Metal Forming Processes

1
 1. Metal Forming Processes
• Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing
processes in which plastic deformation is used to change the
shape of metal workpieces.
• Metal forming processes can be classified into bulk deformation
processes and sheet metalworking processes.
Bulk deformation processes
• Rolling: Thickness of a slab or plate is reduced by two
opposing cylindrical tools called rolls. The rolls rotate so as to
draw the work into the gap between them and squeeze it.
• Forging: Workpiece is compressed between two opposing
dies, so that the die shapes are imparted to the work. It is
traditionally a hot working process, but many types of forging
are performed cold.
• Extrusion: A compression process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening, thereby taking the shape
2
of the opening as its own cross section.
 Cont’d
• Drawing: the diameter of a round wire or bar is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening.

Figure: Basic bulk

deformation processes:
(a) rolling, (b) forging,
(c) extrusion, and
(d) drawing. Relative
motion in the operations
is indicated by v; forces
are indicated by F.

3
 Cont’d
Sheet Metalworking
• Bending: It involves straining of a metal sheet or plate to take
an angle along a (usually) straight axis.
• Drawing: In sheet metalworking, drawing refers to the forming
of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape, such as a
cup, by stretching the metal. To distinguish this operation from
bar and wire drawing, the terms cup drawing or deep drawing
are often used.
• Shearing: This process involves cutting rather than forming. A
shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and die.
Although it is not a forming process, it is included here because
it is a necessary and very common operation in sheet
metalworking.

4
 Cont’d
Sheet Metalworking

Figure: Basic sheet

metalworking
operations: (a) bending,
(b) drawing, and
(c) shearing: (1) as
punch first contacts
sheet, and (2) after
cutting. Force and
relative motion in
these operations are
indicated by F and v.

5
 2. Material Behaviour in Metal Forming
Types of Stress-Strain Relationships
• Perfectly elastic: The behavior of this material is defined
completely by its stiffness, indicated by the modulus of elasticity
E. It fractures rather than yielding to plastic flow. Brittle
materials such as ceramics, many cast irons, and thermosetting
polymers possess stress–strain curves that fall into this
category. These materials are not good candidates for forming
operations.
• Elastic and perfectly plastic. This material has a stiffness
defined by E. Once the yield strength, the material deforms
plastically at the same stress level. The flow curve is given by K
= Y and n = 0. Metals behave in this fashion when they have
been heated to sufficiently high temperatures that they
recrystallize rather than strain harden during deformation. Lead
exhibits this behavior at room temperature because room
temperature is above the recrystallization point for lead. 6
 Cont’d
• Elastic and strain hardening: This material obeys Hooke’s
law in the elastic region. It begins to flow at its yield strength.
Continued deformation requires an ever-increasing stress,
given by a flow curve whose strength coefficient K is greater
than Y and whose strain-hardening exponent n is greater than
zero. Most ductile metals behave this way when cold worked.

Figure: Three categories of stress–strain relationship: (a) perfectly elastic, (b)

7
elastic and perfectly plastic, and (c) elastic and strain hardening.
 Cont’d
Tensile Stress–Strain Curves
• Engineering stress–strain (S-e): more important in design
• True stress–strain (σ-ε): more important in manufacturing

and 8
 Cont’d
• In metal forming, the plastic region is of primary interest
because the material is plastically and permanently deformed.
• True stress and true strain in the plastic region are related as:

where, K: strength coefficient and n: strain hardening exponent.

• This relation is called the flow curve and provides a good
approximation of the behavior of metals in the plastic region,
including their capacity for strain hardening.
• Flow Stress: The instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material—to keep the metal ‘‘flowing.’’ It
is the yield strength of the metal as a function of strain, which
can be expressed:

• Average flow stress:

