel - Cadmium
‘M’
Fig 154. Typical Specification Numbers of ‘AS’ Rivets DTD204 Monel Natural or Cadmium
Figure 155, gives details of material and identification Fig 155. Material Identification of ‘SP’ Rivets
information for SP rivets and Figure 156 gives the
Note. The colour coding of all British solid rivets is
standard numbers. It should also be noted that SP
generally the same for the same material. For
rivets are also available in metric sizes.
example pure aluminium rivets are Black, Hidimium
rivets are Violet, Monel rivets are Natural and 5%
Magnesium rivets are Green. This enables material
types to be easily identified.

Typical SP Specification Numbers aluminium. The normal material grades are 1100,
Mat. Spec. Snaphead Mushroom 100º Csk Head 2017-T, 2024-T, 2117-T and 5056. They may be
L36 SP77 - SP68 identified as shown in the diagram below.
L37 SP78 SP83 SP69
L58 SP79 SP84 SP70
L86 SP80 SP85 SP71
BS1109 SP76 - SP86
DTD204 SP81 - SP87
Fig 156. Typical ‘SP’ Rivet Specification Numbers
American Solid Rivets
These are generally used in normal construction and

repair work. They are identified by the kind of
material they are made from, head type, shank size
and temper condition. Typical head types are
Roundhead, Brazier head, 100º countersunk head,
Flat head and Universal head as shown in the diagram Fig 157. American Rivet Head Types
below. The material used for the majority of aircraft
solid rivets is aluminium alloy. The strength of temper
conditions of aluminium rivets are identified by digits
and letters in a similar manner to that used in sheet

Alloy 1100 rivets are 99.45% pure aluminium and as Mild Steel rivets are used for riveting steel parts and
such are very soft. They are used for riveting Corrosion Resistant Steel rivets are used for riveting
lightweight soft aluminium structures where strength CRS components in fire-walls and exhaust areas etc.
is not a factor.
Monel rivets are used for riveting nickel steel alloys.
2117-T rivets are made from Aluminium Alloy and are They may also be used as a substitute for CRS rivets
known as field rivets. They are the most commonly when specified.
used rivet mainly because they are ready to use as
received and needs no further heat treatment. They Copper rivets are also available, but their use is
also have a high resistance to corrosion. limited on aircraft. They may only be used on Copper
alloys or non-metallic materials such as leather.
2017-T and 2024-T rivets are made from high
strength heat treatable Aluminium Alloys. They are Note: Most metals including aircraft rivets are subject
used where more strength is required than that to corrosion. This may be the result of local climatic
obtained from the ‘field’ rivet. The rivets need to be conditions or the fabrication process used. It may be
heat treated and if not required immediately, they reduced to a minimum by using the correct materials
should be refrigerated until needed. and by the use of protective coatings on the structure
and the rivets. The use of dissimilar metals should be
Alloy 5056 rivets are used for riveting Magnesium avoided where possible and the rivet manufacturers
alloy structures because of their corrosion resistant usually apply a protective coating on the rivets. This
qualities with magnesium. may be zinc chromate, metal spray or an Anodic
finish.

Heat Treatment of Solid Rivets salt bath. The temperature range is 495ºC - 505ºC,
depending on the alloy. For convenient handling the
The action of closing a rivet and the strength required rivets are heated on a tray or in a wire basket. After
on completion dictates whether any heat treatment heating for the required period they are quenched in
prior to closing is required. Where high strength of cold water.
the rivet materials is required, ‘D’ or ‘DD’ rivets are
used. These rivets are heat treated prior to use and Refrigeration
must either be formed within a short time period after
heat treatment or stored in a refrigerator until The heat treated rivet will begin to age harden
required. immediately after treatment and if the rivets are not
to be set immediately they may be refrigerated to
Metal temper is important in the riveting process, delay the age hardening process. The solution treated
especially with Aluminium Alloy rivets. These rivets are stored at low temperature (below freezing)
generally have the same heat treating characteristics and under these conditions will remain soft enough for
as sheet alloys and can be Annealed and Hardened in driving for up to 2 weeks. Any rivets not used in that
much the same manner. The rivet must be soft or period should be removed and re-heat treated.
comparatively soft before a good head can be formed. It should be noted that refrigeration only delays age
The 2017-T and 2024-T rivets must be Solution hardening and that age hardening will continue at a
Treated before being driven and they harden with age. rapid rate as soon as the rivets are removed from the
refrigerator. 2017-T rivets must be driven within 1
The process of heat treatment of rivets (Normalising) hour of refrigeration and 2024-T rivets, within 10
may be carried out in either an electric air furnace or minutes.

Blind and Hollow Rivets The majority of ‘Blind’ rivets can be described as
Mechanically Expanded Rivets and are one of three
There are many places in an aircraft where access to main types:
both sides of the structure is impossible, or where
limited space will not permit the use of a reaction  Self-Plugging (friction lock) rivets
(bucking) bar. They are also used in the attachment  Self-Plugging (mechanical lock) rivets
of many non-structural parts, such as aircraft interior  Pull Through rivets
furnishings, flooring material, de-icer boots etc., the
full strength of solid shank rivets may not be Where blind or hollow rivets are used in place of solid
necessary. For use in such places, special rivets have rivets, they must be of the same material as the
been designed which can be set from one side only. original solid rivet and be of equivalent shear
strength.
Blind and Hollow rivets are often lighter than solid
rivets, yet amply strong enough for their intended Friction Lock Rivets
use. The rivets are produced by several
manufacturers, both in the UK and in the U.S.A. and These are generally fabricated in two parts: i.e. a rivet
have unique characteristics requiring special head with a hollow shank and a stem that extends
installation tools and procedures. The same general through the hollow shank. Figure 158 shows typical
basic information about their fabrication, composition, ‘friction lock’ protruding head and countersunk head
uses, selection, installation, inspection and removal rivets.
procedures applies to most of them.

Several events occur in sequence when a pulling force

is applied to the stem of the rivet:
 The stem is pulled into the rivet shank
 The mandrel part of the stem forces the rivet

shank to expand
 When friction (pulling action) becomes great

enough it caused the stem to fracture at the
weakest point. The bottom end of the stem is
retained in the shank giving much greater shear Fig 158. Friction Lock Rivets
strength than could be obtained from a hollow
rivet.
Mechanical Lock Rivets
Note. With this type of rivet, the stem is often
This type of rivet (fig 159) is similar in design to the
designed to break above the rivet head, necessitating
friction lock rivet previously described, except in the
a further action, i.e. cutting off the extra portion of
manner in which the mandrel is retained in the rivet.
the stem with snips (or a specialised pneumatic gun)
It has a positive mechanical locking collar to resist the
and milling the exposed portion flush with the head.
vibrations that may cause the friction lock rivet
This type of rivet is going out of style because of the
mandrels to loosen and fall out. In addition the stem
extra processes involved with its fitting.

of the mechanical locking type rivet breaks off flush

with the head and usually does not require further
stem trimming when properly selected and installed.
Self-plugging mechanical lock rivets display all the

strength of solid rivets and in most cases can be
substituted rivet for rivet. Three operations are
performed when the rivet is installed (generally using
a pneumatic gun):
 When pulling force is exerted on the stem, the

stem is pulled in forming the blind head and
clamping the sheets of metal together.
 At a pre-determined point, the inner anvil, Fig 159. Mechanical Lock Rivets
incorporated in the gun, forces the locking collar
into position.
 The rivet stem snaps off approximately even

with the head of the rivet.

Pull Through Rivets
These rivets are sometimes called hollow rivets.

When installed, the rivet mandrel is pulled through the
rivet leaving a hollow rivet of much lower strength
than the self-plugging types.
Different types of these rivets are supplied complete

Fig 160. Using a Grip Gauge
with individual mandrels or individual rivets used with
a re-usable steel mandrel which is drawn completely
through the rivet. In some cases, the rivets may be
plugged with sealing pins which give them additional
strength as well as sealing them.
Unlike a solid rivet, the part of a blind rivet available

to form a head cannot always be seen. It is therefore
necessary to know the range of total material
thickness that a given rivet can fasten together. This
is known as the ‘Grip Range’ of the rivet. A special
Grip gauge (fig 160) is used to measure the thickness
of the material in order to determine the size of rivet
required.

Examples of Blind / Hollow Rivets 5 - The rivet diameter in 1/32” i.e. 5/32” diameter.
08 - The rivet length also in 1/32” i.e. 1/4” long.
Avdel - Friction Lock (British). These are available in
Snap head and 100º and 120º countersunk head, Chobert – Pull Through (British). These rivets are
supplied complete with mandrel. When the rivet is made with 100º or 120º countersunk heads and snap
fitted, the stepped mandrel fractures, leaving part of heads. They have part parallel and part tapered bores
the mandrel in the rivet to form a plug. A pin tester is and are expanded with a re-usable, hardened steel
sometimes used to check the plug security. mandrel which is drawn completely through the rivet.
They are fitted using either a hand manipulated tool
These rivets may be placed using a manually operated or a pneumatic gun.
tool (Avdel pliers) or by the use of an Avdel Riveter.
The rivet mandrels may be ‘cropped’ using a Cropping The rivet differs from the normal blind rivet in that
tool. After cropping, the exposed mandrel is trimmed many rivets can be loaded on the mandrel and the
using the river Miller. Avdel rivets are manufactured rivets are often supplied pre-wrapped in tubes so that
in L86 Aluminium Alloy (Hidiminium) either natural they can easily be loaded. During use, the mandrel
colour or dyed violet with anodised Aluminium Alloy wears and wear limits should be checked with a Go,
mandrels. No-Go gauge to ensure it is serviceable before use.
The rivet is identified by its A.G.S. specification Chobert rivets are manufactured in Duralumin L37,
reference which includes a size reference code. For Hidiminium L86 and Steel. The Dural rivets are
example AGS 2066 / 508 refers to a 100º csk. Head Anodised (grey), the Hidiminium rivets are Anodised
L86 rivet. The size code is given after the / sign. and dyed violet. The steel rivets will be Cadmium

