Chapter 13

Rolling of Metals

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Learning Outcomes
Expected learning from this chapter are:
1. Define terminologies such as rolling, plates and
sheets, bloom and billets etc
2. Describe flat rolling process
3. Analyse flat rolling process such as by determining
draft, roll force, torque and power, among others
4. Describe flat rolling practices, characteristics and
defect associated with rolled metals
5. Compare and contrast types of rolling processes and
mills

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 13.1 Introduction
Metal forming processes
Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is
deformed plastically to take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for
such deformation are called die, punch etc. depending on the type of process.

Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of the workpiece material

is required.

Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming

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 13.1 Introduction
Classification of basic sheet forming processes

Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting operations
performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils. The surface area-to-volume ratio of the
starting metal is relatively high. Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the
sheets.
Bending: Sheet material is strained by punch to give a bend shape (angle shape)
usually in a straight axis.
Deep (or cup) drawing: Forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape
like a cup, is performed by stretching the metal in some regions. A blank-holder is used
to clamp the blank on the die, while the punch pushes into the sheet metal. The sheet is
drawn into the die hole taking the shape of the cavity.
Shearing: This involves cutting of sheets by shearing action.
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 13.1 Introduction
Temperature at which operations are carried out:

Cold working:
Generally done at room temperature or slightly above RT.

Advantages compared to hot forming:

(1) closer tolerances can be achieved; (2) good surface
finish; (3) because of strain hardening, higher strength and
hardness is seen in part; (4) grain flow during deformation
provides the opportunity for desirable directional properties;
(5) since no heating of the work is involved, furnace, fuel,
electricity costs are minimized, (6) Machining requirements
are minimum resulting in possibility of near net shaped
forming.

Disadvantages: (1) higher forces and power are required; (2) strain hardening of the
work metal limit the amount of forming that can be done, (3) sometimes cold forming-
annealing-cold forming cycle should be followed, (4) the work piece is not ductile enough to
be cold worked.

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 13.1 Introduction
Temperature at which operations are carried out:

Hot working:
Involves deformation above recrystallization
temperature, between 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.

Advantages: (1) significant plastic deformation can be

given to the sample, (2) significant change in workpiece
shape, (3) lower forces are required, (4) materials with
premature failure can be hot formed, (5) absence of
strengthening due to work hardening.

Disadvantages: (1) shorter tool life, (2) poor surface finish, (3) lower dimensional
accuracy, (4) sample surface oxidation

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 13.1 Introduction
Hot rolling

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 13.1 Introduction
• Rolling is the process of
reducing thickness or
changing the cross-section
of a long workpiece by
compressive forces applied
through a set of rolls
• Not just for metals Casting
• Used to enhance
plastics, powder metals,
ceramic slurry, and hot
glass

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 13.1 Introduction
• Rolling is a metal forming process in which the thickness of the work is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two rolls rotating in opposite
direction. Flat rolling is shown in figure. Similarly shape rolling is also possible
like a square cross section is formed into a shape such as an I-beam, L-beam.

Flat rolling process

Important terminologies:
Bloom: It has a square cross section 150 mm x 150 mm or more.

Slab: It is rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a rectangular cross section of
250 mm width or more and thickness 40 mm or more.

Billet: It is rolled from a bloom and is square in cross-section with dimensions 40

mm on a side or more. 9
13.1 Introduction

https://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/metal_rolling.html

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 13.1 Introduction

• Blooms are rolled into structural shapes like rails for railroad tracks.
• Billets are rolled into bars, rods. They become raw materials for machining,
wire drawing, forging, extrusion etc.
• Slabs are rolled into plates, sheets, and strips. Hot rolled plates are generally
used in shipbuilding, bridges, boilers, welded structures for various heavy
machines, and many other products.

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 13.2 Flat rolling process
• The plates and sheets are further reduced in thickness by cold rolling to
strengthen the metal and permits a tighter tolerance on thickness.

• Important advantage is that the surface of the cold-rolled sheet does

not contain scales and generally superior to the corresponding hot rolled
product.

• Later the cold-rolled sheets are used for stampings, exterior panels, and
other parts used in automobile, aerospace and house hold appliance
industries.

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 13.2 Flat rolling process

• Roll gap, L
• Where reduction occurs
• Relative sliding
• To the right of the no-slip point, material moves faster than the roll
• To the left of the no-slip point, material moves slower than the roll
• Draft
• Difference between the initial and final strip thicknesses ℎ0 − ℎ𝑓
• This difference is called the draft, 𝐝 = 𝒉𝟎 − 𝒉𝒇
𝒅
• Reduction r is defined as 𝐫 =
𝒉𝟎

Frictional Forces
• Required to move workpiece
• Must be overcome, increasing rolling forces and power requirements 13
13.2 Flat rolling process

• Tandem rolling is commonly used in the industry

• Final velocity at one process step will be the input velocity of

the subsequent step

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 13.2 Flat rolling process

• During rolling, the workpiece width increases which is termed as spreading. It

will be large for when width to thickness ratio is low and low friction coefficient.