9
Cont’d

10
 3. Plastic Deformation and Yield Criteria
• Plastic deformation takes place when the applied stress level
exceeds a certain limit defined as yield stress.
• It should be recalled that we discussed this behaviour only with
respect to uniaxial loading. However, during most actual
forming operations, the loading conditions are not uniaxial.
• There are a number of such criteria proposed by different
researchers but we will restrict our discussion to the two most
commonly-used ones: (1) Tresca’s Maximum Shear Stress
Criterion and (2) Von Mises' Maximum Distortion Energy
Criterion.
(1) Tresca’s Maximum Shear Stress Criterion
• Normally used for brittle materials
• Since the plasticity depends on slip which essentially is a
shearing process, Tresca suggested in 1865 that the plastic
flow initiates when the maximum shear stress reaches a limiting
11
value defined as the shear yield stress K.
 Cont’d
• If the principal stresses at a point in the material are:
then the maximum shear
stress is given as:
• Thus, Tresca's criterion become:

(2) von Mises' Maximum Distortion Energy Criterion

• Normally used for ductile materials
• In 1913, von Mises proposed that the plastic flow occurs when
the shear strain energy reaches a critical value.
• It can be expressed in term of the three principal stresses as:

where, is the yield stress under pure tension.

12
 Cont’d
• A comparison between Tresca and von Mises criteria

13
Mechanics of Forming
Processes

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 1. Mechanics of Flat Rolling Process
Objectives
• The basic objectives of the analysis are to determine
(1) the roll separating forces (F),
(2) the torque (T), and
(3) the power (P) required to drive the rolls.
Assumptions
• The rolls are straight and rigid cylinders.
• The width of the strip is much larger than its thickness and no
significant widening takes place, i.e., the problem is of plane
strain type.
• The coefficient of friction (μ) is low and constant over the entire
roll-Job interface.
• The yield stress of the material remains constant for the entire
operation, its value being the average of the values at the start
and at the end of rolling. 15
 Cont’d
• Flat rolling involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and
plates. Here, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its
thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft:

• In addition to thickness reduction, rolling usually increases work

width. This is called spreading, and it tends to be most
pronounced with low width-to-thickness ratios and low
coefficients of friction.
• Conservation of matter is preserved, so the volume of metal
exiting the rolls equals the volume entering

• where, wo and wf are the before and after work widths, mm(in);
and Lo and Lf are the before and after work lengths, mm (in).
• In terms of entering (vo) and exiting velocities (vf) velocities,
volume flow rate is 16
 Cont’d

Figure: Typical variation in pressure

Figure: Side view of flat rolling,
indicating before and after
thicknesses, work velocities, angle of
contact with rolls, and other features.
along the contact length in flat rolling.
The peak pressure is located at the
neutral point. The area beneath the
17
curve represents the roll force F.
 Cont’d
• The rolls contact the work along an arc defined by the angle θ.
Each roll has radius R, and its rotational speed gives it a
surface velocity vr. This velocity is greater than the entering
speed of the work vo and less than its exiting speed vf.
• Since the metal flow is continuous, there is a gradual change in
velocity of the work between the rolls. However, there is one
point along the arc where work velocity equals roll velocity. This
is called the no-slip point, also known as the neutral point.
• The peak pressure at the neutral point is called the friction
hill. And, it increases with increasing coefficient of friction.
• On either side of this point, slipping and friction occur between
roll and work. The amount of slip between the rolls and the
work can be measured by means of the forward slip, a term
used in rolling that is defined:

18
 Cont’d
• The true strain experienced by the work in rolling is based on
before and after stock thicknesses. In equation form,

• The true strain can be used to determine the average flow

stress applied to the work material in flat rolling as

• Given a coefficient of friction sufficient to perform rolling, roll

force (F) required to maintain separation between the two rolls
can be computed by integrating the unit roll pressure over the
roll-work contact area. This can be expressed:

19
 Cont’d
where F is rolling force, N (lb); w is the width of the work being
rolled, mm (in); p is roll pressure, MPa (lb/in2); d is draft, mm
(in) and L = length of contact between rolls and work, mm (in).
• The integration requires two separate terms, one for either side
of the neutral point. Pressure reaches a maximum at the neutral
point, and trails off on either side to the entrance and exit
points.
• As friction increases, maximum pressure increases relative to
entrance and exit values.
• As friction decreases, the neutral point shifts away from the
entrance and toward the exit in order to maintain a net pull
force in the direction of rolling.
• Otherwise, with low friction, the work would slip rather than
pass between the rolls.

