Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Module 8 Basic Aerodynamics

These notes are intended for training guidance only and are not to be used as an
authoritative document for use in the civil aviation industry. In all cases,
reference must always be made to the current documents for the most up to
date information.
 Amendment and Annual Review Record

Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

No by Review
2011 C.Gibson 12 Sept 2011
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8.1 PHYSICS OF ATMOSPHERE .................................5
8.1.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................5
8.1.2 THE ATMOSPHERE.......................................................5
CHAPTER 8.2 INTRODUCTION TO AERODYNAMICS ................ 10
8.2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 10
8.2.2 VOLUME & MASS FLOW .............................................. 10
8.2.3 ENERGY ................................................................ 11
CHAPTER 8.3 AEROFOILS .................................................... 14
8.3.1 AERODYNAMIC FORCES ............................................... 14
8.3.2 AEROFOIL & WING DEFINITIONS ................................... 16
8.3.3 AERODYNAMIC RESULTANTS ......................................... 18
8.3.4 LIFT & DRAG .......................................................... 18
8.3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING FORCES ....................................... 19
8.3.6 LIFT & DRAG COEFFICIENT .......................................... 19
8.3.7 ANGLE OF ATTACK .................................................... 21
8.3.8 CENTRE OF PRESSURE ................................................ 24
8.3.9 PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT ................................... 25
8.3.10 AERODYNAMIC CENTRE............................................... 26
8.3.11 DOWNWASH ........................................................... 26
CHAPTER 8.4 DRAG ......................................................... 27
8.4.1 DRAG EQUATION ...................................................... 27
8.4.2 DRAG COEFFICIENT ................................................... 27
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8.4.3 DRAG COMPONENTS .................................................. 27
8.4.4 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS ............................................ 28
8.4.5 FORM DRAG ........................................................... 29
8.4.6 BOUNDARY LAYERS ................................................... 30
8.4.7 SKIN FRICTION........................................................ 31
8.4.8 TRANSITION POINT ................................................... 31
8.4.9 REYNOLDS NUMBER .................................................. 32
8.4.10 ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT..................................... 32
8.4.11 BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION ..................................... 33
8.4.13 ZERO-LIFT DRAG ..................................................... 34
8.4.14 INDUCED DRAG ....................................................... 35
8.4.15 TOTAL DRAG .......................................................... 42
8.4.16 DRAG POLAR .......................................................... 43
CHAPTER 8.5 FORCES IN FLIGHT ......................................... 44
8.5.1 FOUR FORCES ......................................................... 44
8.5.2 STRAIGHT & LEVEL FLIGHT .......................................... 45
8.5.3 FORCES IN CLIMB ..................................................... 46
8.5.4 FORCES IN GLIDE & DESCENT ...................................... 47
8.5.5 RATE OF CLIMB - PERFORMANCE ................................... 49
8.6.1 POWER CURVES ....................................................... 50
8.6.2 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON RATE OF CLIMB.......................... 51
CHAPTER 8.7 FORCES & MANOEUVRE ................................... 51
8.7.1 CENTRIPETAL FORCE ................................................. 51
8.7.2 LOOPING ............................................................... 52
8.7.3 LOAD FACTOR ......................................................... 53
8.7.4 LEVEL TURNS .......................................................... 54
8.7.5 AEROFOIL STALLING.................................................. 56
8.7.6 WING WASH OUT & WASH IN ...................................... 58
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8.7.7 EFFECT OF WEIGHT / LOAD FACTOR ............................... 58

8.7.8 AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION ......................................... 58
8.7.9 FLIGHT ENVELOPES ................................................... 59
CHAPTER 8.8 STABILITY ...................................................... 60
8.8.1 BASIC CONCEPT & DEFINITION ..................................... 60
8.8.2 STATIC STABILITY .................................................... 60
8.8.3 AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY...................................... 61
8.8.4 AIRCRAFT STABILITY ................................................. 62
8.8.5 CONTROL ............................................................... 71
8.8.6 CONTROL ABOUT THE 3 AXES ....................................... 73
8.8.7 LIFT AUGMENTATION ................................................. 73
8.8.8 USE OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES ......................................... 75
8.8.9 TABLE OF FLAPS, SLOTS & SLATS .................................. 76
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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These notes are intended for training guidance
only and are not to be used as an authoritative
document for use in the civil aviation industry.
In all cases, reference must always be made to
the current documents for the most up to date
information.
Chapter 8.1 Physics of Atmosphere
8.1.1 Introduction
Aerodynamics is an element of the study of Fluid
Dynamics which relates to the action (and reaction) of
bodies in a moving stream of air.
In this module, it will be necessary to review the
composition of the air which comprises Earth's
atmosphere; to consider the changes which can occur
with certain characteristics of the atmosphere and to
learn how those changes can affect the interaction of
a solid body passing through the air.
Basic Aerodynamics explains the terminologies
associated with the fact that air is able to lift
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
enormous weights ('heavier-than-air' craft) and how
the shape of that aircraft can also influence its
performance. The theory of flight is discussed and
consideration is also given to the loads imposed (by
the air and the forces of gravity) on the aircraft, in
addition to the various methods employed to provide
stability to the flight of an aircraft as it flies through
the air.
8.1.2 The Atmosphere
To understand the workings of the Earth’s atmosphere
with regards to aviation, it is necessary to know, not
only the basic physical properties of air, but also to
understand the effects of the atmosphere on the day
to day operation of aircraft.
The air that surrounds the Earth is a physical mixture
of gases made up of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and
about 1% of other gases which includes the water
vapour. This ratio remains constant regardless of the
altitude but, as the air pressure is the weight of the
column of air above a fixed point, the highest pressure
is at ground level and this pressure decreases with
altitude.
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In order to have a reference for all of our aerodynamic
computations, the International Civil Aeronautics
Organization (ICAO), has agreed upon a standard
atmosphere, known as the ‘International Standard
Atmosphere’ (ISA). The pressures, temperatures and
densities in this ISA may not be typical of every
location, but they do serve as a reference. When all
aerodynamic computations are related to the ISA, we
can compare flight test data and other information,
relative to our aircraft and its performance, regardless
of where they were taken and the results will be
meaningful.
An ‘ISA Day’ is based on the following Sea level (SL)
criteria.
 SL Pressure 1013.2 millibars / hecto pascals
 SL Density 1.225 kg/m3
 SL Temperature 15ºC / 288 K
 SL Lapse rate 1.98ºC / 1000 feet (6.5k/km)
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Pressure
The force that the air exerts on a unit of area is the
measure of pressure. There are three systems
commonly used in aviation for measuring pressure:
 Millibars (mb) - The standard sea level
pressure is 1013.25 mb and most altimeters
have their barometric scale measured in
millibars. Weather forecasters use millibars, as
a measure of pressure on weather maps.
 Pounds per Square Inch (psi) - This is
perhaps the commonest measure of pressure
and simply expresses the force in pounds that
the air exerts on each square inch of area. In
our standard atmosphere at sea level, the air
exerts a pressure of 14.69 psi.
Approximately one half of our atmosphere is
below 18,000 feet and at that altitude; the air
pressure has dropped to 7.34 psi. This
measurement of pressure is sometimes referred
to as gauge pressure (psig), as the pressure we
are reading on the face of the gauge is the
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pressure above the atmospheric pressure
already present.
 Height of Mercury - If we fill a tube with
mercury and invert it in a bowl of mercury, the
liquid in the tube will drop and create a vacuum
above it. It will drop until the force exerted by
the air on the surface of the mercury in the bowl
is exactly equal to the weight of mercury in the
tube. The pressure of the air under Standard
Sea Level conditions will support a column of
mercury to a height of 760 millimeters (29.92
inches).
Pressure that is referenced from zero pressure is
called Absolute Pressure. The absolute pressure in
the induction system of a piston engine draws the
fuel/air mixture into the cylinders and this is read as
manifold pressure.
The altimeter in an aircraft does not measure how
high it is; rather, it measures the absolute pressure
caused by the weight of air above it. The scale is
normally marked in feet rather than in units of
pressure. By setting the barometric scale to sea level
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
pressure the altimeter shows the height above sea
level. This scale is either in inches of mercury
(American) or millibars.
Air Temperature
Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at
approximately 1.98°C for each increase of 1000 feet
of altitude until 36,089 feet, when the temperature
reaches -56.5°C and remains constant up to 65,600
feet. The ICAO Standard Temperature at sea level is
+15°C.
Density
The density of the air is a property of great
importance in aerodynamics. Density has been
basically covered previously and what follows, is that
which is applicable only to aerodynamics. Air is
compressible and, although its temperature and
pressure may also rise, when compressed, its density
rises also.
For the purposes of calculation, air density is
represented by the Greek letter  (rho). This indicates
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density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). Mass

