Chapter 19-2:

Bulk Deformation Processes-II

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

IN METALWORKING
• Rolling
• Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
• Forging
• Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
• Extrusion
• Wire and Bar Drawing

Page 1
 Extrusion
• A compression forming process in which the work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape
• Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
• In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of
uniform cross-sections
• Two basic types of extrusion:
 Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion
• Aluminum products are widely produced by
extrusions and include structural shapes, door and
window frames

Page 2
Figure 19.31 - Direct extrusion

Page 3
 Comments on Direct Extrusion
• Also called forward extrusion
• As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet
remains that cannot be forced through die opening
• This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from
extruded product by cutting it just beyond the die exit
• Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape
is determined by die opening
• In direct extrusion significant friction exists between the
work surface and walls of the container; this friction
causes substantial increase in the ram force required in
direct extrusion
• For hollow products the starting billet is prepared with a
hole parallel to its axis
Page 4
Figure 19.32 - (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow
cross-section; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross- sections

Page 5
 Figure 19.33 - Indirect extrusion to produce
(a) a solid cross-section and (b) a hollow cross-section

Page 6
 Comments on Indirect Extrusion
• Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion
• The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the
opposite end of the container; as the ram penetrates
into the work, the metal is forced to flow through the
clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the
ram
• Since there is no relative motion between the billet
and the container, there is no friction at the container
walls and ram force is lower
• Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the
lower rigidity of hollow ram and difficulty in supporting
extruded product as it exits die

Page 7
Ram Force

Page 8
 General Advantages of Extrusion

• Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion

 Limitation: part cross-section must be uniform
throughout length
• Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and
warm extrusion
• Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
• In some operations, little or no waste of material

Page 9
 Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

• Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its

recrystallization temperature
 This reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions and
more complex shapes
• Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete
parts
 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high
speed cold extrusion

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 EXTRUSIONANALYSIS (1)
Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as

Ao
rx 
Af

where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area

of the starting billet; and Af = final cross-sectional
area of the extruded section
• Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
Page 11
 Extrusion Analysis (2)
Indirect Extrusion
Assuming all sections are circular, ideal deformation, no
friction, no redundant work:
True Strain:   ln rx
Pressure applied by the ram to compress the billet through
the die opening: Ram Pressure for frictionless Indirect
extrusion:
p  Yf lnrx

Taking into account friction for indirect extrusion, the

Johnson’s formula states p  Y f (a  b ln rx )
where a =0.8 and b =1.2 to 1.5
Ram Force:F  pAo  Ao
The power required: P  Fv Page 12
 Extrusion Analysis (3)
Direct Extrusion
For direct extrusion, additional pressure, pf, required
by the extruder to overcome the wall friction is related
2
as follows: p f Do
 p D L
c o
4
For the worst case that the friction shear stress at the
wall equals to the shear yield strength of the work
metal: 2L
p f  Yf
Do
 2L 
The total ram pressure: p  Y f   x  
 Do 
Ram Force: F  pAo
The power required: P  Fv

Page 13
 Problem 19.23

A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 40 mm in

diameter is reduced by indirect (backward) extrusion
to a 15 mm diameter. Die angle = 90°. If the Johnson
equation has a = 0.8 and b = 1.5, and the flow curve
for the work metal has K = 750 MPa and n = 0.15,
determine: (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain
(homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, (d)
ram pressure, and (e) ram force

Page 14
Figure 19.36 -
(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion;
(b) effect of die angle on ram force

Page 15
 Comments on Die Angle

• Low die angle - surface area is large, leading to

increased friction at die-billet interface
 Higher friction results in larger ram force
• Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow
during reduction
 Turbulence increases ram force required
• Optimum angle depends on work material, billet
temperature, and lubrication

Page 16
 Comments on Orifice Shape
of Extrusion Die
• Simplest cross section shape = circular die orifice
• Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
• As cross-section becomes more complex, higher
pressure and greater force are required

• Die materials used for hot extrusion include tool and

alloy steels and for cold extrusion cemented carbides
and tool steels
• Important properties: high wear resistance, high hot
hardness, high thermal conductivity

Page 17
Figure 19.37 - A complex extruded cross-section for a heat sink
(photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of America)

Page 18
 Extrusion Presses

• Either horizontal or vertical

 Horizontal more common
• Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven,
which is especially suited to semi-continuous direct
extrusion of long sections
• Mechanical drives - often used for cold extrusion of
individual parts