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 Cont’d
• An approximation of rolling force can be calculated based on
the average flow stress experienced by the work material in the
roll gap. That is,
• Contact length can be approximated by
• The torque (T) in rolling can be estimated by assuming that the
roll force is centered on the work as it passes between the rolls,
and that it acts with a moment arm of one-half the contact
length. Thus, torque for each roll is
• The rolling power (P) required to drive each roll is the product
of torque and angular velocity. Angular velocity is 2πN, where N
is rotational speed of the roll. Thus, the power for each roll is
2πN T. Since a rolling mill consists of two powered rolls, we get
the following expression for rolling power as

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 2. Mechanics of Open-Die Forging
• Forging is a deformation process in which the work is
compressed between two dies, using either impact or gradual
pressure to form the part. It is the oldest of the metal forming
operations.
• Today, forging is an important industrial process used to make a
variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace,
and other applications.
• These components include engine crankshafts and connecting
rods, gears, aircraft structural components, and jet engine
turbine parts.
• In addition, steel and other basic metals industries use forging
to establish the basic form of large components that are
subsequently machined to final shape and dimensions.

22
 Cont’d

Figure: Three types of forging operation illustrated by cross-

sectional sketches: (a) open-die forging, (b) impression-die
forging, and (c) flashless forging.
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 Cont’d
Objectives
• The basic objectives of the analysis is to determine the forging
force (F).
Assumptions
• The forging force attains its maximum value at the end of the
operation.
• The coefficient of friction between job and the dies is constant.
• The thickness of job is small as compared with its other
dimensions, and the variation of the stress field along y-
direction is negligible.
• The length of the job is much more than the width.
• The entire job is in plastic state during the process.

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 Cont’d
• The simplest case of open-die forging involves compression of
a workpart of cylindrical cross section between two flat dies,
much in the manner of a compression test. This forging
operation, known as upsetting or upset forging, reduces the
height of the work and increases its diameter.
• If open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no
friction between work and die surfaces, then homogeneous
deformation occurs, and the radial flow of the material is
uniform throughout its height.
• Under these ideal conditions, the true strain experienced by the
work during the process can be determined by

• And the maximum forging force can be given as

where, A is final cross-sectional area of the part and Yf is flow
stress.
25
 Cont’d

Figure: Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical

workpart under ideal conditions in an open-die
forging operation: (1) start of process with workpiece
at its original length and diameter, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final size.
26
 Cont’d
• An actual upsetting operation does not occur quite as shown in
previous figure because friction opposes the flow of work metal
at the die surfaces. This creates the barreling effect .
• When performed on a hot workpart with cold dies, the barreling
effect is even more pronounced.
• This results from a higher coefficient of friction typical in hot
working and heat transfer at and near the die surfaces, which
cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation.
• The hotter metal in the middle of the part flows more readily
than the cooler metal at the ends.
• These effects are more significant as the diameter- to-height
ratio of the workpart increases, due to the greater contact area
at the work–die interface.
• All of these factors cause the actual upsetting force to be
greater than what is predicted in homogenous deformation.
27
 Cont’d

Figure: Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in

open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1)
start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final
shape.
28
 Cont’d
• As an approximation, we can include a shape factor to account
for effects of the D/h ratio and friction (µ):

where Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as

29
3.Mechanics of Direct Extrusion Process
• Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape.
• There are several advantages of the modern process:
(1) a variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot
extrusion;
(2) grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion;
(3) fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in cold
extrusion; and
(4) in some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is
created.
• However, a limitation is that the cross section of the extruded
part must be uniform throughout its length.
30
 Cont’d
• One important parameter is the extrusion ratio, also called the
reduction ratio. The ratio is defined:

where, Ao and Af are the cross-sectional areas of the starting

billet and the extruded section, respectively. The ratio applies
for both direct and indirect extrusion.

Figure: Pressure and other variables in direct extrusion. 31

 Cont’d

Figure: Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a
hollow cross section.