however, is the weight of an object when acted upon
by the force of gravity.

Air Density & Humidity

The condition of moisture or dampness in the air is

called Humidity. The maximum amount of water
vapour that the air can hold depends on the
temperature of the air. The higher the temperature
the more water vapour it can absorb. Air with water
vapour in it, is lighter than air containing no vapour,
so that on damp days the air density is lower than on
dry days.

Figure 1 Regions of the Earth Atmosphere

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Lapse Rate

A particular characteristic of the atmosphere is called

the lapse rate. It is initially 1.98C/1000 feet and
virtually constant up to approximately 36,000 feet,
and then the lapse rate becomes zero. As the altitude
increases, the properties of the lapse rate change
significantly however we are only concerned with the
rate from sea level to 36,000 ft. The lowest region of
the atmosphere is the Troposphere and the next
region is the Stratosphere. The boundary between
the two is known as the Tropopause. The upper
regions need not be seriously considered for our
purposes of this module as these regions are the
current limits of commercial aircraft. See

Figure 2.
Figure 2 Regions of the Earth’s Atmosphere

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Chapter 8.2 Introduction to Aerodynamics
8.2.1 Introduction
Aerodynamics is the study of air in motion, which
includes changes in the physical characteristics, such
as pressure and density. (Thermodynamics is similar
but is likely to involve significant temperature
changes). Because the air is in motion, changes in
velocity and mass flow-rates are also important.
Aerodynamics also involves the study of forces being
generated (e.g. the "lift" force on a wing), and so a
brief mention must be made of some basic principles.
8.2.2 Volume & Mass flow
Volumetric flow-rate is given by:
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Mass-flow rate is given by:
In a converging / diverging duct, the mass flow rate
must be constant (what goes in must come out) and if
density is unchanged, volumetric flow rate will also
remain constant. (This is shown by ). If
the cross-sectional area of the duct changes, then the
velocity of the airstreams will change (Area reduces,
velocity increases or Area increases, velocity
decreases).
This affect can be seen when a river flows through the
arches of a bridge. The river flow speed is slower
each side of the bridge but increase as it flows
between the arches of the bridge. The cross-sectional
area of the river is reduced by the arches of the
bridge.
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Figure 3 Airstreams Entering a Convergent/Divergent
Duct
8.2.3 Energy
This change in velocity implies a corresponding
change in kinetic energy ( ). The principle
known as Conservation of Energy suggests that unless
extra energy is introduced into a moving airstream
(such as aviation fuel) the overall energy content
must remain unchanged from one point to another.
Hence, if KE increases some other energy form
decreases.
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
Bernoulli's equation highlights the relationship
between pressure energy and kinetic energy.
This can be expressed as:
This implies that if V2 is greater than V1 (as in the
throat of a venturi, then P2 is less than P1, i.e. there is
a drop in pressure).
This is of particular interest to students of aeronautics
because the flow through a venturi has similar
characteristics to the flow over an aerofoil. The
aerofoil’s upper surface cambered shape is similar to
the lower half of a venturi tube. Above the aerofoil
there is an area of undisturbed air which is not
affected by the shape of the aerofoil. The air closest
to the upper surface however is forced to move
quicker in relation to this air and the air traveling
below the aerofoil. This creates an area of low
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pressure on the upper surface of the aerofoil.
Bernoulli's equation showing the relationship between
changes of pressure and velocity is used to explain
the "lifting" effect of aerofoil. See Figure 4.
Figure 4 Comparison of a Convergent Duct and an
Aerofoil
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8.2.4 Airspeed
As we have previously seen, atmospheric pressure
exerts a force on all bodies in all directions. This is
called static pressure. When the air is moving it must
have kinetic energy. The faster it moves the more
kinetic energy it possesses. If the moving air is
brought to rest against an object, a nose of an aircraft
for example, then the kinetic energy is changed to
pressure energy. This pressure is called Dynamic
pressure and is expressed by the following equation:
From this equation you can see that dynamic pressure
is dependent on the air’s density and velocity.
If an aircraft is stationary it will experience only static
pressure acting all over its structure. When the
aircraft is moving it still has this static pressure acting
on it but will also have the additional force of dynamic
pressure on its leading edges and surfaces.
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Figure 5 Static Pressure Figure 6 Dynamic Pressure

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Chapter 8.3 Aerofoils

There are several theories used to describe how a

lifting force is generated by the action of air in motion
past an aerofoil. Whatever the theory, the lift force
results from a difference between the pressures acting
in the upper and lower surfaces.

8.3.1 Aerodynamic forces

The diagram shows a typical pressure distribution

around an aerofoil. This can be determined by the
wind tunnel experiment, where the pressures acting at
several points on the aerofoil can be measured using
manometers. The manometer will indicate the
Figure 7 Aerodynamic Forces Pressure Distribution
difference in the static pressure (p) acting at a
particular point and the free stream static (po). This
The length of the arrows represent the pressure
difference (p - po) at each point is plotted to give the
difference; the direction of the arrows represent the
distribution. See Figure 7
sense; towards the surface indicates pressure greater
than static, away from the surface indicates less than
static (i.e. a "suction").

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Aerodynamic forces result from the action of these

aerodynamic pressures acting on the areas of the
aerofoil surfaces. It is possibly clearer to understand
the effect of these pressures by studying figure 8. On
this diagram, the pressures have been plotted, using
the chord line as a datum. Note that negative
(suction) pressure has been plotted upwards. The
difference (or area enclosed) between the two curves
is proportional to the overall lifting effect of the
aerofoil.

Figure 8 Aerodynamic Force Pressure Distributions

(For a wing at 100 Angle of Attack)

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8.3.2 Aerofoil & Wing Definitions module, and so some descriptions and definitions of
this shape will be essential.
 Relative Airflow (RAF) - the movement of the air
relative to the aircraft (or aerofoil). (In practice, it
is the aircraft which moves relative to the air, but
in aerodynamic theory and wind - tunnel
experiment, it is the air which is considered to be in
motion).

 Leading Edge - the foremost point on the aerofoil.

 Trailing Edge - the rear-most point on the

aerofoil.

 Chord Line - the straight line joining leading and

trailing edges.
Figure 9 Aerofoil Component Names  Chord Length (C) - the length of the chord line.