plated. To give additional strength and to seal the suitable for use on aircraft as they tend to loosen with
rivet, sealing pins are inserted after the rivet is vibration and then become increasingly difficult to
broached. The rivet is coded with an AGS code remove because of the looseness and the presence of
number, the first part of which gives the head type the steel mandrel. (They tend to spin when trying to
and material. The second part codes for diameter and drill them out).
the length as for the Avdel rivets. Example an AGS
2040 / 410 is a Cadmium plated steel snap head rivet, Installation may be may be a problem when using pop
1/8” diameter and 5/16” long. An AGS 2044 / 619 is rivets because the mandrel head is not positively
a Chobert, duralumin rivet with 120º csk. Head, 3/16” retained within the rivet or drawn completely through
diameter and 19/32” long. it. The mandrel head is often ejected and may
become a loose article. When placing these rivets, the
Tucker ‘Pop’ Rivet – British. These rivets are mandrel heads must, if possible be collected, or driven
supplied mounted on steel mandrels. The head is out and collected. Break head rivets must not be
pulled into the rivet expanding it before the mandrel used if the structure is not accessible to retrieve the
fractures at the waisted portion. This waisted portion mandrel heads. It is sometimes permitted for the
may either be close to the head of the rivet, or part mandrels of Break Stem rivets to be dipped in an
way up the stem. In the first case the rivet will be adhesive so that they will not vibrate loose after
classified as ‘Break Head’ (BH) and in the second installation. If Tucker Pop rivets are to be used
case, ‘Break Stem’ (BS). externally on aircraft, the heads must be sealed to
prevent the ingress of dirt and moisture. Cellulose
The rivets are set using a pair of ‘Pop Pliers’ or by the Metallic Filler is often recommended for this purpose.
use of a hydro-pneumatic gun. Pop rivets are less

The rivets are manufactured in either Aluminium Alloy ‘CherryLock’ which indicates that it is a mechanically
or Cadmium plated Monel with either Dome heads or locked rivet. Cherry also manufacture Friction Lock
100º and 120º countersunk heads. The AGS and Pull Through rivets under the ‘Cherry MS’ name.
reference number consists of the AGS number The last main type of Cherry rivet is the ‘CherryMax’
identifying the material and head type, a three figure which is the most modern type and is a sophisticated
size code and letters specifying Break head or Break mechanically locked rivet. All of the rivets may be set
stem. In the size code the first figure gives the using a hand riveter or one of a selection of Cherry
diameter in 1/32” as normal, the last two figures gives pneumatic riveters.
length in 0.01”. Example AGS 2051 / 537 / BS:
Types of Cherry Rivet
 AGS 2051 - Tucker Pop in Monel with 120º
Csk. Head. CherryLock - This is a mechanically locked (contains
 537 - Rivet diameter 5/32” - Rivet length locking ring) rivet and may be a Standard CherryLock
0.37” or a Bulbed CherryLock. The Bulbed CherryLock was
 BS - Break Stem. developed from the Standard variety initially for high
vibration area’s and thin sheets because it has a
Cherry Rivets (USA). These rivets are manufactured larger than normal ‘bulbed’ blind head (fig 161).
in all the categories i.e. Friction Lock, Mechanical Lock
and Pull Through. The rivets are broached with
individual mandrels which fracture at the end of the
broaching operation. The most commonly used
Cherry rivet is manufactured under the trade name

Fig 161. Bulbed CherryLock Rivet

Fig 162. CherryMax Rivet
CherryMax Rivets - This is the latest type of Cherry Cherry rivets are made from a variety of materials,
rivet and gives the strongest and most vibration mainly 5056 Aluminium Alloy and Monel metal. The
resistant riveted joint (fig 162). The main feature of stems are made from Cadmium plated Alloy Steel or
this rivet is that it has an individual driving anvil for Inconel (Nickel Alloy). They may be identified by an
each rivet, ensuring correct fitment of the locking
collar every time.

NAS part number or a Cherry Rivet part number (fig Chapter 6.6 Pipes and Unions
163).
6.6.1 Identification of and Types of Rigid and
NAS1738 B 5 - 4 Flexible Pipes and Their Connectors Used in
Aircraft
Maximum Grip Length in 16ths of an
inch (-4 = 4/16” = 1/4”) The many different systems in an aircraft require the
Shank dia. In 32nds of an inch i.e. 5/32” services of pipes and hoses, in a range of sizes. These
Material B = 5056 Al. Alloy
can include fuel, oxygen, lubrication, hydraulic,
NAS1738 = Rivet type & head style
instruments, heating, fire extinguishing, air
i.e. Bulbed, cherrylock, universal head conditioning and water systems. Loss of integrity in
Fig 163. Typical Cherry Rivet Part Number any of the systems mentioned could put the aircraft at
risk.
The pressures inside the pipes can vary from negative

(suction) through ambient, in instrument piping, to as
much as 4000 psi (27.58 MN m -2) in a hydraulic
system. Low-pressure fluid lines can be manufactured
from metal or plastic (pipes and tubes) or,
alternatively, from various forms of rubber (hoses).
Higher-pressure fluid line can be made from a variety

of materials, including aluminium alloy, stainless steel, Rigid Pipes

copper, titanium and also reinforced flexible hoses.
Fluid lines are made of rigid, semi-rigid and flexible These are usually manufactured in a standardised
tubes depending on their use. A rigid fluid line would combination of length, outside diameter (OD), and
be one that is not normally bent to shape or flared. wall thickness. The use of threads, cut into the pipe
Direction changes and connections are made by the wall, and the need for special end-fittings means that,
use of threaded end-fittings. apart from some components, there are few, if any,
rigid pipes used on aircraft.
Semi-rigid fluid lines are bent and formed to shape
and have a relatively thin wall thickness in comparison Semi-Rigid Fluid Lines (Tubes)
to rigid lines. A variety of end-fittings may be used to
make connections between semi-rigid tubes. Semi-rigid fluid lines are usually referred to as tubes
or tubing and can be bent to shape and are often
Flexible fluid lines are made from rubber or synthetic flared for connectors. Sizing is also by length, OD and
materials and are usually called ‘hoses’. Depending on wall thickness.
the pressure they are designed to carry, hoses may
have reinforcing materials wrapped around them. Various methods are used to connect semi-rigid tubes
Various types of end-fittings are used to attach hoses both to each other and to other connectors. These will
to each other and to other components. depend upon the use, location and pressure being
carried in the tube. The most common end-fittings are
of the flared, flare-less, swaged or brazed types and
are, often, standard parts.

Flared End-Fittings Where it is necessary to have fuel, oil or other tubes

passing through structural bulkheads, it requires an
American flared end-fittings have a 74° flare end-fitting with a long body and provision for securing
(remember AGS are different and not compatible) on the end-fitting to the bulkhead (fig 165). Two typical
the end of the tube, which matches a cone of the bulkhead end-fittings, AN832 and AN833, are among
same angle on the component (or adapter) to which it those illustrated and can be identified by the extra
is being attached. machine thread at one end, for attachment, to the
bulkhead, by an additional, threaded, locking device.
A special nut and sleeve are used to pull the flare onto
the cone and to form a fluid-tight metal-to-metal seal.
The end-fittings are produced in a wide variety of
types, depending upon their use. Examples are the
‘In-line-’, ‘Cross-’, ‘Elbow-’, and ‘T’-type of end-
fittings, in addition to ‘Bulkhead’ fittings, which allow
tubes to pass fluids through structural portions
(bulkheads) of an aircraft or of an engine power-plant
assembly.
In-line connectors may be either of the pipe-to-pipe or

pipe-to-adapter type of connectors and internally
coned adapters usually require the use of adapter
‘nipples’ to provide an effective seal (fig 164).

Fig 164. Pipe to Pipe and Pipe to Adaptor Connectors

Flare-Less Couplings
The heavy-wall tubing, used in some high-pressure

systems, is difficult to flare (and flaring tends to put
the end of the tube in a stressed condition). For these
applications the flare-less coupling (fig 166) is
designed to provide leak-free attachments without
flares. Although there is no need to flare the tube, in
one of the methods used, it is necessary to pre-set
the coupling, prior to its installation. Pre-setting is the
process of applying enough pressure to a sleeve (also
called a ferrule) to cause it to cut into the outside of
the tube.
The tube and ferrule are placed into a pre-setting tool

and the action of tightening the nut causes the ferrule
to ‘bite’ into the tube. Depending on the size of the
Fig 165. Typical American Pipe Connectors tube and its material, between one and one and a half
turns of the nut is enough to form the pre-set. When
complete, the tube can be inspected and, if
satisfactory, attached directly to the appropriate union
or adapter.