• Assuming mass is conserved, we can derive the following:

𝒉𝟎 𝒘𝟎 𝒍𝟎 = 𝒉𝒇 𝒘𝒇 𝒍𝒇

• For a particular time duration ∆𝑡:

𝑙 𝑙𝑓
ℎ0 𝑤0 ∆𝑡0 = ℎ𝑓 𝑤𝑓 ∆𝑡

→ 𝒉𝟎 𝒘𝟎 𝒗𝟎 = 𝒉𝒇 𝒘𝒇 𝒗𝒇 15
 13.2 Flat rolling process
• In strip rolling, the width will not change much after
rolling.

• From the previous equation, it is observed that the

exit velocity 𝑣𝑓 is greater than entry velocity 𝑣0 .

• The rolls contact the rolling sheet along an arc defined

by angle 𝜃. Each roll has radius 𝑅, and it has a surface
velocity 𝑣𝑟 where 𝑣𝑜 < 𝑣𝑟 < 𝑣𝑓 .

• However, there is one point or plane along the contact arc where workpiece
velocity equals roll velocity. This is called the no-slip point, or neutral point.

• On either side of the neutral point, slipping and friction occur between roll and
sheet. The amount of slip between the rolls and the sheet can be quantified by
forward slip, 𝑆 given by:
𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒓
𝑺=
𝒗𝒓

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 13.2 Flat rolling process
• The true strain 𝜀 during rolling is given by:

𝒉𝟎
𝜺 = 𝒍𝒏
𝒉𝒇
• From the above expression, the flow stress for the
rolling process is given by:
𝑲𝜺𝒏
𝒀𝒇 = 𝟏+𝒏

• On the entry side of the neutral point, friction force is in one direction, and on
the other side it is in the opposite direction, i.e., the friction force acts towards
the neutral point. But the two forces are unequal.

• The friction force on the entry side is greater, so that the net force pulls the sheet
through the rolls. Otherwise, rolling would not be possible.

• The maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in flat rolling is given by:

𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝟐 𝑹
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 13.2 Flat rolling process
• The friction coefficient in rolling depends on
lubrication, work material, and working temperature.

• In cold and hot rolling, friction coefficient is 0.1 and

0.4, respectively.

• Hot rolling is characterized by sticking friction condition, in which the hot work
surface adheres to the rolls over the contact region. This condition often occurs in
the rolling of steels and high-temperature alloys. When sticking occurs, the
coefficient of friction can be as high as 0.7.

• The roll force 𝐹 is calculated by:

𝑭 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝒍, where 𝑤𝐿 is the contact area

• The contact length (projected) is given by:

𝑳= 𝑹 𝒉𝟎 − 𝒉𝒇

• The rolling power 𝑃 required for two rolls is given by:

𝑷 = 𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑭𝑳
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 13.2 Reducing roll force
• Roll force can cause significant deflection and flattening of the rolls which:
i. Affects rolling process
ii. Reduce efficiency
iii. Reduce uniformity of rolled sheet (gage control)

• Roll force can be reduced using the following methods:

i. Use smaller diameter rolls to reduce contact area
ii. Take smaller reductions per pass to reduce contact area
iii. Roll at elevated temperatures to lower strength of material
Applying back and/or front
iv. Apply back and/or front tensions to strip to reduce roll pressure tensions to strip
v. Reducing friction at the roll–workpiece interface
Why will applied tension
Tensions can be applied to the strip at either the entry zone reduce the roll force?
(You learnt this phenomenon
(back tension), the exit zone (front tension), or both. in ME 201)

• Back tension: Applied by a braking action to the reel that

supplies the sheet into the roll gap (pay-off reel).

• Front tension: Applied by increasing the rotational speed of the

take-up reel
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 13.2.2 Geometric Considerations
Roll Force
1. Bending of rolls: Roll force tend to elastically
bend the rolls during rolling causing shape
Work piece
change
• As a result the rolled strip will be thicker at the
center that at its edges. This is called crowning
• Crowning can be avoided by using a camber. A
camber is developed by machining the rolls such
that the diameter of rolls at the center is made
slightly larger than at the edges
• When the rolls bend, the strip being rolled will
have a constant thickness along its width Straight rolls Crowned rolls

2. Thermal camber is developed when heat from the rolling operations causes the roll
to form a barrel shape. This causes rolled strip to be thicker at the edges than at the
center.

3. Flattering of rolls: Rolls forces also tend to flatten the roll similar to flattening of
tyres on the road surface. This results in larger contact area and hence larger roll
force.

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 13.2.2 Spreading
Roll Force
In rolling plates and sheets with high width-
to thickness ratios, width of the strip
Work piece
remains effectively constant during rolling.

However, with smaller ratios (such as a bar

with a square cross-section), its width Side view
increases significantly as it passes through
the rolls. This increase in width is called
spreading.