Aerofoil is the term used to describe the characteristic  Mean Camber Line - the line drawn through
shape of the cross-section of an aircraft wing and points equidistant from the upper and lower
whose purpose is to generate ‘lift’. Discussion of surfaces. (The camber line is usually a curved line;
aerofoil performance is the main purpose of this

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the greater the curvature, the greater will be the Aspect Ratio (AR) - expressed as:
aerodynamic forces generated).

 Camber - the curvature of the aerofoil above and

below the chord line. For a tapered wing the aspect ration is expressed
as:
 Thickness - the greatest distance between the
upper and lower surfaces. (It is generally between
and way back along the chord line). The
difference between the thickness and chord length  Finess Ratio - the ratio of the maximum thickness
can be expressed as: of the aerofoil section to its chord length.

 Wing Area (S) - the area projected onto a plane

perpendicular to the normal axis.
(Normally expressed as a percentage)

 Stagnation Point - a point on the surface of the

 Angle of Attack () - the angle formed between aerofoil where the RAF has been brought to rest.
the chord-line and relative airflow.
 Wash out - the reduction in the angle of incidence
 Span (b) - the distance from tip to tip, measured spanwise from root to tip
perpendicular to the chord line.
 Wash in - the increase in the angle of incidence
spanwise from root to tip.

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8.3.3 Aerodynamic Resultants
Figure 10 Aerodynamic Resultant Forces
It has been stated that pressure acting on area
produces a force. The force (F) resulting from air in
motion, is termed 'an aerodynamic force'. The
pressure distribution is then replaced by an arrow
representing the resultant force in terms of magnitude
and direction.
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
The line of action of the force determines the centre of
pressure (CP); i.e. that point on the chord line
through which the aerodynamic force can be
considered to act.
8.3.4 Lift & Drag
It is of greater benefit to resolve the force F into 2
components which are defined as:
Lift - the component of aerodynamic force resolved
perpendicular to the RAF.
Drag - the component of force resolved parallel to the
RAF.
This is so that variation of lift and drag (associated
with variation in angle of attack and camber) can be
studied individually. It will be appreciated that the
purpose of the aerofoil is to generate lift so as to
overcome the effect of weight. (Drag should be seen
as an unavoidable obstacle to motion).
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8.3.5 Factors Affecting Forces
The greater the lower pressure on the upper surface
the greater the lift. The suction (p-po) will be greatest
when the static pressure (p) is least and this will occur
when the velocity (V) is greatest.
The aerodynamic force can be expressed as:
So density, velocity and area are all factors that affect
Lift and Drag. (There are a number of other factors
but only two more will be considered at this stage.)
(Note that we have made a statement of
proportionality; it is not an equation just yet).
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8.3.6 Lift & Drag Coefficient
If an aerofoil is placed in a wind tunnel, tests may be
conducted to establish pressure distributions, or to
measure forces. Suppose the aerofoil (area S) is
placed in the tunnel and air (density ) is drawn
across the aerofoil at a constant velocity (V). Then
Lift and Drag forces will be generated. These forces
may be measured on a force - balance rig. Because it
has been stated that forces change as angle of attack
() changes,  will be measured as well.
An equation may be formed:
The coefficient of lift, CL, is used to form the equation
has been deduced from the results of the experiment.
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This equation can also be expressed as:

The same also applies to drag:

Example

Determine the lift and drag of an aircraft flying in

straight and level flight, with a constant velocity of
at an altitude where the air density is
. Given the aircraft has a wing area of
The two other factors, which affect the aerodynamic and for straight and level flight CL = 0.56 and CD =
forces, can now be included. It will be found by 0.0407.
experiment that CL and CD will vary (or change) when
either angle of attack () or aerofoil camber (shape) is Lift can be found using:
changed. , which can be transposed for L.

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Drag can be found using:

, which can be transposed for D.

8.3.7 Angle of Attack

The factors affecting Lift and Drag have just been

outlined. All can be determined by experiment but
changes in the force are generally deduced from the
relationship between CL (or CD) and the angle of Figure 11 Coefficient of Lift Against Angle of Attack
attack. These relationships are best shown Graph
graphically.

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Note how CL increases steadily (and linearly) as the
angle of attack increases, up to a maximum, after
which it decreases rapidly.
Figure 12 Coefficient of Drag against Angle of Attack
Graph
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
Note how CD is a curve that increases steadily, but
that the rate of increase becomes greater.
If the experiment were repeated with aerofoil of
different camber or shape, the general shape of the
graphs would be similar, but the curves would be
displaced vertically and/or horizontally.
A final but important point to consider is this section is
the Lift to Drag ratio.
Lift is what is required - it should be maximised.
Drag is not required - It should be minimised.
So for maximum aerodynamic efficiency, the ratio
should be as great as possible.
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This ratio cannot be deduced directly by experiment,
but CL and CD can be derives as stated, and the ratio
derived by division . This ratio is then plotted
against angle of attack.
Figure 13 Lift/Drag Ratio Against Angle of Attack
Graph
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This graph clearly indicates that the best (maximum)
ratio generally occurs at a relatively small angle of
attack (typically 3º - 5º). Designers and operators
endeavour to operate any aerofoil at an angle of
attack in this range as much as possible.
Finally, we need to consider what happens when
exceeds a certain angle and cause a rapid loss in lift.
This occurrence is called stalling.
Looking at the diagrams, there is an angle of attack
beyond which CL has reduced substantially, CD has
increased markedly and has reduced.
This means that there has been a sudden loss of lift
and a rapid increase in drag. The aerofoil (wing) is
said to have stalled, and is a potentially dangerous
scenario if it occurs in flight.
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8.3.8 Centre of Pressure

The two components, Lift and Drag, have been shown

to vary as Angle of Attack varies. But not only does
the magnitude of the force vary, but the line of action
(and hence the centre of pressure) changes.

As the angle of attack increases, the pressure

distribution changes shape, with proportionately
greater suction generated towards the forward portion
of the wing. This causes a forward movement of the
Cp. This forward movement continues until the CL
values start to reduce. At this point the Cp now
reverses its movement (it moves backwards), as the
stall condition is approached.
So now it can be understood that both force and Cp
vary as  varies.
Figure 14 Aerofoil Centre of Pressure Graph

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8.3.9 Pitching Moment Coefficient Again, we rely on this to be illustrated graphically.

Nose-up is considered a positive pitching moment,
Consider Figure 15, which shows an aerofoil which can nose-down is negative.
be pivoted at either points A or B. The total lifting
force acting on the wing would cause rotation about
the either pivot; anticlockwise or nose down about A
and clockwise or nose up about B.

Figure 15 Aerofoil Coefficient of Moment, CM

Rotation is caused by application of a moment, M,

which itself is dependent on the magnitude of lift, Figure 16 CM against Angle of Attack Graph
multiplied by the distance of the CP from the pivot.
From this, it can be deduced that the strength and
sense of the rotation depends on angle of attack and
position of the pivot.

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Just as before, coefficients were introduced to create 8.3.11 Downwash

the Lift and Drag equations, so a pitching moment
coefficient CM is introduced.
As with CL and CD, it is usual to draw graphs using CM
rather than M.
The flow of air around the aerofoil causes variation in
speeds and pressures that result in the creation of lift.
Lift is the resultant force applied to the airframe,
considered perpendicular to the RAF. From Newton’s
3rd Law, there must be an opposite force applied to
the air. This ‘reaction’ causes deflection of the airflow
as it leaves the trailing-edge, termed ‘downwash’.
(There may well be an ‘upwash’ effect ahead of the
leading-edge).