Flexible Pipes (Hoses)
The need for flexibility in many areas of aircraft

construction means it is often necessary to employ
hoses, instead of semi-rigid tubing, for the
transmission of fluids and gases under pressure.
Whilst a number of hoses were previously
Fig 166. Pre-set Flareless Coupling manufactured from rubber, most modern hose
manufacturers use either Teflon or other Elastomers.
Two other methods of forming flare-less couplings Flexible hoses can be found in three types:
involve the swaging of metal sleeves around the ends
of the tubes, which are being connected and the Low-Pressure Hoses
joining of tubes by brazing. Both methods require
specialist skills, which are beyond the scope of these An example of the type of construction used in these
notes. hoses is where the inner and outer tubes are made
from synthetic rubber, with the inner having braided
cotton reinforcement (fig 167). These hoses are used
on instrument systems, vacuum systems, autopilots
and other low-pressure systems, usually operating at
pressures below 300 psi (2.07 MN m-2).

such pressures, larger sizes may be restricted to lower

pressures.
Typical construction of this type of hose could be a

seamless inner liner made from different materials, a
layer of cotton braid, a layer of stainless-steel
reinforcement and an outer layer of tough, oil-
Fig 167. Low Pressure Hose resistant, rubber-impregnated cotton.
A typical marking on a Low Pressure type of hose

High-Pressure Hoses
could be a yellow line with the letters ‘LP’ along it. The
line (lay line) is used to ensure that the hose is not
All high-pressure hoses have a maximum working
assembled with a stress-inducing twist in it. Other
pressure of at least 1500 psi to 3000 psi (10.34 MN
markings could include the hose manufacturer’s code
m-2 to 20.68 MN m-2) and use a synthetic rubber
and part number, its size and the date of manufacture
liner to carry petroleum products. The inner liner is
usually wrapped with two or more steel braids as
Medium-Pressure Hoses
reinforcement. To distinguish high-pressure from
medium-pressure hose, the entire hose usually has a
Medium-pressure hoses are generally used with fluid
smooth outer cover.
pressures up to 1500 psi (10.34 MN m-2). Their
maximum pressure varies with diameter, so that
whilst smaller diameter hoses will be able to withstand

The end fittings on a flexible hose assembly are made Flexible hoses have their sizes identified by their inner
of steel or light alloy, depending on their application. bore diameter and the overall length. With pre-
They are designed to exert a grip on the tubes and assembled hoses, the overall length of the assembly,
wire braids, so as to resist the high pressure twisting from the centres of the nipple extremities, regardless
and vibrating loads, as well as providing an electrical of the shape of the end fittings, is used for
bond throughout the assembly. identification purposes (fig 169).
Flexible hoses, used in engine bays and other high

temperature areas, will often have a metallic stainless
braid as the outside layer, to make the hose fire-
resistant.
Fig 168. High Pressure Hose Assembly End Fitting

6.6.2 Standard Unions for Aircraft Hydraulic,

Fuel, Oil, Pneumatic and Air System pipes
Very few pipes and hoses are manufactured at

company engineering facilities, the majority being
obtained direct from manufacturers and specialist
suppliers.
It is important that engineers be aware of the variety

of different types of unions and connectors that are
available for rigid pipes and flexible hoses on aircraft.
These may be of British, European or American
manufacture with the different standards that these
entail.
Aircraft General Standards (AGS)
This British standard comprises a wide range of small

Fig 169. Effective Length of Hose Assemblies parts, which includes items such as bolts, nuts, rivets
and taper pins. The Standard also includes pipe end-
fittings (union nuts and adapters), sleeves, collars,
and nipples.

The cones (flares) on AGS end-fittings (unions and Standards (NAS) and Military Specifications (Mil
adapters) have an included angle of 32, the pipe Specs). These may have an equivalent civilian or
flaring machines being shaped accordingly. Military Standard.
Air Force and Navy (AN) The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the
Aeronautical Materials Division of SAE specifications
This standard has been developed from an American (AMS) are yet another set of standards to which
military standard, and may be found in a wide range aerospace materials may be produced. The Society of
of aircraft and components. The flares and other Automotive Engineers has a second standard -
hardware for this standard have an included angle of referred to as the Aeronautical Standard (AS) – which
74. is for components that do not qualify for an AMS
standard.
Military Standard (MS)
All these specifications provide for a range of
This has replaced the standards from the AN system. fasteners with Unified threads in the UNC, UNF and
Many AN part numbers have been incorporated into UNJF series and, whereas British aircraft fasteners are
the MS system and now appear with MS designations. manufactured in a selected range of Unified threads,
American fasteners are in some instances supplied in
Other Standards both UNC and UNF threads.
Other specifications in current use with aircraft

manufactured in the USA include National Aerospace

From all this it can be seen that great care must be the outer sleeve upon locking, which can be seen and
taken when matching up union assemblies with these felt.
many different forms of thread.
Quick-Release Fluid Couplings
Quick-release fluid couplings (fig 170) are required at

various points in aircraft systems. Their purpose is to
save time in the removal and replacement of
components; to prevent the loss of fluid and to protect
the fluid from contamination. The use of these
couplings also reduces the maintenance cost for the
system involved. Typical uses are in fuel, oil, hydraulic
and pneumatic systems. Fig 170. Typical Quick-Release Coupling
A coupling consists of a male and female part. Each

assembly has a sealing piston (poppet) that prevents
the loss of fluid when the coupling is disconnected.
Three checks may be used to verify a positive
connection. These involve an audible, visual and
tactile indication. A click may be heard at the time the
coupling is locked and indicator pins will extend from

Chapter 6.7 Springs  Spiral Springs – These are a form of flat

spring which are wound into a spiral. They are
6.7.1 Types of springs, Materials, found in many aircraft instruments (fig 173).
Characteristics and Applications
Types of Springs
Springs are available in various shapes, sizes and

degrees of stiffness allowing them to be used for a
wide range of tasks. The more common types are:
 Flat Springs – These are pressed from sheet Fig 171. Types of Flat Spring
spring steel. A typical use in aircraft is for
attaching quick release fasteners to aircraft
panels (fig 171).
 Leaf Springs – These are formed by layers of

flat springs which are clamped together (fig
172). Their use in aircraft is limited to early
landing gear.
Fig 172. Leaf Spring

Fig 173. Spiral Springs Fig 174. Helical Compression Springs
 Helical Compression and Tension Springs –

These are the most commonly found springs.
They are made from a wide variety of materials
and are used in numerous applications. Tension
springs are formed with loops at the ends to allow
them to be pulled (fig 174 & 175).
Fig 175. Helical Tension Springs

 Helical Torsion Springs – These springs are  Torsion Bar Springs – Torsion Bars are
similarly wound to the previous two types. They basically straight metal bars, with splined or
have specially shaped ends to permit a torque flanged ends that can accept and transmit
force to be applied and transmitted in a plane to torsional loads (fig 177).
the helix axis (fig 176).
Fig 176. Helical Torsion Springs Fig 177. Torsion Bar

Spring Characteristics Materials
When a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it Springs are manufactured from a wide range of
exerts is proportional to its change in length. The metallic and non-metallic materials. Carbon and alloy
spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it steel wires are commonly used these include:
exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the
spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force /  Hard-drawn Spring Wire
deflection curve. An extension or compression spring  Oil-tempered Spring Wire
has units of force divided by distance, for example  Music Wire
lbf/in or N/m. Torsion springs have units of force  Chrome-Vanadium Spring Wire
multiplied by distance divided by angle, such as  Chrome-Silicon Steel Wire
Nm/rad or ft lbf/degree. The inverse of spring rate is  Stainless-Steel Spring Wire
compliance, that is: if a spring has a rate of 10 N/mm,
it has a compliance of 0.1 mm/N. The stiffness (or Commonly used Non-Ferrous metals are:
rate) of springs in parallel is additive, as is the
compliance of springs in series.  Spring Brass
 Nickel Silver
 Phosphor Bronze
 Silicon Bronze
 Beryllium Copper
 High-Nickel Alloys

Chapter 6.8 Bearings radial and axial loads, whilst the other types of roller
bearings may accept only radial loads.
6.8.1 Purpose of Bearings, Loads, Material,
Construction Note: Materials and Construction of bearings will be
covered in section 6.8.2.
Purpose of Bearings
The purpose of a bearing is to support (generally) 6.8.2 Types of Bearings and their Application
moving, components at minimum friction.
Bearings are, broadly, classified by the type of rolling
element used in their construction. Ball bearings
Loads
employ steel balls, which rotate in grooved raceways,
whilst Roller bearings utilise cylindrical, tapered and
Bearings are subjected to both axial and radial loads
spherical rollers running in suitably shaped raceways.
either singly or as a combination of both:
Those bearings which are contained in cages are, in

 Axial Loads are those that pass through the
general, used for engine and gearbox applications
centre of the bearing (potential sideways loads
with rotational speeds in excess of approximately 100
on a car wheel).
rpm. Most other bearings, on an aircraft or in an
 Radial loads compress the bearing (weight of
engine, are intended for oscillating or slow rotation
the car on the road wheel)
conditions and do not have a cage. They are generally
shielded or sealed and pre-packed with grease,
Ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both
although some have external lubrication facilities.