32
 Cont’d
• The value of rx can be used to determine true strain in
extrusion, given that ideal deformation occurs with no friction
and no redundant work:

• Under the assumption of ideal deformation (no friction and no

redundant work), the pressure applied by the ram to compress
the billet through the die opening depicted in our figure can be
computed as follows:

• The average flow stress during deformation is:

• In reality, extrusion is not a frictionless process, and the
previous equations grossly underestimate the strain and
pressure in an extrusion operation.
• Friction exists between the die and the work as the billet
squeezes down and passes through the die opening. 33
 Cont’d
• In direct extrusion, friction also exists between the container
wall and the billet surface. The effect of friction is to increase
the strain experienced by the metal. Thus, the actual pressure
is greater than that given before, which assumes no friction.
• Various methods have been suggested to calculate the actual
true strain and associated ram pressure in extrusion, we follow
the empirical equation proposed by Johnson for estimating
extrusion strain as:

where, a and b are empirical constants for a given die angle.

• Typical values of these constants are: a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to
1.5. Values of a and b tend to increase with increasing die
angle.
• The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can be
estimated based on Johnson’s extrusion strain formula as
34
follows:
 Cont’d
• In direct extrusion, the effect of friction between the container
walls and the billet causes the ram pressure to be greater than
for indirect extrusion.
• We can write the following expression which isolates the friction
force in the direct extrusion container:

• where pf is additional pressure required to overcome friction; Do

is billet diameter; µ is coefficient of friction at the container wall;
pc is pressure of the billet against the container wall; and L is
billet length.
• The right-hand side of this equation indicates the billet-
container friction force, and the left-hand side gives the
additional ram force to overcome that friction.
35
 Cont’d
• In the worst case, sticking occurs at the container wall so that
friction stress equals shear yield strength of the work metal:

• where Ys is shear yield strength. If we assume that Ys = Yf /2

then pf reduces to the following:

• Based on this reasoning, the following formula can be used to

compute ram pressure in direct extrusion:

where the term 2L/Do accounts for the additional pressure due
to friction at the container–billet interface. L is the portion of the
billet length remaining to be extruded, and Do is the original
diameter of the billet. 36
 Cont’d
• This equation probably overestimates ram pressure.
• With good lubrication, ram pressures would be lower than
values calculated by this equation.
• Note that p is reduced as the remaining billet length decreases
during the process.
• Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion is simply pressure
multiplied by billet area:

• Power required to carry out the extrusion operation is simply

where, v is ram velocity.

37
 Cont’d

Figure: Typical plots of ram pressure versus ram stroke (and remaining
billet length) for direct and indirect extrusion. The higher values in direct
extrusion result from friction at the container wall. The shape of the
initial pressure buildup at the beginning of the plot depends on die angle
(higher die angles cause steeper pressure buildups). The pressure
increase at the end of the stroke is related to formation of the butt. 38
 4. Mechanics of Wire and Bar Drawing
• Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod,
or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening.
• The general features of the process are similar to those of
extrusion. The difference is that the work is pulled through the
die in drawing, whereas it is pushed through the die in
extrusion.
• The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is
the stock size that is processed.
• Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and rod
stock, while wire drawing applies to small diameter stock.
• Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in) are possible in wire
drawing.
• Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a single-draft
operation—the stock is pulled through one die opening.
39
 Cont’d

Figure: Drawing of bar, rod, or wire.

40
 Cont’d
• By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several
hundred (or even several thousand) feet of wire and is passed
through a series of draw dies. The number of dies varies
typically between 4 and 12.
• In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually
given by the area reduction, defined as follows:

where, Ao and Af are the initial and final cross-sectional areas.

• In bar drawing, rod drawing, and in drawing of large diameter
wire for upsetting and heading operations, the term draft is
used to denote the before and after difference in size of the
processed work. The draft is simply the difference between
original and final stock diameters:
41
 Cont’d
Objectives
• To determine maximum reduction per pass
• To determine the drawing force (F) and Power (P).
Assumptions
• The coefficient of friction and half-cone angle are small.
• The yield stress is constant; average is used.
• Stress does not vary in radial direction.