8.3.10 Aerodynamic Centre

Another interesting feature emerges. There must be

some point lying between A and B (figure 15), such
that if the aerofoil was pivoted at that point, the
pitching moment (coefficient) would be constant
regardless of the angle of attack.

This point is known as the Aerodynamic centre i.e. the

point on the chord-line about which the pitching
moment is constant.

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Chapter 8.4 Drag 8.4.3 Drag Components

The total drag is considered as the sum of the zero-lift

8.4.1 Drag Equation
drag and the lift dependent drag (figure 17). (This
means that some drag is always present, even though
The drag equation so far has been written as: lift may not be generated, and some drag will be
proportional to the lift generated).


8.4.2 Drag Coefficient

It is now appropriate to analyse the drag coefficient CD

in order to more fully understand the factors affecting
total drag, so that designer and maintenance
engineers alike can take whatever steps to minimise
drag, which ultimately will allow operation at higher
speeds or reduce fuel consumption. Both of these are
significant to the economic success of air transport.

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8.4.4 Flow Characteristics

Before considering drag, reconsider streamline flow.

So far, the streamlines have been shown as a series
of parallel or converging / diverging lines showing the
direction of flow at any point. The "layered"
appearance, known as laminar flow and has a
characteristic that unless a change is deliberately
introduced, it will be unchanged from one instant to
another. It is therefore considered as a steady flow.

Although streamlines are in concept imaginary, they

can be artificially created (e.g. using smoke) and then
the observer will notice an extremely important
feature. At some point, the laminar flow will cease
and be replaced by a mixture of both translational and
rotational pattern of flow, whose pattern changes
continuously. This unsteady pattern is termed
turbulent flow.
Figure 17 Components of total drag
The fact that the fluid (air) is now being caused to
rotate and that this is continuously changing implies
that forces are present. This in turn means that
energy is used when turbulence is created. The
airflow is created by the movement of the aircraft

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through the air and this movement comes from the

thrust generated by the engines. Since turbulent air
cause more drag and drag opposes thrust, extra
chemical energy from the aircraft’s fuel is required.
So, we can deduce that fuel is used when turbulence
is created since turbulence creates drag.

8.4.5 Form Drag

The change from laminar to turbulent flow is basically

a function of the viscosity of the fluid. (Theoretically,
a fluid with no viscosity would result in zero drag).
How much turbulence occurs is usually dependent on
the shape or form of the body being considered.
Some shapes produce considerable turbulence; others
minimise it. These shapes are obviously to be
preferred and are often described as "streamlined". Figure 18 Form Drag
Some recognisable shapes are shown below, and a
comparison made of the resulting turbulence. To
allow comparison, it is assumed that the shapes
present an identical cross-section to the airflow i.e.
circular.

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8.4.6 Boundary Layers

Laminar, turbulent and viscosity have just entered our

vocabulary. The region of flow where these have
greatest significance is the boundary layer, so called
because it is the layer between the body and the free-
stream. (It is called free stream because it is
considered virtually free from the effects of viscosity).
The boundary layer, however, exists because of
viscosity. To assist our understanding, imagine a river
flowing between two banks. To an observer, the flow
rate (velocity) will be greater in the centre of the
river. At the bank, the water is very slow - moving,
maybe virtually stationary and maybe forming eddies.
Between the centre and banks, the flow - velocity
reduces. This is comparable to the situation that
exists between the free-stream and the body surface. Figure 19 Boundary Layer
In figure 19, the length of the arrows indicates the
flow velocity at that point. The (parabolic) pattern is
termed the velocity distribution or profile.

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region where the velocity relative to the surface (skin)

8.4.7 Skin Friction varies from zero to 99% of the free-stream.

The profile implies that each layer of fluid molecules is

moving at a different velocity relative to its 8.4.8 Transition Point
neighbours. In turn, this means that a frictional force
is generated in such a direction to oppose this relative
motion. (This is what viscosity creates; it is a
resistance to flow). So throughout the boundary layer,
there is a frictional force, and this layer exists because
of the presence of the (stationary) body and the
interaction between its surface (skin) and the fluid.
Hence, the introduction of the term ‘skin friction’ and Figure 20 Transition Point
its inclusion as a type of drag.
The flow is initially laminar, but changes to turbulence
Skin friction drag depends upon: at the transition point. Comparing the velocity
profiles reveals that the turbulent layer has a greater
 The surface area.
rate of change of velocity near the surface. This will
cause greater friction, which introduces a random
 The viscosity
(unsteady) element into the flow resulting in a greater
 The rate of change of the velocity (shown by the degree of mixing with the free-stream. This thickens
profile). the turbulent layer and introduces greater kinetic
energy. The laminar sub-layer whose presence is
The diagram conveys some idea of the layer thickness important, but detailed study is beyond the scope of
(it is fairly thin!) The layer is considered to be the this module.

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The transition point depends upon:
 Surface condition
 Speed of flow
 Size of object
 Adverse pressure gradient
8.4.9 Reynolds Number
The effect of surface condition, speed of flow and size
of object basically affect a phenomena termed
Reynolds Number (named after the physicist). The
Reynolds number is very significant in the study of
fluid dynamics, particularly when attempting to
'model' full-size situations, but again, a more detailed
study is beyond our requirements.
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
It might, however be useful to express Reynolds
Number as:

.
As Reynolds Number becomes greater, the earlier will
be the transition point.
8.4.10 Adverse Pressure Gradient
The ‘adverse pressure gradient’ refers to the point in
the airflow where the static pressure begins to
increase. In nature, fluid flows from high to low
pressure; it does not flow from low to high. So if the
static pressure now increases (due to the decreasing
camber of the aerofoil), a pressure gradient is created
which starts to impede the flow. Eventually the higher
pressure flow starts to undercut the laminar flow and
which starts to become turbulent. In Figure 21, the low
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pressure flow is shown by the blue arrows and the

higher pressure flow is shown by the red arrows. 8.4.11 Boundary Layer Separation

The overall effect of friction is to reduce the velocity

and energy of the air-flow within the boundary layer.
This reduction is further exacerbated by the formation
of the adverse pressure gradient which is caused by
the camber of the aerofoil. The boundary layer is
brought to rest and separates, forming a turbulent
wake. Beyond the separation point, flow reversal may
occur. When the boundary layer separates and forms
a turbulent wake, much energy has been lost in
creating rotational flow and consequently the static
pressure within this flow. This means that there is
more static pressure acting on the rear of the body,
compared to the front. In turn, this means that a net
(pressure) force acts rearwards (= drag). Hence,
separated, turbulent flow is delayed for as long as
possible. This is achieved by streamlining and
maintaining as smooth a surface as possible and
boundary layer control devices.
Figure 21 Adverse Pressure Gradient & Boundary
Layer Separation Point

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Figure 22 Boundary Layer Separation Point
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
8.4.12 Interference Drag
Experiments show that the total drag of the aircraft
exceeds the sum of the drags resulting from the
component parts. The increase in drag is caused by
the individual flow patterns interacting or "interfering"
with their neighbours. This is generally reduced by
the addition of fairings at the functions of the aircraft
components.
8.4.13 Zero-Lift Drag
In summary, zero-lift drag is a combination of form
and skin-friction drag, with the probable addition of
interference drag. It is related to the separation of
the airflow into a turbulent wake. This will be linked
to the separation point, itself a function of Reynolds
Number. Increased velocity leads to increased
Reynolds Number and earlier separation. In fact,
zero-lift drag is directly proportional to speed2.
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8.4.14 Induced Drag

Lift dependent drag is commonly referred to a

‘Induced drag’, although it is sometimes called ‘Vortex
drag’.