Top view
Spreading increases with:
• Decreasing width-to-thickness ratio of the entering strip, because of reduction
in the width constraint
• Increasing friction
• Decreasing ratio of roll radius to strip thickness.

Spreading can also be prevented by using vertical rolls, in contact with the strip edges;
known as edger mills, the vertical rolls provide a physical constraint to spreading.
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 13.3 Flat rolling practice
Hot New grain forming
rolling New grain growing
Recrystallization
Wrought complete
product with
large grains
Wrought product
Ingot with with small,
nonuniform uniform grains
Deformed
grains elongated grains
Side view

• The initial rolling steps of the material is usually done by hot rolling, above the
recrystallization temperature of the metal.
• A cast structure typically is dendritic, consisting of coarse and nonuniform grains; this
structure is usually brittle, and may also be porous.
• Hot rolling converts the cast structure to a wrought structure, with finer grains and
enhanced ductility, both of which result from the breaking up of brittle grain boundaries
and the closing up of internal defects, including porosity.
• Typical temperature ranges for hot rolling are about 450°C for aluminum alloys, up to
1250°C for alloy steels, and up to 1650°C for refractory alloys.
• The rolled product of the first hot-rolling operation is called bloom, slab, or billet.
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 13.3 Rolling defects
• Defects may be present on the surfaces of rolled plates and sheets, or there may be
internal structural defects.
• Defects are undesirable because they adversely affect surface appearance and they
may affect strength, formability, and other characteristics of the rolled sheets.
• Surface defects in sheet metals include scale, rust, scratches, gouges, pits, and cracks.
These defects may be caused by inclusions and impurities in the original cast material
or by various other conditions related to material preparation and to the rolling
operation.

Wavy edges on sheets are due to roll bending. The strip becomes
thinner along its edges than at its center. Elongation at edges is more
than at the centre. Consequently, edges buckle because they are
constrained by the central region from expanding freely in the
(a) Wavy edges
longitudinal (rolling) direction.

Cracks are usually the result of low material ductility at the

rolling temperature.

(b) and (c) Cracks

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 13.3 Residual stresses
• Because of nonuniform deformation of the material in the roll gap, residual stresses
can develop in rolled plates and sheets, especially in cold rolling.
• Small-diameter rolls or small thickness reductions per pass tend to plastically deform
the metal to a higher degree at its surfaces than in its bulk. This situation results in
compressive residual stresses on the surfaces and tensile stresses in the bulk.
• Conversely, large-diameter rolls or high reductions per pass tend to deform the bulk
more than its surfaces. This is due to the higher frictional constraint at the surfaces
along the arc of contact
Small - diameter rolls or Large - diameter rolls or large
small thickness reduction thickness reduction

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13.4 Types of roll arrangements
• Used for hot rolling in the initial passes
• Used on cast ingots
• Used in continuous casting
• Roll diameters .06m-1.4m
Two high mill

• Aka reversing mills

• Uses elevator mechanism to raise
and lower plates from upper to
lower roll gaps

Three high mill with tracks

13.4 Types of roll arrangements

• Strip of material continuously rolled

through several stands
• Gauges of stands get smaller progressively
• Each stand has its own set of rolls
Tandem rolling
with three stands
• A group of stands is called a train
• Requires highly automated systems to
control thickness and speed

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 13.4 Types of roll arrangements
• Four-high mills, planetary mills and cluster mills (Sendzimir or
Screw or
hydraulic Z mill) use small-diameter work rolls to lower roll forces,and
mechanism Housing thus lower power requirements and reduced spreading.
Back up
rolls • Small rolls can be replaced at lower cost than large ones.
Chocks Work
rolls • However, small rolls deflect more under roll forces and thus
Back up have to be supported by other larger diameter rolls.
rolls

• Cost of Sendzimir mill is very high but it is particularly suitable

Four high mill for cold rolling thin sheets of high-strength metals and alloys.

Housing
Support roll
Backing bearing Driven roll
Bearing shaft
Driven roll First
Second intermediate roll
intermediate roll Strip
Cage Driven roll Work
Workroll
roll
Planetary
roll Driven roll

Planetary mill
Cluster mill
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 13.5 Rolling Processes
Shape rolling
• Used for straight and long structural shapes
• I-beams, rails, channels
• Structures usually formed at higher
temperatures
• Requires a series of rolls (material deformed
non-uniformly)

Roll forging / cross rolling

• Cross section of a round bar is shaped by
passing it through rolls with varied
groves
• Used to produce leaf springs, knives and Workpiece
hand tools

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 13.5 Rolling Processes
Skew Rolling
• Similar to roll forging Stock
Semi
• Used for making ball bearings finished
ball
• Wire/rod is fed into the roll gap to form
spherical blanks

Thread Rolling
• Cold-forming process by which straight or Work rest Workpiece Stationery
tapered threads are formed on round rods or cylindrical
wire. die

• Threads are formed on rod or wire using two

rolls
• Thread-rolling process has the advantages of
generating threads at high production rates
and without any scrap. Moving
cylindrical die

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