Fig 178. Types of Bearings

Ball Bearings
Ball bearings consist of an inner and outer race

separated by hardened steel balls. They rely on the
motion of the balls to reduce friction between the
inner and outer races. The inner race is an
interference fit on the shaft of the machine and the
outer race is normally fitted in a stationary housing.
The bearing may be constructed using a single or
double row of balls. Each row of balls is usually
carried in a bronze or brass cage which evenly spaces
the balls around the races (fig 179). Ball bearings are
designed to support radial, thrust or a combination of
both loads. In addition they can be rigid or self-
aligning.
Fig 179. Ball Bearing Construction

Ball bearings may be divided into four main types that used but, where they vary in direction, an opposed
define the way in which the bearings are used: pair of bearings may be used.
Radial Bearings - Radial bearings are the most Thrust Bearings - Thrust bearings are designed for
common type of bearing and can be found in all types axial loading only. They will usually be found in use
of transmission assemblies such as shafts, gears, together with roller or radial ball bearings. The balls
control rods and end fittings. They are manufactured are retained in a cage and run on flat or grooved
with either a single or double row of balls, rigid for washers. These bearings are adversely affected by
normal applications and self-aligning for positions centrifugal force and so work best under high-load,
where accurate alignment cannot be maintained, such low-speed situations.
as on control rod ends.
Instrument Precision Bearings - Instrument
Angular-Contact Bearings - Angular-Contact Precision Bearings are manufactured to high accuracy
bearings are capable of accepting radial loads and and finish. They are generally of the radial bearing
axial loads in one direction only. The outer ring is type and can be found in both instruments and
recessed on one side to allow the ball and cage communication equipment.
assembly to be installed, thus enabling more balls to
be used and the cage to be in one piece. The axial
load capacity depends on the contact angle.
In applications where axial loads will always be in one

direction, a single angular-contact bearing may be

Roller Bearings Roller bearings may be divided into three main types
that define their use:
Roller bearings consist of an inner and outer race
separated by hardened steel rollers. These bearings Cylindrical Roller Bearings - Cylindrical Roller
are normally used to support radial loads only. Like bearings will accept greater radial loads than ball
ball bearings, the rollers are separated by a cage. bearings of the same size. This is due to the greater
contact area of the rolling elements and, if they have
ribs on both rings, cylindrical roller bearings will also
accept light, intermittent, axial loads. Normally the
rollers have a length equal to their diameter, although
some rollers have a length greater than their diameter
to cater for special applications.
Roller bearings, which have a length much greater

than their diameter, are normally called needle roller
bearings. These are designed for radial loads only and
are best used in situations where the movement is
oscillatory rather than rotary, such as in universal
joints and control rod ends.
Fig 180. Roller Bearing Construction
Spherical Roller Bearings - Spherical Roller
bearings can be found with single or double rows of

rollers, which run in a spherical raceway in the outer

ring, thus enabling the bearing to accept a small
degree of misalignment. These bearings will accept
high radial loads and moderate axial loads.
Tapered Roller Bearings - Tapered Roller bearings

are designed so that the axes of the rollers form an
angle to the shaft axis. They are capable of accepting
radial and axial loads simultaneously, in one direction
only. It is common to find tapered roller bearings
mounted in pairs, - back to back - so that loads can
be accepted in both directions (fig 181).
Needle Roller Bearings – The races of these

bearings are separated by narrow trunion ended
rollers. They are normally fitted where space saving
is an important factor. They are capable of supporting
both radial and thrust loads (fig 182).
Fig 181. Taper Roller Bearing

Bearing Clearances
Radial ball bearings and cylindrical roller bearings are

manufactured with various amounts of internal
clearances, so that different tolerances and conditions,
are allowed for. Standard bearings are available in
four grades of fit, namely Group 2, Normal Group,
Group 3 and Group 4. Instrument Precision bearings
are only available in the first three groups. Bearings
are usually marked in some way to indicate the class
of fit, a system of dots, circles or letters often being
used. Replacement bearings should be the same
standard.
Group 2 (1dot) bearings have the smallest internal

clearance and are normally used in precision work
where minimum axial and radial movement is
required. These should not be used where operating
Fig 182. Needle Roller Bearing conditions, such as high temperatures, could reduce
internal clearances and are not suitable for use as
thrust bearings or high speed.

Normal Group (2 dot) bearings are used for most

general applications where only one ring is an Chapter 6.9 Transmissions
interference fit and where no appreciable transfer of
heat to the bearing is likely to occur. 6.9.1 Gear Types and their Application
There are a number of different types of gears, all of

Group 3 (3 dot) bearings have a greater radial internal
which are designed for specific tasks. They will all
clearance than Normal Group and are used where
transmit the rotary motion of the input shaft to an
both rings are an interference fir, or where one ring is
output shaft, but the angle between them, their
an interference fit and some transfer of heat must be
direction of rotation and the ratio of their speeds,
accepted. They are also used for high speeds and
depends on the type of gears being used.
where axial leading predominates.
Spur Gears
Group 4 (4 dot) bearings have the largest internal
clearances; they are used where both rings are an
Spur gears are straight toothed gear wheels with the
interference fit and the transfer of heat reduces
teeth formed externally or internally. External spur
internal clearances.
gears are used when a change of speed is required
and the shafts lie parallel to each other. Internal spur
gears are used when a change of speed is required
whilst maintaining an overall minimum diameter.

Helical Gears
Helical gears (fig 184) are also used to transmit drive

between parallel shafts. They are more complex to
manufacture and are quieter in operation than spur
gears but (unlike spur gears), helical gears produce
an axial load on their respective bearings. Another
advantage of helical gears however, is that there are
more teeth in mesh, to provide a larger contact area
than straight cut gears, on wheels of the same width.
This means that helical gears can transmit more
power than straight gears of the same axial width.
Fig 183. Spur Gears

Bevel Gears
Bevel gears (fig 185) are, generally, used to transmit

the drive between shafts which have intersecting
axes. The angle of intersection (and thus the drive)
will vary with individual applications. Bevel gears can
be found in many places, an example of which could
be that, taken from the main drive shaft of an aircraft
engine to drive an accessory gearbox.
Fig 184. Helical Gears

Fig 185. Straight Bevel Gear

Worm Gears in which the air loads, on the flaps, must not be
allowed to drive them in an opposite direction.
The worm and wheel gear set consists of a helically-
cut worm gear on an input shaft, driving a spur gear-
mounted wheel, on an output shaft. The axes of the
two shafts cross at 90° and are in different planes.
The main difference between this configuration and
the bevel gears is that the worm and wheel
combination gives a much larger ‘step-down’ between
the ‘driver’ and ‘driven’ shaft speeds where space is
limited, though frictional losses are higher with the
worm and wheel arrangement.
This configuration can only be used to drive one way;

i.e. the input and output are always the same. This
allows the input system to drive the output slowly and
with a high mechanical advantage (higher torque),
without any back loads being able to drive the system
in reverse. This is ideal for aircraft Flap Control
systems, which have to be ‘driven’ in both directions Fig 186. Worm Gear
(up and down)), via an electric or hydraulic motor, but

6.9.2 Gear Ratios, Reduction and Multiplication

Gear Systems, Driven and Driving Gears, idler
Gears, Mesh Patterns
Gear Ratios and Gear Trains
A gear train consists of at least two gear wheels,

intermeshed (fig 187) so that one gear transmits its
drive to the other. Gear trains can be used to alter
the speed of the output shaft and can change
direction. The speed of rotation is dependent on the
ratio between the number of teeth of the input and
output gear.
For example, an input gear has 75 teeth and the Fig 187. Gear Train
output gear has 25 teeth; thus the outputs speed will
75:25, or three times faster than the input speed. If
the gears were reversed, the output speed would be
25:75, or one third the input speed.

Reduction Gears If the annulus is fixed as in the diagram below,

rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet pinion to
Planetary (Epicyclic) Reduction Gear Train rotate about their axes within the annulus gear. This
causes the planet carrier to rotate in the same
The Planetary or Epicyclic gear train (fig 188) is direction as sun wheel but at a lower speed.
typical of a gear train which is used to reduce the
speed of an aircraft engine’s output shaft to a more With the propeller shaft secured to the planet pinion
acceptable speed for its propeller. It has the carrier, a speed reduction is obtained with the turbine
advantage of putting the output shaft (the propeller), shaft (input shaft) and propeller shaft (output shaft)
in line with the input shaft (the engine crankshaft). in the same axis and rotating in the same direction.
This is configuration is far more efficient than a series
of spur gears, as it results in a smaller frontal area If the annulus is free as in the diagram below, rotation
being necessary for the power unit and the of the sun wheel causes the planet pinions to rotate
subsequent reduction in aerodynamic drag. about their axles within the annulus gear. With the
planet pinion carrier fixed and the propeller shaft
The gear train consists of a sun (driving) gear attached to the annulus gear, rotation of the planet
meshing with and driving three or more equip-spaced pinions causes the annulus gear and propeller to
gears known as ‘Planet Pinions’. These pinions are rotate in the opposite direction to the sun wheel and
mounted on a carrier and rotate independently on at a reduced speed
their own axles. Surrounding the gear train is an
internally toothed ‘Annulus Gear’ in mesh with the It should be made clear, that neither the number of
Planet Pinions. teeth on the planetary gears, nor the number of gears

on the spider affect the gear reduction. For example, Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train
if the ring gear has 72 teeth and the sun gear has 36
teeth, then the overall ratio remains at 2:1. The smallest of a high-ratio pair of spur gears is
referred to as the ‘Pinion’ while the larger remains the
‘Spur’ and spur and pinion gear arrangements also
vary, depending on the desired results.
Where the drive pinion is located inside the spur-cut

ring gear it has the advantage of not only stepping
down the ratio of input to output but also, as can be
seen, both of the gears rotate in the same direction.
Considerable space is also saved, compared to a

system using two externally-cut gears for a similar
reduction in output speed.
Fig 188. Planetary Reduction Gear Train

Accessory Unit Drives
Drive Gear Aircraft engines also employ multiple gear trains in

their internal and external gearboxes (fig 190). These
provide the drives for accessories such as fuel,
hydraulic and oil pumps, electrical generators, engine
speed indicators and other devices.
Here it can be seen that ‘idler’ gears are added to

reverse the rotation and possibly to alter the final
ratio of several drives and, while the majority of the
Driven Gear
gears are of spur and helical configuration, the drive
from the engine shaft, to the gearbox, has bevel
gears.
Fig 189. Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train

Gear Terms Step-up Drive – A gear train which provides an

output drive of higher speed of rotation compared to
Backlash – This is the term used to describe the the input.
clearance between gear teeth at the point of mesh. It
Step-down Drive – A gear train which provides an
allows for expansion and lubrication. output drive of lower speed of rotation compared to
the input.
Idler Gear – This is a gear which is interposed
between the driving and driven gear. Its function is to
connect the drive between the two shafts.
Intermediate Gear – This is a gear which is

positioned between the driving gear and one or more
driven gears in a gear train. It may function as an
idler gear or transmit drive through its own shaft.
Pinion – This is the term used to describe the smaller

of two mating gears.
Lay-shaft – This is a shaft which supports an idler

gear or intermediate gear.