The presence of regions of different pressures on the

upper and lower wing surfaces will cause airflow to
develop from the high to low pressure. This results in
a spanwise airflow forming in addition to the
chordwise airflow. On the lower surface it flows from
the wing root to the wing tip and on the upper surface
it flows from the wing tip to the wing root.

Figure 23 Upper & Lower Spanwise Airflows

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At the tip, the airflow will rotate as shown in

Figure 24 Induced Drag Trailing Vortex

Figure 23 Upper & Lower Spanwise Airflows

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. The greater the pressure differences, the greater
the rotational force. The flow rotation is sometimes
weak and only forms eddy currents. However, as the
rotation becomes stronger, vortices are formed which
have high levels of kinetic energy. The core of the
vortex is a slower moving zone of lower pressure. At
the trailing edge of a wing the chordwise airflow
meets the spanwise airflow and the vortices are
created, known as the vortex sheet. The vortices tend
to drift towards the wing tip where they combine.
The net effect of these vortices is to induce a
downwash additional to that resulting from lift
generation. The creation of the vortices leads to the
creation of a downwash which in turn implies an
expenditure of energy. Ultimately there is an increase
in (induced) drag.
Obviously the greater the weight, the more lift
required result in a greater pressure difference. The
net affect of this is more downwash and stronger
vortices are created.
A high aspect ratio means that the strength of the
spanwise flow component is reduced. Hence, the
vortex strengths are reduced.
The vortices tend to combine towards the wing tip and
so an ideal wing-planform will create a lift distribution
that minimises these vortices. This ideal is the so-
called elliptical distribution or loading, which was
attempted on the Spitfire by using an elliptical wing.
In practice, the ‘ideal’ is impossible to achieve totally.

The factors affecting induced drag are:

 Lift (weight)
 Aspect ratio
 Wing planform
 Speed

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Figure 25 ‘Ideal’ Wing Elliptical Pressure Distribution

Figure 26 Various Wing Shapes Elliptical Pressure

Distribution

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On modern day commercial aircraft, control of wing

tip vortices is achieved by the use of wing tip devices
such as ‘winglets’. These devices increase the lift
generated at the wingtip by smoothing the airflow
across the upper wing near the tip and this reduces
the lift-induced drag caused by wingtip vortices. The
net result of this is an improvement in the wings lift-
to-drag ratio. These devices work well at higher
cruising speeds but at lower speeds the reduction in
induced drag is offset by a higher parasitic drag value.

Figure 27 Induced Drag Vortex Reduction

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Figure 28 A340 Vortex Reduction

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The factors all influence the equation for induced drag

coefficient.

(k = a coefficient introduced to take account of the

deviation from the ideal elliptical lift distribution.)
It can be deduced that induced drag is directly
proportional to weight2, and inversely proportional to
the speed2.

Figure 29 Induced Drag Vs speed Graph

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8.4.15 Total Drag

The effect of speed on zero lift and induced drag can

be shown on a single graph, and clearly the total drag
is the sum of the two.

The total drag is at minimum when the two other

curves intersect. At this point, Zero Lift Drag =
Induced Drag. This is the known as the ‘minimum
drag speed’.

Figure 30 Total Drag Curve Graph

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8.4.16 Drag Polar

The CD can be plotted as a function of CL to give a

curve known as the Drag Polar.

Figure 31 compares two different aerofoil profiles,

curve (a) is a conventional wing profile, curve (b) is a
low-drag wing profile. The low drag profile has a
significant reduction in profile-drag between CL values
of 0.25 to 0.5. This shape is commonly termed as the
drag ‘bucket’ and is a characteristic of an aerofoil
designed to maintain laminar flow. For an aircraft to
operate at its most efficient cruising performance, it
must be operated with in these parameters.

Figure 31 Drag Polar Comparison Graph

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Chapter 8.5 Forces in Flight

The Lift and Drag forces resulting from the passage of

air past a body have now been studied in isolation. It
is now appropriate to consider them acting on an
aircraft in flight.

8.5.1 Four Forces

The first case of an aircraft in flight is when the

aircraft is considered to be straight and level (i.e. no
change in heading or altitude), and at constant speed.
If an aircraft has steady velocity and is not changing
altitude, the four forces are in equilibrium.
Figure 32 Drag Curve Graph

If the equilibrium of the forces is upset, e.g. Thrust

(T) is increased; the aircraft will accelerate (until the
increase in drag balances the increases in thrust). If
the Lift is increased, the aircraft will change direction
or altitude.

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8.5.2 Straight & Level Flight
The centre of pressure moves as the angle of attack
changes, and the centre of gravity depends on the
weight distribution. This means that although L = W,
their different lines of action means that they create a
couple. The different thrust and drag lines are also
likely to create a couple. Ideally, the two couples
should cancel each other.
What is desirable is that a reduction in the Lift /
weight couple should lead to a nose-down pitching
tendency - this requires that the centre of gravity
should be forward of the centre of pressure. (This
arrangement will also improve an aircraft’s
longitudinal stability).

Figure 33 Four Forces Couples Figure 34 Four Forces Couples

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Given that the two couples are most likely unequal, a

further moment must be created to restore
equilibrium. This is provided by the tailplane.
Because the distance from the centre of gravity is
comparatively large, the size (area) of the tailplane
can be small. With a conventional tailplane, it is usual
to find that it is designed with a negative angle of
attack which results in a downward force.

8.5.3 Forces in Climb

When analysing forces in the climb, it is first

necessary to draw the forces according to the previous
definitions.

Figure 35 Aircraft Climbing

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Again, it is assumed that the forces are in equilibrium. 8.5.4 Forces in Glide & Descent
The analysis then begins by resolving the weight force
into two components, perpendicular and parallel to the The arrangement of forces in the descent (or glide) is
flight path. The forces in these directions can now be similar but not identical to the climb. Weight is
equated. resolved into two components.

Two interesting and important facts emerge. If the

aircraft is climbing, and therefore lift is In a glide, T is assumed to be zero, and W sin = D.
less than weight. Similarly, and thrust is The weight component now balances drag 'gap'.
greater than drag. Potential energy is now traded in order to maintain
kinetic energy or flying speed.
We can therefore deduce that aircraft climb due to
increased thrust, and not increased lift. As an aircraft
gains height it also gains potential energy. The
energy input is through the increase in thrust, itself
resulting from the 'burning' or expenditure of fuel
(chemical energy).

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Example

An aircraft weighing 30,000N descends with engines

off at a glide angle of 30. Find the drag and lift
components that act during the glide.
(1)

Drag = 1570N
(2)

Lift = 29,959N

Figure 36 Aircraft Descending/Gliding

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Example rate (speed). Hence, rate of climb implies lifting a

An aircraft weighing 20kN has a thrust, T = 900N and
a drag, D = 2200 N, When in a constant speed dive.
What is the aircraft’s dive angle?
(1)
Dive angle = 3.730
weight (force); i.e. doing work. But rate of doing
work is power, power is force x speed.
We have seen that when work is done, energy is
converted. When climbing, extra fuel (energy) is
expended, potential energy is gained. But the fuel
energy is expended in two areas; in maintaining speed
whilst overcoming drag, and in increasing altitude.
But how much is used in each area?

In both climb and descent, the greatest angle of

climb, or minimum angle of glide (giving greatest
gliding range) is when the aircraft is flown at
minimum drag speed, coincident with best L/D ratio.