42
 Cont’d
• If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing, true
• strain could be determined as follows:

• The stress that results from this ideal deformation is given by

• Because friction is present in drawing and the work metal

experiences inhomogeneous deformation, the actual stress is
larger. In addition to the ratio Ao/Af, other variables that
influence draw stress are die angle and coefficient of friction at
the work–die interface.
• Draw stress can be given as
where,
43
 Cont’d
where D is average diameter of work during drawing; and Lc is
contact length of the work with the draw die.
• Values of D and Lc can be determined from the following:

• The corresponding draw force is then the area of the drawn

cross section multiplied by the draw stress:

44
 Cont’d
Maximum Reduction per Pass? Why is more than one step
required to achieve the desired reduction in wire drawing? Why
not take the entire reduction in a single pass through one die,
as in extrusion?
Answer: The answer can be explained as follows: As the
reduction increases, draw stress increases. If the reduction is
large enough, draw stress will exceed the yields strength of the
exiting metal. When that happens, the drawn wire will simply
elongate instead of new material being squeezed through the
die opening. For wire drawing to be successful, maximum draw
stress must be less than the yield strength of the exiting metal.
What is maximum draw stress & the maximum possible
reduction?

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 5. Mechanics of Blanking and Punching
• Blanking involves cutting of the sheet metal along a closed
outline in a single step to separate the piece from the
surrounding stock. The part that is cut out is the desired product
in the operation and is called the blank.
• Punching is similar to blanking except that it produces a hole,
and the separated piece is scrap, called the slug. The
remaining stock is the desired part.

Figure: (a) Blanking and (b) Punching. 46

 Cont’d
• Process parameters in sheet-metal cutting are clearance
between punch and die, stock thickness, type of metal and its
strength, and length of the cut.
• Clearance (c) is the distance between the punch and die.
Typical clearances in conventional press-working range
between 4% and 8% of the sheet-metal thickness t.

Here, Ac is clearance allowance

Ac~0.06.
• Cutting Force (F)
Here, S is shear strength of sheet,
And L is cutting edge length

Figure: Die size determines blank size Db; punch

47
size determines hole size Dh.; c = clearance.
 Cont’d
• Bending in sheet-metalwork is defined as the straining of the
metal around a straight axis. During the bending operation, the
metal on the inside of the neutral plane is compressed, while
the metal on the outside of the neutral plane is stretched.
• The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes a
permanent set upon removal of the stresses that caused it.
• Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of the
sheet metal.

Figure: (a) Bending of sheet metal; (b) both compression and tensile
48
elongation of the metal occur in bending.
 Cont’d
• V-bending, the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch
and die. It is generally used for low-production operations. It is
often performed on a press brake and the associated V-dies are
relatively simple and inexpensive.
• Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal. A
pressure pad is used to apply a force to hold the base of the
part against the die, while the punch forces the part to yield and
bend over the edge of the die.

49
Figure: Two common bending methods: (a) V-bending and (b) edge bending
 Cont’d
• Bend Allowance If the bend radius is small relative to stock
thickness, the metal tends to stretch during bending. It is
important to be able to estimate the amount of stretching that
occurs, if any, so that the final part length will match the
specified dimension.
• The problem is to determine the length of the neutral axis
before bending to account for stretching of the final bent
section. This length is called the bend allowance, and it can be
estimated as follows:

where Ab is bend allowance; a is bend angle; R is bend radius; t

is stock thickness; and Kba is factor to estimate stretching. Kba =
0.33 if R < 2t; and Kba = 0.50 if R > 2t.
• The values of Kba predict that stretching occurs only if bend
radius is small relative to sheet thickness.
50
 Cont’d
• Springback: When the bending pressure is removed at the end
of the deformation operation, elastic energy remains in the bent
part, causing it to recover partially toward its original shape.
• This elastic recovery is called springback, defined as the
increase in included angle of the bent part relative to the
included angle of the forming tool after the tool is removed.

Figure: Springback in bending shows itself as a decrease

in bend angle and an increase in bend radius. 51
 Cont’d
• Although not as obvious, an increase in the bend radius also
occurs due to elastic recovery. The amount of springback
increases with modulus of elasticity E and yield strength Y of
the work metal.
• Compensation for springback can be accomplished by several
methods. Two common methods are overbending and
bottoming. In overbending, the punch angle and radius are
fabricated slightly smaller than the specified angle on the final
part so that the sheet metal springs back to the desired value.
• Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the stroke,
thus plastically deforming it in the bend region.