Fig 190. Typical Gearbox Exploded View

Gear Pattern 6.9.3 Belts and Pulleys
Due to the high power being transmitted by gears in Whilst some forms of pulley are covered in the section
certain situations and keeping in mind that (using on controls, there are a few situations where pulleys
spur gears) only one tooth at a time can be subjected are used to transmit movement/power via belts in
to that power, the point of contact between the teeth place of cables. These pulleys are nominally flat, and
in mesh is very important. This contact point is called use friction or teeth to transmit the power from input
the ‘gear pattern’ and is simply the ‘print’ that one to output.
gear leaves on another which mates with it.
Some of the uses to which belt drives are put can
Helical gears may have as many as 5 teeth in contact include a change of ratio, usually in a step-down
at any one time. Therefore power will be spread situation, as well as a simple connection between
across more teeth. The loads must be applied mid- input and output shafts which are displaced by some
way between the front and rear faces of the gear distance.
wheel. They must also be exerted between 1/3 and
2/3 of the distance between the root and tip of the The simple pulley system has a step-up or step-down
gear tooth. facility depending on which pulley is driven. It will give
a mechanical advantage of 2:1 if the smaller pulley is
These settings and adjustments have to be attended driven, due to it being half the diameter of the larger
to during the build-up of the gearbox and are usually pulley. The larger pulley will rotate at half the speed
achieved with the use of appropriately sized shims. of the smaller one, and can be driven using half the
torque.

Some uses of belt and pulley installations in aviation There are a number of places inside piston engines
can include the driving of propellers on micro-light where toothed belts, are used to drive camshafts and
aircraft, which use high-revving engines. These other accessories from the crankshaft.
engines rotate about 6000 rpm whilst propellers are
most efficient at around 2000 – 2500 rpm. Therefore
the drive from the crankshaft pulley, via a strong wide
belt to the propeller pulley, gives a step down ratio of
about 2.5:1 on most of this type of aircraft.
Another application of belt drives is on certain piston-

engine helicopters which use a belt to connect the
output pulley on the end of the crankshaft to the
transmission and rotor. The tension pulleys, which
bear onto the belt, keep it at the correct tension for
normal use.
When starting-up, the tension can be totally released,

allowing the engine to be started without the load of
Fig 191. Simple Pulley System
the rotors and transmission. In an emergency the
released tension allows the rotors to free-wheel (auto
rotate) and thus enables a safe landing.

Chains and Sprockets Most installations use chains to generate and convert
rotary motion at each end, but use cables to connect
Chains for aircraft use are generally the simple roller the chains together over long distances.
type that consists of outer and inner plates, rollers,
bearing pins and bushes. A simple roller chain (fig 192) consists of outer and
inner plates, rollers, bearing pins and bushes. The
Chains may be one of four standard sizes but, for chain has three principle dimensions called ‘gearing
most aircraft installations, the manufacturer dictates dimensions’. These are the pitch, width between
the size and type of chains used. They are obtained as inner plates and roller diameter.
complete, proof-loaded, units from manufacturers,
and are identified by their allocated part numbers in
the relevant aircraft IPC. Chain links or attachments
should never be drilled and re-riveted. Where chains
have bolts in place of rollers and rivets, then the split
pins must be replaced but, if the nuts have been
‘peened’, then the nut and bolt must be replaced
before re-assembly.
The chain’s main purpose is to transfer motion from

one point, to another, remote, point where the input
motion is replicated. An example of this would be
found in the input action of moving a control lever, on
the flight deck of an aircraft, and the subsequent Fig 192. Chain Parts Terminology
output action of the movement of a control surface.

Use of Chains on Aircraft
Chain assemblies may be used in various

arrangements (fig 193) and can be employed to
provide simple rotary-to-straight line motion or to
change the direction of straight line motion in one
plane. A change of direction in two planes can be
achieved by the use of a special ‘bi-planar block’.
Fig 193. Typical Chain Arrangements

Chapter 6.10 Control Cables
6.10.1 Types of Cables
Cables used in aircraft control systems comply with a

1 x 7 Non Flexible 1 x 19 Non Flexible
number of British and American Standards and are
‘preformed’ during manufacture. Pre-forming is a
process in which each strand is formed into the shape
that it will take up in the completed cable. This makes
the cable more flexible, easier to splice and less prone
to kinking. Another advantage of preformed cables is
that, in the event of a wire breaking, it will lie flat
within its strand, so that the cable should be less
likely to jam in its pulleys and fairleads.
7 x 7 Flexible 7 x 19 Flexible
The construction of the cable is determined by the Fig 194. Types of Control Cable Construction
number of strands it contains and the number of wires
in each strand (fig 194). For example a cable Pre-formed cables are manufactured from either
designated as 7 x 19, consists of 7 strands, each galvanised carbon steel or corrosion-resisting steel,
containing 19 wires. The two most common forms of and are impregnated with friction-preventive lubricant
construction are the flexible and the extra-flexible during manufacture. Non-preformed single strand
types. cable may be found on some minor aircraft systems.

Aircraft cables are normally classified by either their

minimum breaking load or nominal diameter.
It is very rare for a cable to be manufactured by an

operator. They are normally ordered through the
aircraft’s IPC, and the aircraft manufacturer supplies
the cable fully formed with the necessary end-fittings
and to the correct load factor.
6.10.2 End Fittings, Turnbuckles and

Compensation Devices
Fig 195. Cable End-Fittings
End-Fittings
Turnbuckles
Whilst cables were, previously, ‘spliced’ or ‘whipped’,
to form end-fittings, the majority of modern cables Turnbuckles are devices which are attached (via
have a ‘swaged splice’ end-fitting. Most end-fittings, internal or external threads) to appropriately designed
on control cables, are special-to-type and end-fittings end-fittings of aircraft cables and are used to join
such as fork, threaded (internal and external), and lengths of cables and to adjust the tension of those
ball end-fittings can be found in various locations. The cables.
nominal overall length of a cable will depend on the
type of end-fitting which is being employed.

Cable runs that are too tight will make the controls
stiff to operate, and conversely cables that are too Spring Locating Clips
slack will make the controls sloppy and unresponsive.
Turnbuckles are adjusted by the use of a ‘left-hand’ Groove

thread in one end of the turnbuckle, and a ‘right-hand’
thread in the other end. When the centre part of the
turnbuckle is rotated, its length will increase or Fig 196. Turnbuckle Locking With a Clip
decrease, and so it will adjust the cable tension. The
groove, around one end of the turnbuckle barrel, Compensation Devices
indicates the ‘left hand thread’.
A cable tension regulator is a mechanical device
Once the correct tension has been obtained and which, when fitted in a cable system, allows the cables
confirmed (using a cable tensiometer), the turnbuckle under all conditions of temperature change and
is checked for ‘safety’ (sufficient threads are engaged structural deflection to take up and let out equally on
in the turnbuckle) and the device is then securely each side of the circuit, thus maintaining uniform
locked (fig 196). The spring type of locking clip (used tension. The compensating unit of a tension regulator
in place of locking wire) can only be inserted into the may be manufactured with one or two springs; a
turnbuckle when the corresponding longitudinal double spring unit is described below and illustrated in
grooves in the barrel and end fittings are aligned. figure 197.

Cable Tension Regulators can be very dangerous when This type of regulator consists of a pair of spring-
disconnecting cable runs, so it is important to ensure loaded quadrants with a pointer and scale to record
that they are locked or ‘snubbed’, in accordance with tension compensation. The control cables are fitted to
the AMM, before any work is done on the controls. the grooved cable quadrants shown in the Figure 197.
The purpose of the regulator is to maintain the cables
at their optimum tension, by compensating for small
changes in cable length and the variation in the size of
the airframe structure that occur with changes in
temperature. A cable tension setting graph is used
(fig 197) when it is necessary to set the cable tension.
The cable tension is maintained in the control system

by the pressure exerted by the compression springs
on the cable quadrants, to which the cables are fitted.
When a fall in cable tension occurs, the quadrants are
displaced radially by the compression springs.
Movement of the quadrants ceases when the pre-set
tension has been restored. Links connecting the
quadrants to the crosshead cause the crosshead to
Fig 197. Cable Tension Regulator move freely outwards on the locking shaft during
quadrant displacement. This allows the crosshead to

take up a new position on the locking shaft when the

cables have reached their pre-set tension.
6.10.3 Pulleys and Cable System Components
Cables that run from the flight deck to the control

surfaces require the ability to change direction
(possibly a number of times).
If the cable needs to change direction to another Fig 198. Typical Cable Control Run
angle, the conventional method of a pulley allows this
change with little friction. The example of the elevator Cable Fairleads
flying control run of a simple aircraft has pulleys that
can change the direction of the cable through a large The cables of a control run must be supported
range of angles. otherwise they may foul the airframe structure. They
are supported by fairleads which are usually made
from fibre. These fairleads should not be lubricated as
this will collect dirt and dust, which will cause extra
wear on the cable and fairlead. Where a change in
direction of the cable is required, a pulley is normally
used, due to its low friction in comparison with

fairleads. Guards are fitted to pulleys when the risk of 6.10.4 Bowden Cables
the cable riding off the pulley is high.
The Bowden Control System is based upon the
The fairleads, already mentioned, simply allow the operation of a multi-stranded wire cable housed in a
cable to pass through the bulkheads without chafing. flexible conduit (fig 200). The system is usually
If, however, the bulkhead is the divider between the designed to operate lightly loaded components in a
pressure cabin and the outside air pressure, then the one way direction, by the application of a pulling
fairlead will be designed to be an airtight seal, as well action on the wire from a control or operating lever.
as a cable guide. Components or services operated in this way are
returned to their original positions by the force
exerted on the wire by a return spring. Bowden
controls can also be designed to operate in two
directions; in this case two wires and a pulley are
used to transmit the two-way operating force.
Fig 199. Cable Fairleads