8.5.5 Rate of Climb - Performance

Climb performance, or rate of climb (ROC), is

theoretically a little more complicated. In the
previous discussion, climb performance was
considered in terms of angle of climb and by equating Figure 37 Rate of Climb Performance Triangles
forces. Rates of climb (usually expressed in feet per
minute) involve lifting the aircraft (weight) at a certain

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The left-hand diagram shows that:
The right-hand diagram restates that:
Combining these two equations:
TV = Power Available from engine/s
DV = Power Required by airframe
TV - DV = Excess of power available to increase
the aircraft’s altitude.
It should be noted that the kinematics of bodies in
motion requires that True Air Speed (TAS) is
employed.
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
8.6.1 Power Curves
Another graph becomes of fundamental importance to
analysis of climb performance; the plot of power
required and power available, against TAS.
Clearly, the excess of power available for climbing is
equal to the vertical distance (difference) between the
power available and power required curves. Study of
the diagram shows that this difference is dependent
on the aircraft speed. So to achieve the best rate of
climb, a particular speed must be selected, i.e. the
best climb speed.
To the maintenance engineer, Rate of Climb
represents a useful measure of aircraft performance
(and therefore of aircraft condition). Reduced thrust
or increased drag will both have the effect of reducing
the vertical distance which represents excess power.
If an aircraft on test fails to achieve the scheduled
ROC, then an investigation as to the possible cause
should be made.
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8.6.2 Effect of Altitude on Rate of Climb

Of interest, but of less importance, to the

maintenance engineer is the effect of altitude on ROC.
The curves move upward and to the right, but the net
effect is that the ROC is reduced.

Chapter 8.7 Forces & Manoeuvre

8.7.1 Centripetal Force

The word "manoeuvres" is introduced here so as to

imply a change of direction or flight path. (The speed
may also change but this will not be considered here.
A change in direction must imply a change in velocity
and by definition, an acceleration must be present. If
accelerations are present, a resultant force must exist
to cause it. Change of direction therefore requires a
resultant force, termed the centripetal force (CPF);
the force that must be present in order for a body to
Figure 38 Power Curve Graphs
change its direction of motion. However, the only
forces available to act on an aircraft are aerodynamic
forces and changes to these forces are dependent on
changes in CL (itself dependent on  and shape

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changes). Fundamentally, therefore, a manoeuvre

will depend on the changes in CL applied to the main
aerofoil (wing). Manoeuvres can be accomplished in
the vertical (looping) plane or in the horizontal
(banking) plane, (combinations of manoeuvres are not
considered in this module).

8.7.2 Looping

Consider an aircraft diving towards the ground. At

some point, the pilot wishes to stop the descent and
position the aircraft to climb away from the ground.

Figure 39 Aircraft Looping

At A, he pulls back on the control column, which

raises the elevator so as to increase the download on
the tailplane. The resulting moment pitches the
aircraft so as to increase the angle of attack of the
mainplane, this increases CL. The effect is to increase
the mainplane Lift. The excess of lift, over and above
that required to overcome weight, provides a CPF and
this causes the aircraft to follow a curved flight path

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towards B. At B, the aircraft is now in the desired

attitude, back pressure on the column is reduced,
mainplane angle of attack and CL regain their original
values and the flight path again follows a straight line.
Throughout the A to B portion of the flight-path, the
increased lift puts additional force or stress on the
airframe and occupants. They experience the
opposite and equal reaction to the CPF called the
centrifugal force (CFF). The excess of force is often
termed the 'g' force.
Figure 40 Aircraft Load Factor
If the flight path is as shown, the lift force and CPF is
8.7.3 Load factor considered as negative and hence the Load Factor is
also negative.
The 'g' force can be considered as a comparison An aircraft is designed to be operated with in 'g' and
between the lift generated and the weight of the negative ‘g’ limits. Exceeding these limits will result in
aircraft. This is often termed the Load Factor. over-stressing the airframe and fitted components.
The more manoeuvrable an aircraft is designed to be,
the higher the ‘g’ limits and airframe strength.

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8.7.4 Level Turns

A similar situation is found in the horizontal plane

when the aircraft changes heading. The pilot must
bank the aircraft so that the horizontal component of
lift provides a CPF. But to maintain the vertical
component equal and opposite to weight, he must
apply back-pressure on the control column in order to
increase lift. Hence, the load factor increases beyond
1 in a horizontal turn as well.

Figure 41 Aircraft Banking

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It is worth recalling that CPF is equal to: Example

An aircraft enters a correctly banked turn of a radius
1800m at a velocity of 200 ms-1. If the aircraft has a
mass of 80,000kg, determine:
(1) The centripetal force acting towards the
centre of the turn.
V = speed, r = radius of turn, w = weight and g (2) The angle of bank.
= acceleration due to gravity.
It can be proved that:
(1)

Centripetal Force = 1.777MN

Where = angle of bank.

So increased weight, high speed and small radius of (2)

turn all impose high load factors on aircraft. Since we do not have lift, we need to use the following
It should also be appreciated that increased angle of relationship:
attack leads to an increased drag coefficient and
increased drag. Therefore, manoeuvres involving high
'g' forces require considerable increase in thrust. Angle of Bank = 66.20

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8.7.5 Aerofoil Stalling A stall occurs because the separation point has now
moved so far forward that the bulk of the airflow over
Recalling the graphs shown in Figure 11 & Figure 12 the upper surface has separated or become detached.
variation of CL and CD which accompany changes in A pilot is introduced to the stall and stalling speed, at
angle of attack, it was stated that the wing stalled an early stage of his training. He learns to recognise
beyond a certain angle. This is known as the ‘stalling and recover from it, and is encouraged to avoid it!
angle’.
If an aircraft is flown straight and level and the thrust
is reduced, the aircraft will reduce speed (drag is
exceeding thrust). The pilot can maintain lift, by
raising the nose to achieve a higher CL. At some point
(speed), however, the aircraft will reach the stalling
angle, the CL reduces and the aircraft stalls, suddenly
losing altitude.

To maintain equality, as V2 decreases, CL must

increase. When CL reaches its maximum value, V
reaches its minimum value of flying speed. This is
known as the aircraft’s ‘basic stall speed’.

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8.7.6 Stalling Speed

It is important to appreciate that the stall is primarily

dependent on angle of attack and the aircraft’s speed.
An aircraft can stall at any speed, if the critical stalling
angle is exceeded. This may happen during a
manoeuvre when the maximum CL is exceeded. The
new (higher) stalling speed can be deduced from;

Figure 42 Aircraft Stall

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8.7.6 Wing Wash Out & Wash In
To prevent a stall from occurring across the whole
wing section at the same time, the wing can be
designed to ‘wash out or wash in’.
Wash out is where the wing’s angle of incidence is
greater at the wing root than at the wing tip. This
arrangement provides for a progressive stall along the
wing from the root to the tip and ensures the
outboard part of the wing stalls last.
Wash in is when the angle incidence is greater at the
wing tip than the wing root. The wing tip will stall first
before the root.
8.7.7 Effect of Weight / Load Factor
Increase in weight will require increase in lift and this
affects the basic stall speed.
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
The stall speeds at higher load factors, the positive
and negative 'g' limits and the maximum (diving)
speed form the boundaries of the aircraft's flight
envelope.
8.7.8 Aerofoil Contamination
Aerofoil performance is fundamentally influenced by
shape and surface characteristics, which determine
flow-pattern and degree of separation. Any surface
irregularity can cause a marked change, which may
include changes in stall behaviour. Such irregularities
may result from contamination by ice and snow
accretion. Several accidents have been the result,
and for this reason, careful inspection and rectification
is essential before aircraft operation in adverse
weather conditions.
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8.7.9 Flight Envelopes

An aircraft’s flight envelope encloses an area in which

the aircraft may operate, without stalling, exceeding
'g' limits, or exceeding speed limits.