52
 Cont’d
• Bending Force: The force required to perform bending
depends on the geometry of the punch-and-die and the
strength, thickness, and length of the sheet metal.

where F is bending force; TS is tensile strength of the sheet

metal; w is width of part in the direction of the bend axis; t is
stock thickness; and D is die opening dimension. Kbf is a
constant that accounts for differences encountered in an actual
bending process. Its value depends on type of bending: for V-
bending, Kbf = 1.33; and for edge bending, Kbf = 0.33.

53
 6. Mechanics of Deep Drawing
• Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make cup-
shaped, box-shaped, or other complex-curved and concave
parts.
• It is performed by placing a piece of sheet metal over a die
cavity and then pushing the metal into the opening with a
punch. The blank must usually be held down flat against the die
by a blank-holder.
• Common parts made by drawing include beverage cans,
ammunition shells, sinks, cooking pots, and automobile body
panels.
• As the punch proceeds downward toward its final bottom
position, the work experiences a complex sequence of
stresses and strains as it is gradually formed into the shape
defined by the punch and die cavity

54
Cont’d

55
 Cont’d
• As the punch first begins to push into the work, the metal is
subjected to a bending operation. And, the sheet is simply
bent over the corner of the punch and the corner of the die.The
outside perimeter of the blank moves in toward the center in
this first stage, but only slightly.
• As the punch moves further down, a straightening action
occurs in the metal that was previously bent over the die radius.
The metal at the bottom of the cup, as well as along the punch
radius, has been moved downward with the punch, but the
metal that was bent over the die radius must now be
straightened in order to be pulled into the clearance to form the
wall of the cylinder.
• At the same time, more metal must be added to replace that
being used in the cylinder wall. This new metal comes from the
outside edge of the blank.
56
Cont’d

57
 Cont’d
• The metal in the outer portions of the blank is pulled or drawn
toward the die opening to resupply the previously bent and
straightened metal now forming the cylinder wall. This type of
metal flow through a constricted space gives the drawing
process its name. During this stage of the process, friction and
compression play important roles in the flange of the blank.
• In order for the material in the flange to move toward the die
opening, friction between the sheet metal and the surfaces of
the blank-holder and the die must be overcome. Initially, static
friction is involved until the metal starts to slide; then, after
metal flow begins, dynamic friction governs the process.
• The magnitude of the holding force applied by the blank-holder,
as well as the friction conditions at the two interfaces, are
determining factors in the success of this aspect of the drawing
operation.
58
Cont’d

59
 Cont’d
• Lubricants or drawing compounds are generally used to reduce
friction forces.
• In addition to friction, compression is also occurring in the
outer edge of the blank. As the metal in this portion of the blank
is drawn toward the center, the outer perimeter becomes
smaller. Because the volume of metal remains constant, the
metal is squeezed and becomes thicker as the perimeter is
reduced. This often results in wrinkling of the remaining flange
of the blank, especially when thin sheet metal is drawn, or when
the blank-holder force is too low. It is a condition which cannot
be corrected once it has occurred.
• The holding force applied by the blank-holder is now seen to be
a critical factor in deep drawing. If it is too small, wrinkling
occurs. If it is too large, it prevents the metal from flowing
properly toward the die cavity, resulting in stretching and
possible tearing of the sheet metal. 60
 Cont’d
• Determining the proper holding force involves a delicate
balance between these opposing factors.
• Progressive downward motion of the punch results in a
continuation of the metal flow caused by drawing and
compression.
• In addition, some thinning of the cylinder wall occurs. The
force being applied by the punch is opposed by the metal in the
form of deformation and friction in the operation.
• A portion of the deformation involves stretching and thinning
of the metal as it is pulled over the edge of the die opening.
• Up to 25% thinning of the side wall may occur in a successful
drawing operation, mostly near the base of the cup.

61
 Cont’d
• The drawing ratio provides an indication, albeit a crude one, of
the severity of a given drawing operation. The greater the ratio,
the more severe the operation. An approximate upper limit on
the drawing ratio is a value of 2.0.