Conduit
The Bowden conduit consists of a close-coiled wire

covered cotton braiding and finished externally with a
black waterproof coating. A cap is fitted to each end
of the conduit to prevent the braiding from becoming
unravelled, and to reinforce the ends of the conduit.
The length of a Bowden control is usually restricted to
1.8 – 2.5 metres (6 – 8 ft). However, should a longer
Fig 200. Bowden Cable
control run be required, the conduit for the long
Cable straight parts to the run must be manufactured from
rigid metal tubing, whilst flexible conduit is used
A Bowden cable is manufactured from a number of where bends in the control occur.
stainless steel wires that are helically wound around
each other to form a cable. There are two types of Cable Nipples
Bowden cable assembly; small lightly loaded controls
employ cable manufactured from seven wires, whilst A nipple is fitted to each end of the cable. The cable
more heavily loaded controls employ cable and nipple assembly transmits the control operating
manufactured from nineteen wires. force from the control lever to the service or
component to be operated. There are three types of
nipple in use (fig 201), the choice of nipple being
dependent upon the design of the fitting at the

transmitting or receiving end of the cable, to which Bowden Control System Components
the nipples are attached. The nipples may either be
swaged or soldered to the cables; cable assemblies There are relatively few component parts to a Bowden
made up by manufacturers usually have swaged Control System. Each system is, however, designed
nipples fitted to them. to meet a particular requirement and hence may differ
in detail from the basic control, whilst retaining the
functional characteristics of the basic system. In the
following paragraphs the basic components of the
system will be described and illustrated.
Hand lever. The hand lever (see diagram below) is
mainly found in the aircraft’s cockpit and is used to
initiate system operation. The nipple at one end of
the operating cable is located in a recess in the lever,
and is retained in position by a face plate through
which a centre screw is passed to clamp the plate into
position.
Fig 201. Types of Cable Nipple

Plain Adjustment Stop Double-ended Stop
An adjustment stop may be fitted to the control at the In some cases, it is not possible to fit a plain
receiving end of the cable and in some cases a stop adjustment stop to a Bowden control, due to the
may also be fitted to the transmitting end of the inaccessibility of the component to be operated. In
control. The purpose of the stop is to provide a such cases, a double-ended stop is used (Fig 202).
means of adjusting the length of the control conduit,
and to alter the slackness in the operating cable. The The double-ended stop is inserted into the control
stop consists of a special screw and nut assembly. It conduit at a suitable position in the aircraft; this
is fitted to either the component to be operated, or to allows adjustments to be made to the control conduit.
the aircraft structure adjacent to the component. The The adjuster is made up of two main parts, one of
screw is bored axially through its centre to permit the which is screwed inside the other, and they are locked
cable to pass through it and its hexagon head is together by a locknut. A hole is bored axially through
counter-bored to provide a seating for the metal cap the centre of the adjuster to allow the cable to be
fitted to the end of the conduit. An adjustment stop passed through it and is counter-bored at either end
similar to the type described is shown in the diagram to form a location for the conduit. A safety hole is
below. bored radially in the outer part of the adjuster and is
used to check the minimum thread engagement of the
adjuster. The male or inner part of the thread must
always be visible through the hole when the minimum
thread engagement has been achieved.

use, as illustrated in figure 203. In part ‘A’ of the

illustration, a connector is shown that may be used to
join two cables together when they are not running
through a conduit; alternatively, it may be used to
join a Bowden cable to a cable of a different type.
Part ‘B’ of the illustration shows a connector that is
used to join two Bowden controls and their associated
conduits together.
Fig 202. Bowden Cable Components
Connectors
Fig 203. Cable Connectors
A connector is used when it is necessary to uncouple a

Bowden control at some point in the cable, or when a
Bowden cable is used in conjunction with a different
type of cable. There are two types of connector in

Junction Boxes
A junction box is used to connect a single cable to two

or more cables, enabling a number of components to
be operated by a single control. This principle may
also be used in the reverse order, in which two or
more transmitting ends are used to operate a single
control or component. An example of the application
of this principle is shown in Figure 204. In this case,
the Bowden control is connected to the Miniature
Detonating Cord (MDC) system fitted to an aircraft
canopy; the system is used in an emergency to Fig 204. Bowden Cable Junction Box
shatter the canopy transparency to allow the aircraft
pilot to escape from the aircraft. At the transmitting
end of the control, the cables are connected to three
operating handles; one is situated inside the cockpit
for operation by the aircraft pilot and the other two
are located on the fuselage sides for operation by
rescue personnel. The operation of any one of the
handles will pull the appropriate control cable and
through the junction box, operate the MDC firing unit.

6.10.5 Aircraft Flexible Control Systems applications, such as canopy winding mechanisms and
aircraft trim controls. Unlike the Bowden control
The cable used for control runs is extra flexible and system, the Teleflex control provides doe two-way
made up into various lengths to suit the control operation of any component or system without the
system each length of cable has end fittings swaged in need for additional components to be fitted to the
position. If a control cable becomes unserviceable, a system. It also provides a more accurate system of
new cable complete with end fittings may be obtained, control than the Bowden system, a feature which may
or a new cable may be made by swaging new end be illustrated by its use for the operation of engine
fittings to a new length of cable. The length and throttle controls. Apart from system accuracy, the
tension of the cables is adjusted by turnbuckles other main advantages of the Teleflex control system
situated at convenient positions in the control run. If over the Bowden control system are that it may be set
push-pull rods are used, they are usually made of in any position desired by the aircraft pilot, and may
light alloy tube and have screwed end fittings which be locked in that position if a locking device if fitted to
enable the length of the rods to be adjusted. the control.
Teleflex Controls The Teleflex control system consists of a special cable

housed in a rigid metal conduit, or in certain
The Teleflex system of controls is used on many installations a flexible conduit may be used. Each
modern aircraft. Each system is controlled from the control is made up of a number of special Teleflex
aircraft cockpit and is used to operate such service as component parts, some of which may be modified to
throttle, propeller and fuel cock controls. The Teleflex suit the particular function of the control. In some
control system has also been used in various other systems, particularly those with very long control

runs, ordinary control cables may be supplemented

with tie rods or chains for part of the control run.
Such systems usually feature a Teleflex control at the
beginning, or transmitting end of the control run and
also at the receiving end of the run.
The Teleflex Control Run
There are many variations to the basic Teleflex control

run. Each control run is designed to impart either a
push-pull or a rotary motion to a system or
component. In the diagram below, several examples
of Teleflex control runs are illustrated in their basic
form; these show some of the installations which may
be fitted to a modern aircraft. Fig 205. Teleflex Control Run

The Teleflex Cable Three types of cable are available for aircraft use.
The cables are significantly different in their
The Teleflex control cable is unique in its construction, construction and hence are not interchangeable with
basically it consists of a steel core-wire surrounding by each other. The three types of cable are:
a number of helically wound outer wires.
 DS 23/2 (also known as No 2)
 DS 380
 DS 169330
DS 23/2 Cable
The DS 23/2 type of cable is built up from a high

tensile steel wire inner core that has been wound with
a close-pitched compression wire (see diagram below
‘Teleflex Cables’). A left-hand helix wire, interspaced
by a spacer wire, is then wound around the
compression wire/core wire assembly. The complete
cable assembly has a minimum breaking load of 204
Fig 206. Types of Teleflex Cable
Kg (450 lb.).

DS 380 Cable designed for use in the ‘hot’ areas of an aircraft,

where temperatures of up to 350ºC may be recorded.
The DS 380 type of cable, although outwardly similar
to the DS 23/2 cable in its appearance, differs in its Conduit
construction. The cable is not fitted with a
compression wire, but it is fitted with a high tensile The Teleflex conduit is a metal tube whose function if
steel inner wire; this has a greater diameter than the to guide the cable through the aircraft, and to enable
core wire fitted to the DS 23/2 cable. A right-hand compressive loads to be applied to the cable without it
helix wire, interspaced by a spacer wire, is wound becoming kinked or distorted. Two basic types of
directly onto the inner wire to form the complete cable conduit are supplied, these are:
assembly. This type of construction improves the
efficiency of the system with a reduction in backlash,  Rigid conduit.
particularly on the compression stroke it also provides  Flexible conduit.
an increased minimum breaking load strength of 454
Kg (1000 lb.). Rigid Conduit
DS 169330 The rigid conduit is used for most of the Teleflex

control systems. It may be manufactured from
The DS 169330 cable is similar in its construction and Tungum, Steel or Light Alloy tubes. Most modern
strength to the DS 23/2 cable, with the exception that conduit is manufactured from Aluminium and is lined
the spacer wire has been omitted from its design. The
with Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) to reduce the
cable, which is manufactured from Stainless Steel, is
friction generated by the conduit. The addition of a

lining, however, produced a greater outside diameter

than that of the standard conduit. Furthermore, PTFE
lined conduit may not be used in the ‘hot’ zones of an
engine, (i.e. where temperatures exceed 100ºC).
Teleflex conduit located in these areas must be
manufactured from either Tungum or steel tube.
Flexible Conduit
Flexible conduit is used in Teleflex control installations Fig 207. Flexible Conduit Construction
to allow for the relative movement of components
whilst they are being operated. The conduit (Fig 207) Conduit Connectors
is usually kept as short as possible and is interposed
between rigid conduit and the component to be Conduit connectors are used to join sections of
operated. The conduit consists of a continuous conduit together to form a control run in an aircraft.
winding of metal strip, covered by a layer of cotton The connectors are similar in design to all-metal pipe
interposed by fine wires running lengthways along the couplings, with the exception that adapter nipples are
conduit. Finally, the assembly is covered by a damp not fitted to them. There are several different types
and oil resistant covering. of connector, each of which is designed for a particular
application in an aircraft (e.g. to allow the conduit to
pass through a pressure bulkhead into an aircraft’s
pressure cabin without the loss of cabin pressure).