Figure 43 Aerofoil Icing

Figure 45 Effect of Wing Icing

Figure 44 Effect of Wing Icing

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Chapter 8.8 Stability
8.8.1 Basic Concept & Definition
The aircraft has now been considered in both the
steady flight path condition and during changes of
direction. It is now necessary to investigate how the
designer includes features in order to maintain or
encourage either condition.
For example, it will be presumed that a steady flight
path is to be maintained. If the aircraft deviates from
this flight path, the aircraft should be able to regain
steady flight, without control input from the pilot.
In any dynamic system, the ability of the system to
regain the desired condition is termed ‘stability’.
A pendulum is a classic example. The weight normally
hangs vertically. If it is displaced and released, it
immediately moves back towards the original position.
(In fact, of course, it swings past that position - the
restoring force of gravity reverses its effect and it
swings back again. It will swing to and fro (oscillate)
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
many times before the oscillations (displacements) die
away). Such a system is a stable system.
But a system can be unstable. Consider the 'bowl and
ball' analogy.
8.8.2 Static Stability
If the ball is displaced and released, its initial reaction
will describe its stability.
In the first diagram, it will move back towards the
initial position, it has positive stability.
In the second diagram, it will not move, it remains in
the new position and is described as having neutral
stability.
In the third diagram, it will move further away from
the initial position, it has negative stability, or is
unstable.
Note that the above is the initial part of considering
stability, the immediate reaction or tendency to
movement following initial displacement is used to
determine the static stability of the system.
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The first diagram is unusual and represents 'dead-

beat' stability.

If the amplitude decreases, the aircraft is dynamically

stable. If it increases it becomes dynamically
unstable.

Figure 46 Static Stability When the amplitude remains constant, it is neutrally

stable in the dynamic sense.
Most systems are designed to be statically and
8.8.3 Aircraft Dynamic Stability dynamically stable.

So, following initial displacements the system may

oscillate about the neutral position if the system is
statically stable. The manner of the oscillations
(meaning the change in amplitude) is used to describe
the system dynamic stability.

Figure 47 considers the oscillation of an aircraft in the

pitching plane, above and below the desired horizontal
flight path. The oscillation resembles a sinusoidal
function. In theory, such oscillations continue
indefinitely. In practice, the oscillations steadily
reduce and die away.

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8.8.4 Aircraft Stability

Considering the stability of an aircraft, we need to

consider the neutral or zero displacement positions.
Where the oscillations are related to angular
displacements they can occur about any of the three
axes:

 Rotation about the lateral axis is termed ‘pitch’ -

longitudinal stability
 Rotation about the longitudinal axis is termed
‘roll’ – lateral stability
 Rotation about the normal axis is termed ‘yaw’ –
directional stability.

Figure 47 Aircraft Dynamic Stability A stable aircraft design will dampen oscillations that
may occur about any axis, following some initial
probably random displacement.

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8.8.5 Design Features

If an aircraft is to be stable, it is obvious from the

previous paragraphs that if the aircraft has been
momentarily displaced relative to its flight path, there
must be a restoring force or moment to return it to its
original altitude. Recalling that a moment is the
product of force and distance, we then deduce that an
aerodynamic force must be generated at some
distance from the aircraft's centre of gravity (about
which the aircraft has been displaced / rotated).

The easiest displacement to consider is yaw about the

normal axis.

Figure 48 Three Axis

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Figure 49 shows an angle of attack has been created

between the fin (vertical stabiliser) and the relative
airflow. An aerodynamic force / moment will be
created that restores the aircraft towards its original
heading / direction. As the displacement reduces, the
moment reduces and the aircraft will again 'head'
towards the relative airflow.

The fin or vertical stabiliser gives an aircraft

directional stability about the normal axis.

The manner in which the Tailplane acts is similar in

principle but somewhat more complicated in detail.
Figure 50 below shows the aircraft displaced in the
pitching plane. Now two aerofoils are involved, the
mainplane and tailplane.
Figure 49 Displacement About The Normal Axis
The mainplane angle of attack increases, this creates
more lift and a forward movement of the centre of
pressure. This creates an upsetting moment tending
to destabilise the aircraft.

The tailplane also generates lift so as to create a

restoring moment. For the aircraft to be statically
stable, clearly the restoring moment must be greater

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than the upsetting moment. By comparing these

moments, it becomes clear how important the position
of the centre of gravity becomes.

As the centre of gravity moves aft, the aircraft

becomes less stable, due to the changing distances
and the effect on the moments.

As the centre of gravity moves forward, the aircraft

becomes more stable.

An aircraft’s tailplane gives longitudinal stability about INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

its lateral axis.

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Figure 50 Displacement About The Lateral Axis

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Lateral stability considers aircraft displacement around
the longitudinal axis.
Figure 51 Displacement About The Longitudinal Axis
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
If an aircraft has rolls to the right or left, a restoring
moment to raise that wing is required. Before this
occurs the aircraft will sideslip towards the ‘dropped’
wing because of the imbalance of two forces; lift and
weight. It is the change in aerodynamic forces
resulting from this side-slipping motion which will
create the restoring moment.
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The most common design feature employed to

promote lateral stability is the introduction of dihedral.

Figure 53 Keel Area Affect

Figure 52 Dihedral Wing Angle
Figure 53 shows the effect of the 'keel' area above the
centre of gravity. Providing there is a greater surface
area above the C.G., the sideslip relative air flow will
Dihedral results in the 'dropped' wing meeting the
provide a restoring moment.
sideslip relative airflow at a greater angle of attack
than the upper wing which in turn produces more lift.
The negative affect of this is that if the keel-area is
The net effect is to create a restoring moment which
mostly aft of the centre of gravity, then the aircraft
tends to roll the aircraft back towards straight and
will yaw towards the dropped wing.
level flight.
In later studies, it will be appreciated that designers
employ swept wings to allow flight at high speeds.

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But an added bonus is that swept wings encourage
lateral stability.
Figure 54 Sweep Back Wings
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
In Figure 54 the first aircraft is flying straight and
level. The relative airflow meets both left and right
leading edges at the same angle. The RAF has two
components, one normal (Vn) and one parallel to the
leading edges.
The second aircraft has dropped the right wing and is
side-slipping. Due to the angle of sweep-back, the
RAF now meets the leading-edges at different angles,
and now the two components are different for each
wing. It will be recalled that it is the chordwise (or
Vn) component that creates lift and reference to the
diagram shows that greater chordwise component
occurring over the dropped wing will generate more
lift. This creates a rolling moment that restores the
aircraft to (straight) and level flight.
Another feature which results in enhanced lateral
stability is that of a high (mounted) wing.
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Figure 55 High Wing Mounted Aircraft
The designer has probably employed a high-wing
because of the intended role for the aircraft but with
the centre of pressure above the centre of gravity,
there is an inherent 'pendulum' effect causing the
aircraft to return to straight and level flight.
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
Several design features have been considered which
result in lateral stability. But an aircraft that is very
stable will be unresponsive to control movements.
Stability requirements have to complement control
requirements. An aircraft that has excessive stability
is as undesirable as one that lacks stability. The right
'balance' between stability and control is often
dictated by the intended role of the aircraft. An
aircraft that possessed all the features described
would probably be too stable. So a swept-wing, high-
wing aircraft might incorporate anhedral (the opposite
to dihedral) in order to reduce the degree of stability.
The above paragraphs have analysed features which
create a moment so as to restore the aircraft towards
its undisturbed or original position. They contribute
static stability. Dynamic stability is the manner in
which the aircraft moves or oscillates towards / about
the neutral position.
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8.8.5 Control

The previous section has considered stability, where

design features have been included in order to
maintain or regain a desired flight path.