Page 19
Forward Backward
Impact Extrusion

Forward backward

combination

Combination of Forward and Backward Page 20

 Impact Extrusion

• Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and

shorter strokes than conventional extrusion
• It is for making discrete parts
• The punch impacts the workpart rather than simply
applying pressure to it
• For making thin wall-thickness items by permitting
large deformation at high speed causing higher
production rates making this an important commercial
process
• Products: Tooth paste tubes and battery cases

Page 21
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
• Using hydrostatic system to reduce the friction and lower
the power requirement
• Hydrostatic pressure on the work increases the material’s
ductility; this process can be applied on metals that would
be too brittle for conventional extrusion operations
• Sealing is the major problem

Page 22
 Wire and Bar Drawing
• A process in which cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening
• Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in
drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion)
• Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression
also plays a significant role since metal is squeezed as it
passes through die opening-the deformation is actually
through indriect compression
• Wire and bar drawing is different from deep drawing
discussed in sheet metal working

Page 23
 Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing

• Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is

stock size
 Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
 Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes
down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are possible
• Although the mechanics are the same, the methods,
equipment, and even terminology are different
• Wires can also be coiled in a continuous operation

Page 24
 Area Reduction in Drawing

Change in size of work is usually given by area

reduction:
Ao  Af
r 
Ao

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area

of work; and Af = final work
r is often expressed as a percentage

Page 25
 Analysis of Drawing
Ao  Af
Area reduction in drawing r  ; Draft d  Do  D f
Ao
Ao 1
For no friction, true strain   ln  ln
Af 1 r
Ao
The ideal stress   Y f   Y f ln Af
, and power P  Fv

Taking into account friction and die angle,

   Ao
 d  Y f 1   ln
 tan   Af
D Do  D f Do  D f
where   0.88  0.12 , D  , Lc 
Lc 2 2 sin 
The drawing force F  A f  d  A f Y f 1    ln Ao
 tan   Af
Page 26
 Maximum Reduction per Pass

• In drawing normally the reduction is achieved in

many steps as opposed to extrusion
• Question?
• Why is more than one step required to achieve the
desired reduction in wire drawing?
• Why not take the entire reduction in a single pass
through one die, as in extrusion?

Page 27
 Maximum Reduction per Pass
• Assuming perfectly plastic material (n=0), no friction,
no redundant work, the maximum draw stress must be
less than the tensile yield strength of the material (Y)
Ao Ao 1
 d  Y f ln  Y ln  Y ln Y
Af Af 1 r

Then ln Ao A f  ln 1 1  r  1
Ao A f  1 1  r  e

 max  1.0

The maximum possible area ratio Ao A f  e  2.7183

The maximum possible reduction rmax  e  1 e  0.632

Page 28
 Drawing Practice and Products

• Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working
 Most frequently used for round cross-sections
• Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and
other processes

Page 29
 Drawing practice

• Advantages of Drawing:
 Close dimensional control
 Good surface finish
 Improved mechanical properties (strength and
hardness)
 Adaptability to economical batch or mass
production

Page 30
 Bar Drawing

• Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock

is pulled through one die opening
• Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight
cylinder
• This necessitates a batch type operation
• Accomplished on a machine called draw bench
consisting of a entry table, die stand (with draw die),
carriage, and exit rack
• Carriage is operated by hydraulic cylinders or motor-
driven chains

Page 31
Figure 19.42 - Hydraulically operated draw bench
for drawing metal bars

Page 32
 Wire Drawing

• Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple

draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by
accumulating drums
 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to
draw wire stock through upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired
total reduction is achieved by the series
 Annealing sometimes required between dies

Page 33
Figure 19.43 - Continuous drawing of wire

Page 34
Figure 19.44 - Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire

Page 35
 Features of a Draw Die

• Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent

scoring of work and die
• Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing
occurs. Approach angle (half angle) varies from 6 to
20 degrees
• Bearing surface or Land - determines final drawn
stock size
• Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief
angle (half-angle) of about 30
• Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides

Page 36
 Preparation of the Work for
Wire or Bar Drawing
• Prior to drawing, the beginning stock must be
properly prepared
• Annealing – to increase ductility of stock to accept
deformation during drawing
• Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and
draw die. It involves removal or surface contaminants
(scale and rust) by means of chemical pickling or
shot blasting
• Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to allow
insertion through draw die

Page 37
 Tube Drawing
• Drawing can be used to reduce the diameter or wall
thickness of seamless pipes and tubes after the initial
tubing has been produced by some other process
such as extrusion
• Types include: Tube sinking, fixed mandrel drawing
and floating mandrel drawing

No mandrel- Fixed mandrel Floating mandrel

Tube sinking
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