The standard type of conduit connector consists of two

externally threaded connector nipples that are
screwed into each end of an internally threaded
connector body (fig 208). To couple two lengths of
conduit together, the connector nipples are pushed
onto the end of each piece of conduit and the ends of
conduit suitably flared with a flaring tool. The nipples
are then screwed into the connector body and
tightened to firmly retain the conduit by gripping the
flare, holding it firmly onto a shoulder at the base of
each of the connector body holes.
A pressure type of bulkhead connector is illustrated in Fig 208. Types of Conduit Connector
the diagram below. In this type of connector, the
Teleflex Control Units & Fittings
conduit flare is retained on a coned seating by a collar
located in a recess in the outer sleeve. When the To operate the Teleflex control system, the cable and
outer sleeve is tightened onto the connector body, the the conduit are connected to control units at each end
conduit flare is gripped tightly between the cone and of the control run, and sometimes at intermediate
the collar to form an airtight seal. The connector is points along the run. At the intermediate points,
bolted to the cabin pressure bulkhead and the joint other control units and fittings are used to direct the
between the connector and the bulkhead is sealed by run through the aircraft. The control unit at the
a jointing washer.

transmitting end of the system is located in the There are various types of wheel unit, some of which
aircraft’s cockpit and is usually a lever operated unit, are as follows:
or alternatively, a simple push-pull operated control.
The control system movement at the receiving end of  Single entry unit.
the system is controlled by either a wheel unit, which  Double entry unit.
is basically similar in design to the transmitting unit,  Straight-lead unit.
or by one of several types of sliding end fitting.  Distributor box.
 Junction box unit.
Wheel Units
Single Entry Unit
The Teleflex wheel unit consists of a light alloy casing
in which is housed one or more gear wheels. Each The single entry type of wheel is the type commonly
gear wheel has teeth cut around its periphery to suit used at the transmitting end of a Teleflex control run.
either the left-hand helical windings of the type DS The cable enters the unit via a conduit connector and
23/2 cable, or the right-hand helical windings of the is located in a slot in the gear wheel (fig 209). Rotary
type DS 380 cable. Hence the units are not travel of the unit is limited to 270 degrees of gear
interchangeable with each other. The casing of each wheel travel, and a minimum of 40 degrees cable
unit is machined to accept the gear wheel and cable engagement on the wheel must be maintained at all
meshed together, thus ensuring that the cable is kept times. Conversely, at the extreme end of the travel,
in mesh with the gear wheel at all times. the cable must not foul that part of the cable already
wrapped around the gear wheel.

Double Entry Unit
In the double entry wheel unit, the cable enters the

unit by a conduit connector and after wrapping around
the gear wheel the cable emerges via another conduit
connector at a point 90º, 120º or 180º from the point
of entry. These units usually known as 90º, 120º or
180º wrap units, whichever is applicable (fig 210). At
the point the cable emerges from the wheel unit, it
enters a short piece of conduit, known as the ‘spent
travel tube’. The tube is fitted to the unit to prevent
the cable from fouling the aircraft’s structure, and also
to prevent the ingress of moisture and foreign bodies
into the wheel unit.
Fig 209. Single Entry Wheel Unit

Straight-lead Unit
In the straight-lead wheel unit, the cable passes

straight through the unit and hence only emerges with
a few teeth on the gear wheel (fig 211).
Consequently, this type of unit is not suitable for a
heavily loaded control system. The unit can, however,
be interposed in a control run without the need to
break the cable, and it can also be fitted to the
transmitting or receiving end of a control system.
Fig 210. Double Entry Unit

Junction Box Unit
A junction box unit is installed when it is necessary to

reverse the direction of travel of the Teleflex control
run, or to add a branch into the run to enable an
additional control to be operated (e.g. simultaneous
operation of a control on the port and starboard side
of the aircraft). In one type of junction (see diagram
to the left), two cables pass through the junction box
body diametrically opposite to each other, and engage
on either side of a single gear wheel. The function of
this type of box is either to:
 Operate one cable and then transfer the

movement to the other cable via the gear wheel,
but in the reverse direction.
 To rotate the gear wheel and thus move both
Fig 211. Straight-lead Unit cables simultaneously.
An alternative arrangement contains a double gear

wheel in which the cables pass through the box side

by side, and thus transmit movement in the same Distributor Box

direction.
The design of the distributor box (fig 213) is basically
similar to the double entry wheel unit described
earlier, but with an extra gear attached to the face of
the gear wheel. The additional gear wheel drives a
pinion on a cross shaft, which in turn engages with a
torsion drive.
Fig 212. Junction Box Unit Fig 213. Distributer Box

Wheel Unit Damping Device pull-push units have locking devices fitted to them to
retain the operating handle in a set position, whilst
In some transmitting wheel units, a damping device is other are spring-loaded to ensure that the control
fitted to the unit enabling the friction in the control returns to its normal position.
handle to be adjusted. The damping device, which is
fitted to controls such as throttle and propeller pitch
levers, ensure that control settings are not altered by
aircraft vibration. Usually, the device consists of a
spring-loaded friction plate that is pressed against the
gear wheel. Adjustment of the amount of friction
generated in the unit may be effected by rotation of a
knurled hand nut fitted to the control lever pivot, to
either increase or decrease the friction.
Pull-Push Control Units

Fig 214. Pull-Push Control Unit
Pull-push control units (fig 214) are often installed in
an aircraft instead of wheel units. These are used
where the control is to operate against a light load,
and where fine adjustment of the control is
unnecessary. The operating cable is secured to the
operating handle by a lock spring and plug. Some

Sliding End Fittings attached to the end of a rigid conduit. The housing
itself is firmly attached to the aircraft’s structure. The
A sliding end fitting (fig 215) is used instead of a ball is welded to a length of tubing of the same
wheel unit when a push-pull action is required at the dimensions as the rigid conduit, and a suitable sliding
receiving end of the control. Various fittings are end fitting is attached to the end of the control cable
available for use, the choice of fitting depending upon to ensure that the guide tube slides freely over the
the method used to attach the fitting to the swivel joint tube. The angular travel of the swivel
component. In each case the fitting is comprised of a joint is limited to 8º from the central axis of the
guide tube, which terminates in: a fork-end, an eye, a conduit and hence, it is essential during installation of
ball joint, an internal or an external threaded fitting. the control to ensure that the angular travel of the
The cable is attached to the fitting either by means of control, to which the swivel is attached, falls easily
a special collet attachment, or by means of a lock within this limit.
spring and plug.
Swivel Joint
A swivel joint (fig 216) is a form of universal joint that

may be used instead of a wheel unit, provided that
the rotary movement imparted to the control
mechanism lever does not exceed 90º. This type of
joint (see diagram below), consists of a ball and
socket connector that is located inside a housing and

Quick-Break Units
Quick-break units (fig 217) are used to enable Teleflex

control systems to be dismantled easily at such points
as engine bulkheads, and fuselage and wing break
points, without disturbing the setting of the controls.
Several types of break unit are in use, but all employ
a similar type of construction. The cable joint fittings
consists of rods that are fixed to the cable and
Fig 215. Sliding End Fittings machined to form interlocking slotted ends, that fit
snugly into each other to form a joint.
Fig 216. Swivel Joints Fig 217. Quick-Break Unit

Teleflex Cable Connectors collet. The outer sleeve, or plug end, used for the No
380 size control, is copper welded to the slider tube
The Teleflex cable is coupled to the control system and screwed onto the collet radially onto the cable by
end fittings by one or two types of connector, which a tapered seating formed on the inside of the sleeve,
are: locking the cable to the body. Finally, the locknut is
tightened onto the sleeve to prevent the body from
 Screwed end split collet connector. becoming unscrewed. Alternatively, when the No 2
 Lock spring connector. size control is used, the tapered bore of the outer
sleeve is used to form a housing for the flared end of
Screwed End Split Collet Connector the slider tube. Tightening of the connection presses
the flared end of the slider tube against the collet on
The screwed end slip collet connector (fig 218) the body of the connection, thus locking the cable in
consists of a body, which is bored and threaded to the body in a similar way to the No 3 connection.
accept the helical wire of the Teleflex cable. One end
of the body is reduced in diameter and threaded to
receive standard A.G.S. fittings, whilst the other end
is externally threaded to receive the outer sleeve and
locknut. An inspection hole is drilled through the body
to enable the technician to check that the cable is
inserted correctly into the body of the fitting. The end
of the body to which the cable is fitted is tapered to
an angle of 40º, drilled and then slotted to form a

bore of the fitting at a point just beyond the lock

spring housing. A plug is permanently attached to the
sliding tube and threaded externally. It is then
assembled into the end of the attachment fitting and
locked by a locknut and tab washer. The cable is
passed through the sliding tube and plug, and is
retained in position by a lock spring.
Fig 218. Screwed End Split Collet Connector
Lock Spring Connector
The lock spring type of connector (fig 219) is used in

many aircraft to attach Teleflex cable to both sliding
end fittings and pull-push control units. In this type
of connector, the sliding end attachment fitting is Fig 219. Lock Spring Connector
internally threaded for approximately one fifth of its
length, and then bored for a further two fifths of its
length to house the cable lock spring. It is then bored
to the end of the fitting to provide a housing for the
cable end. An inspection hole is drilled across the

Sealing of Teleflex Control Runs
A Teleflex control run must be sealed when it is

installed in a pressurised aircraft cabin, to prevent air
from the cabin escaping to atmosphere through the
control conduit. The control seal is formed by two
50mm (2”) lengths of 1.6mm (1/16”) diameter
graphite coated asbestos string, 50mm apart, wound
around the cable between the raised helix wire. The
seal packing is retained in position by the helix wire
and forms a permanent seal between the cable and
the bore of the conduit. The point of entry of the Fig 220. Teleflex Control Bulkhead Connector
conduit into the pressure cabin is made pressure tight
by means of a bulkhead connector (fig 220). A
pressure type of greaser connection is fitted on the
pressure side of the bulkhead connection.