If the aircraft is to be manoeuvred, (i.e. the flight path

is to be changed) it will be necessary to de-stabilise
the aircraft. So it appears that stability and
manoeuvrability are conflicting requirements.
Increasing one characteristic decreases the other.

To de-stabilise the aircraft, aerodynamic forces must

be created for as long as is necessary to cause a
rotation about one or more of the axes. These forces
are created simply by modifying the shape and angle
of attack of the appropriate aerofoil. This is done
generally by hinging the trailing-edge, thus allowing it
to respond to control inputs from the pilot or Figure 56 Aerofoil Shape Modification
autopilot.

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Figure 57 Aircraft Basic Control Surfaces
Elevators are hinged to the tailplane and cause the
aircraft to pitch, up or down. (It should be clear that
the control surface movement will create a force in the
opposite direction).
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
The Rudder is hinged to the fin and causes the aircraft
to yaw, left or right.
Ailerons are hinged to the out-board trailing edge of
the mainplane. They must move so as to create a
difference in the forces on the left and right wings. In
so doing, they cause the aircraft to Roll. They must,
therefore, move in opposite directions, one goes up,
the other goes down.
A problem that arises with the operation of the
ailerons is that of adverse yaw. If the pilot wishes to
make a change of heading the aircraft first bank or roll
the aircraft towards the "inside" of the turn. The
aircraft will then follow a curved path, yawing as it
does so in the same direction as the turn. However,
the rising upward wing in generating more lift also
generates more induced drag than the descending
wing. This unbalance in the drag forces results in a
moment which causes a rotation (yaw) in the opposite
direction intended direction, hence, it is termed
‘adverse yaw’.
It can be alleviated by the use of rudder, but subtle
aerodynamic features can produce the same effect.
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8.8.6 Control about the 3 Axes
To the maintenance engineer, the effect of the
controls is very simple - as movement of the control
column produces a control-surface movement which
creates a force which causes a rotation about one of
the three axes. In practice, and from the pilot’s
viewpoint, it is less simple as there is usually some
cross-coupling response. This is sometimes termed as
the secondary effect of control, meaning that
movement of the control-column produces the desired
primary effect, but may be accompanied by a
secondary effect, involving rotation about another
axis.
Active Stability is when the equilibrium of an aircraft is
disturbed, the flight controls are activated so as to
develop forces or moments tending to restore the
original condition. This type of stability is controlled
by computers as part of an autopilot system.
EASA Module 8 – Basic Aerodynamics
8.8.7 Lift Augmentation
One of the greatest attractions of air transport is its
relatively high speed and consequent ability to travel
great distances in minimum time. This is important to
operator and passenger alike. This has resulted in the
development of aerofoils which have low drag but also
low lift coefficient. (This means that the lift is derived
largely as a result of the V2 term, rather than CL).
This means that as the aircraft slows down, the pilot
tries to compensate for the reducing V2 term, by
increasing the CL term towards a maximum. But
there is a limit to this CL maximum (i.e. the stalling
speed angle) and so the stalling speed will be
relatively high for a modern aerofoil. This has a
profound disadvantage as far as airfield performance
is concerned, as it means that take-off and landing
distances are lengthened considerably.
What is needed is the ability to change the shape of
the aerofoil giving higher CL values and/or the ability
to delay boundary layer separation. These are the
features of Lift Augmentation.
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The devices which are commonly incorporated in order are shown in the diagram. Boundary Layer Control in
to increase CL are flaps, slats and slots and systems where high-energy air is bled from a source (e.g. the
which allow some control of the boundary-layer engine) and added to the boundary layer.
behaviour.

Flaps are used change the shape of the wing. They

generally consist of a hinged trailing-edge to the
mainplane, extending from just inboard of the
ailerons, to the wing-root. They range from the
simple plain flap to the multi-section Fowler flap,
which moves rearwards at the same time as hinging
downwards. (Hence, the area increases as well as the
CL value). The different types and their individual
characteristics are shown in a later diagram.

In order to delay separation which is a feature of high

angles of attack, it is usual to modify the leading-edge
in order to present the wing at a more favourable
angle. This can be achieved by leading-edge flaps or
by slats and maybe slots. The airflow does not
encounter such a strong adverse pressure gradient,
and so separation is delayed. The addition of a slot
allows air from beneath the aerofoil to accelerate into Figure 58 CL against Angle of Attack
the airflow above the aerofoil thus adding to its
energy, so delaying separation. Again, characteristics

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The above characteristics of these devices are shown Effect on:-

on the diagram on the following page, with CL plotted
against angle of attack. Flap Setting Lift Drag Lift /
Coefficient Coefficient drag
8.8.8 Use of High Lift Devices Up (cruise) - - Maxim
um
A modern airliner may have several different flap-
settings, often designated by a setting in degrees e.g. Intermediate Large Small Decrea
10º, 22º, 27º and 30º which will be selected at (t/o) Increase Increase se
different stages during the flight. These setting are
essentially related to particular aircraft types, and it is (e.g. 10 and
more appropriate to consider the settings as simply 22)
Up (for the Cruise), Intermediate (for Take-off and
climb) and Full (for Landing). This is because use of Full (landing) Small Large Large
the flaps increases lift and drag, but in varying Increase Increase Decrea
amounts, as shown in Figure 59. (e.g. 27 and
se
30)

Figure 59 High Lift Device Effect Table

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8.8.9 Table of Flaps, Slots & Slats Increase

camber and
wing area.
Increase 90% 13
Much drag.
Of Max.lift Nose-down
High-Lift Devices Remarks Zap Flap
Maximum Angle pitching
lift moment.
Control of
boundary layer.
Effects of all
Increase
high-lift devices
65% 16 camber.
-- 15 depend on
Stalling
shape of basic
Basic Aerofoil delayed. Not
aerofoil. Slotted Flap so much drag.
Increase Same as single-
camber. Much slotted flap only
more drag more so.
50% 12 when fully 70% 18
Treble slots
lowered. Nose- sometimes
down pitching Double-slotted Flap used.
Plain or Camber Flap moment.
Increase
Increase camber and
camber. Even wing area.
more drag than 90% 15 Best flaps for
60% 14 plain flap. lift.
Nose-down Complicated
pitching mechanism.
Split Flap Fowler Flap
moment. Nose-down
pitching
moment.
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Same as Fowler Controls

flap only more boundary layer.
so. Increases
100% 20 camber and
Treble slots 60% 22
sometimes area. Greater
Double-Slotted Flower
used. angles of
Flap
attack. Nose-
Nose-flap Movable Slat up pitching
hinging about moment.
leading edge. More control of
50% 20 Reduces lift at boundary layer.
small Increased
deflections. 75% 25 camber and
Krueger Flap Nose-up area. Pitching
pitching moment can be
Controls
moment. Slat and Slotted Flap neutralised.
boundary layer.
40% 20 Slight extra
drag at high Complicated
Slotted Wing speeds. mechanisms.
The best
Controls
boundary layer. combination for
Increases 120% 28 lift; treble slots
50% 20 may be used.
camber and
area. Nose-up Pitching
pitching moment can be
Fixed Slat Slat and Double- neutralised.
moment.
Slotted Fowler Flap

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Effect depends
very much on
80% 16
details of
Blown Flap arrangement.

Depends even
more on angle
60% ?
and velocity of
jet.
Jet Flap

END OF MODULE 8

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