62
 Cont’d
Objectives
• To determine feasibility of drawing operation
• To determine drawing force (F) and holding force (Fh)
• To determine the starting blank size.
Feasibility of Drawing
• The drawing operation is feasible if the drawing ratio is less
than 2.0, the reduction is less than 50%, and the t/Db ratio is
greater than 1%. These are general guidelines frequently used
to indicate technical feasibility.
• Drawing ratio

• The drawing ratio provides an indication, albeit a crude one, of

the severity of a given drawing operation. The greater the ratio,
the more severe the operation. An approximate upper limit on
the drawing ratio is a value of 2.0. 63
 Cont’d
• The actual limiting value for a given operation depends on
punch and die corner radii, friction conditions, depth of draw,
and characteristics of the sheet metal (e.g., ductility, degree of
directionality of strength properties in the metal).
• Another way to characterize a given drawing operation is by the
reduction r, where

• It is very closely related to drawing ratio. Consistent with the

previous limit on DR (DR <= 2.0), the value of reduction r
should be less than 0.50.
• A third measure in deep drawing is the thickness-to-diameter
ratio t/Db (thickness of the starting blank t divided by the blank
diameter Db). Often expressed as a percentage, it is desirable
for the t/Db ratio to be greater than 1%. As t/Db decreases,
tendency for wrinkling increases.
64
 Cont’d
• In cases where these limits on drawing ratio, reduction, and t/Db
ratio are exceeded by the design of the drawn part, the blank
must be drawn in two or more steps, sometimes with annealing
between the steps.
Drawing Force (F)
• The drawing force required to perform a given operation can be
estimated roughly by the formula:

where F is drawing force; t is original blank thickness; TS is

tensile strength; and Db and Dp are the starting blank diameter
and punch diameter, respectively. The constant 0.7 is a
correction factor to account for friction. Above equation
estimates the maximum force in the operation.
65
 Cont’d
• The drawing force varies throughout the downward movement
of the punch, usually reaching its maximum value at about one-
third the length of the punch stroke.

Holding Force (Fh)

• The holding force is an important factor in a drawing operation.
• As a rough approximation, the holding pressure can be set at a
value = 0.015 of the yield strength of the sheet metal. This
value is then multiplied by that portion of the starting area of the
blank that is to be held by the blank-holder.

where Fh is holding force in drawing; Y is yield strength of the

sheet metal; t is starting stock thickness and Rd is die corner
radius
• The holding force is usually about one-third the drawing force.
66
 Cont’d
Blank Size Determination
• For the final dimensions to be achieved on the cylindrical drawn
shape, the correct starting blank diameter is needed. It must be
large enough to supply sufficient metal to complete the cup. Yet
if there is too much material, unnecessary waste will result.
• The following is a reasonable method for estimating the starting
blank diameter in a deep drawing operation that produces a
round part (e.g., cylindrical cup and more complex shapes so
long as they are axisymmetric).
• Since the volume of the final product is the same as that of the
starting sheet-metal blank, then the blank diameter can be
calculated by setting the initial blank volume equal to the final
volume of the product and solving for diameter Db. To facilitate
the calculation, it is often assumed that negligible thinning of
the part wall occurs.
67
 Cont’d
Defects in Drawing
• Sheet-metal drawing is a more complex operation than cutting
or bending, and more things can go wrong. A number of defects
can occur in a drawn product, some of which we have already
alluded to. Following is a list of common defects,
(a) Wrinkling in the flange. Wrinkling in a drawn part consists
of a series of ridges that form radially in the undrawn flange of
the workpart due to compressive buckling.
(b) Wrinkling in the wall. If and when the wrinkled flange is
drawn into the cup, these ridges appear in the vertical wall.
(c) Tearing. Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall,
usually near the base of the drawn cup, due to high tensile
stresses that cause thinning and failure of the metal at this
location. This type of failure can also occur as the metal is
pulled over a sharp die corner.
68
 Cont’d
(d) Earing. This is the formation of irregularities (called ears) in
the upper edge of a deep drawn cup, caused by anisotropy in
the sheet metal. If the material is perfectly isotropic, ears do not
form.
(e) Surface scratches. Surface scratches can occur on the
drawn part if the punch and die are not smooth or if lubrication
is insufficient.

69