Chapter 6.11 Electrical Cables and Ethylene Propylene’ (FEP), nylon or fibreglass braid.
Connectors Aluminium wire smaller than six-gauge is not
recommended because it is so easily broken by
6.11.1 Cable Types, Construction and vibrations.
Characteristics
TINNED COPPER POLYVINYL
CONDUCTOR CHLORIDE
Cable Types INSULATOR
Standard Copper Wire
There are many different types of wire used for special

applications in aircraft electrical systems, but the
majority of the wiring is achieved with MIL-W-5086
(fig 221) or MIL-W-22759 stranded tinned copper wire
with a PVC, nylon or Teflon insulation. EXTRUDED
JACKET
NYLON
Aluminium Wire
Fig 221. Mil –G-5086 Copper Wire
Where large amounts of current must be carried for
long distances, MIL-W-7072 aluminium wire is often
used. This wire is insulated with either ‘Fluorinated

6.11.2 High Tension and Co-axial Cables

TINNED COPPER POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
Anytime a wire carries a current, a magnetic field CONDUCTOR INSULATION
INSULATI
surrounds the wire, and this field may interfere with
some aircraft instrumentation. For example, the light
that illuminates the compass card of a magnetic
compass is powered with low-voltage DC. The field
from this small voltage can deflect the compass. To
minimise this occurrence, a two-conductor twisted
wire is used to carry the current to and from this light.
By using a twisted wire, the fields cancel each other
out and thus do not interfere with the compass. TINNED COPPER
EXTRUDED SHIELD
NYLON
JACKET
AC or pulsating DC has an especially bad effect on
electronic equipment, as its conductor’s radiate Fig 222. Shielded Wire
electrical energy much like the antenna of a radio. To
prevent radio interference, wires that carry AC or Antennas are connected to most of the radio receivers
pulsating DC are often shielded by encasing the and transmitters with a special type of shielded wire
conductor in a wire braid (fig 222). This ensures that called ‘Coaxial Cable’ (fig 223). This consists of a
the radiated energy is received by the braid and is central conductor surrounded by an insulator and a
then passed to the aircraft's ground where it can second conductor. The spacing and concentricity of
cause no interference. the two conductors are critical for the most efficient

transfer of energy through the cable. This second extremely important to ensure that the correct cable
conductor is normally the wire braid, which is then is used for the system installed. The cable should not
covered in an outer insulator. be pinched or bent during installation and data bus
cable lengths may also be critical. Refer to current
manufacturer’s manuals for cable specifications.
TINNED ETFE TEFZEL ETFE TEFZEL

CONDUCTORS ®
COPPER ®
INSULATION
I
Fig 223. Coaxial Cable
Data Bus Cable DATA BUS

CABLE “B”
TINNED COPPER
One special type of cable used exclusively for various DATA BRAID SHIELD
digital electronic systems is called ‘Data Bus Cable’. CABLE
BUS “A”
Data bus cable typically consists of a twisted pair of Fig 224. Data Bus Cable
wires surrounded by electrical shielding and
insulators. Digital systems operate on different
frequencies, voltages and current levels. It is

6.11.3 Crimping 6.11.4 Connector Types, Pins, Plugs, Sockets,

Insulators, Current and Voltage Rating,
Crimping is a method of firmly attaching a terminal Coupling, Identification Codes
end to an electrical conductor by pressure forming or
reshaping a metal barrel, together with the conductor. Most of the electrical components in an aircraft are
The forming of a satisfactory crimped joint depends on designed so that they may be serviced with a
the correct combination of conductor, crimp barrel and minimum amount of time needed for their removal
tool. and installation. The electrical wiring is usually
connected through quick-release plugs.
When applied with the correctly matched tool, a joint
would be established which has both good electrical There are many different types of plugs, but they are
and mechanical properties. all somewhat similar. The individual wires are
fastened to pins or sockets inside the plugs and are
Note: Crimping is covered in greater depth in Module clamped tight to prevent mechanical strain on the
7. cable to prevent mechanical strain on the cable being
transmitted into the connectors themselves.
The most commonly used connector is the Military

Standard (MS), type. Each MS connector has an
identification number on it (fig 225).

 MS3102 - Box Receptacle.

Mil Standard
Type Number  MS3106 - Straight Plug.
Class  MS3108 - Angle Plug.

Size
Insert Arrangement
Number The letter following the configuration tells the class of
connector:
Contact Style
A - General purpose, solid aluminium alloy shell.
Index Slot
Insert Number
Fig 225. Connection Identification Number B - General purpose, split aluminium alloy shell.
C - Pressurised, solid aluminium alloy shell.

The MS type number is the basic configuration of the
connector: D - Environmental-resistant, solid aluminium
alloy shell.
 MS3100 - Wall Receptacle.
E - Fire and flame proof, solid steel shell.
 MS3101 - Cable Receptacle.

The size of the connector is indicated with a code used for the receiver equipment. This is to eliminate
number, the higher the number, the larger the the possibility of shorts circuits to ground.
connector. The insert arrangement is a code number
to identify the number and size of the connector and
its physical arrangement.
The contact style may be either an ‘S’ or ‘P’ to indicate

a ‘socket’ or ‘pin’ (female or male), arrangement. The
final letter in the identification is one of the last letters
in the alphabet, ‘W’, ‘X’, ‘Y’ or ‘Z’. These letters
indicate the rotation of the insert in the connector.
It is possible to connect the wrong plug to a

receptacle, so to prevent this; inserts may be rotated
in their relationship to the index slot. This ensures
only the correct plug may be inserted into the
receptacle.
Figure 226 shows typical MS type connectors. These

connectors can carry either pins or sockets in the form
of inserts. It is normal practice that, if a connector Fig 226. MS Quick-Release Connectors
carries power supplies, it will use sockets. Pins will be

Plugs, Sockets, Insulators, Coupling and Pins shells and are secured by retaining rings and / or
nuts. Insulators may be made from hard plastic,
Plugs and sockets are connecting devices which neoprene or varying degrees of hardness, silicone
contain male and female contact assemblies. There rubber or fluorosilicone rubber depending on the
are many variations in the design of plugs and sockets application of a plug and socket and the
governed principally by the distribution circuit environmental conditions under which they are to be
requirements, number of conductors to be terminated used. Attachment of the conductor pins and socket
and the environmental conditions. contacts to the corresponding wire is done by
crimping.
In general, the construction of plugs and sockets are
similar, they contain a light alloy or stainless steel Normally, plugs and sockets are secured in the mated
body or shell which usually contain a screw thread. condition by means of threaded coupling rings or
Polarising keys and keyways are also provided to nuts; bayonet-lock or push-pull.
ensure that plugs and sockets and their corresponding
conductors are mated correctly. They also prevent Current Rating
relative movement between their contacts when the
couplings are tightened. All aircraft wires should be able to carry the required
system current without overheating and burning. In
Plug contacts are usually round pins whilst the socket addition it must also be able to carry the required
contacts have a resilient section which is arranged to current without producing a voltage drop greater than
grip the mating pin. The contacts are retained in the permissible limit for the circuit. Reels of wire are
position by insulators which are a sliding fit in the

annotated with the maximum current rating during

manufacture.
Voltage Rating
Voltage ratings are evaluations based on research and

experimentation that help to determine how much
voltage can be safely utilised by a particular form of
wiring. The voltage rating will take into consideration
the materials used to construct the wiring, the
thickness of the actual cable design of the wiring, and
the intended use of the wire. END OF MODULE 6

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Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Module 6 Materials and Hardware

Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

6.4.2 FORMATION BY GALVANIC ACTION PROCESS, MICROBIOLOGICAL,

6.4.1 CHEMICAL FUNDAMENTALS ........................................ 157

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6.9.2 GEAR RATIOS, REDUCTION AND MULTIPLICATION GEAR

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Apart from the basic requirement of more and more

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Mixtures of carbon and iron can form a number of

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carbon to leave the austenite is for Iron Carbide

Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic

Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is

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Stainless Steels Resistance to oxidation is achieved by adding

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Extract from the SAE Classification for Steel Alloys

1xxx Carbon Steels

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Element Principle Effects

Fig 4. Effect of Alloying Elements on Steel

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6.1.2 Heat Treatment and Application of Alloy Normalising

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Fig 5. Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

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Tempering 1. By using low-carbon steel and altering the

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manufacturing process. Hence all other machining Induction Hardening

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In the previous section techniques on how to improve

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for tensile testing of metallic materials in the

The test-piece of known cross-sectional area is A B

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Where permanent extension in the metal. Thus, the metal is

As the force is increased further, the metal stretches

When the test-piece is stretched beyond point A,

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Therefore, it is extremely difficult to assess the yield

“The tensile stress which is just sufficient to

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Some years later a German Engineer, Wohler, did

The results from the tests are plotted to form a stress

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conducted in accordance with BS EN ISO 148- Aluminium and its Alloys

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