Metal forming Processes

1)- Introduction:

• Metal forming can be defined as a non-cutting shaping process in which the metal piece is shaped by plastic
deformation into useful products by applying forces (tension, compression, bending, shear, etc…) on the work-piece to
obtain the required shape.

• Metal forming processes are classified into two main categories:

a) Bulk deformation processes:

 Bulk deformation processes are generally characterized by significant deformations and massive shape changes
and the surface area to volume of the work is relatively small.
 Starting work shapes for these processes include cylindrical billets and rectangular bars.
 Mainly cold and hot forming

The basic operations in bulk deformation includes:

- Rolling: This is a compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a slab or plate is reduced
by two opposing cylindrical tools called rolls. The rolls rotate so as to draw the work into the gap
between them and squeeze it.

- Forging: In forging, a work-piece is compressed between two opposing dies, so that the die shapes are
imparted to the work. Forging is traditionally a hot working process, but many
types of forging are performed cold.

- Extrusion: Metal is compressed by a ram and forced through shaped die to

form a product with a constant cross section. Can create fairly complex shapes,
and can be performed hot or cold. Commonly extruded metals are aluminium,
magnesium, copper and lead.

- Wire drawing: Similar to extrusion, but force is tensile. Reduction of cross section by pulling it
through a die. This process is most commonly used for wire.

b) Sheet metalworking:

 Sheet metalworking processes are forming and cutting operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils.
The surface area to volume ratio of the starting metal is high.
 Sheet metal operations are always performed as cold working processes and are usually accomplished using a
set of tools called a punch and die.

The basic sheet metal operations are defined as follows:

- Bending: Bending involves straining of a metal sheet or plate to take an angle along a
(usually) straight axis.

- Deep and cup drawing: Refers to the forming of a flat metal sheet into a convex or concave
shape, such as a cup, by stretching the metal.

- Shearing: A shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and a die
2)- Forging process:

• Forging is a metal forming process which is carried out by applying a compressive stress higher than the yield strength
of the work metal.

• To reduce the required forging forces (applied stress), heating to a temperature lower than the melting point is
required.

• Two main types of forging: Free forging (hand forging) and die forging.

2.1)- Free forging (Hand forging) :

The metal is shaped by using either presses (pneumatic/hydraulic) or different

types of hammers (machine/hand).

2.2)- Die forging:

The metal, in the form of slugs or slabs (with selected dimensions) is forced to fill a
two halves die having the negative shape of the part to be produced. They are either
forged in the cold or hot state according to their strength.

2.1)- Free forging (Hand forging):

2.1.1)- Tools for hand forging:

a)- Anvil: The work-piece is to be kept and with the use of a hammer, the worker strike to the
work-piece for changing the shape and size. It is made of Mild steel. It is composed mainly of two
parts:

-The front part of the anvil is called the “HORN”. It is a massive conical part used to shape the
circular sections.

- The rear part is a flat surface with a “PRITCHEL HOLE” that is used to punch holes, or to bend small diameter rods, and
a “HARDY HOLE” to fix the hardy

b)- Swage block:

• It is a heavy block, having dimensions of 500x500x100 mm, or greater, made of ductile cast iron or steel.

• It is used for getting different sizes of work-piece.

• It contains multiple shapes and size holes in it and can insert the work-piece into it and strike it with the
hammer to get shape and size as you want.

c)- Hammers:

• Different weights of hammers are available. For light works, hammers up to 1 Kg weight are used where
as those with more than 1.5 Kg weight are used for heavy works.

• It is used for striking the work-piece.

 Some of the hammers are as shown:
C-1)- Peen hammers:
- Ball-peen:
 It is distinguished by having a hemispherical head
 Used for many tasks, such as striking punches and chisels (usually performed with the flat face of the
hammer). The peening face is useful for rounding off edges of metal pins and fasteners, such as rivets.
- Cross-peen:
 Having a flat face on one side of the head and a peening chisel edge on the other side.
 Used as a chisel for removing rivet heads and for bending metal.
- Straight-peen:
 Used like the cross-peen but differs since the peening edge is turned ninety
degrees.
C-2)- Sledge hammers:
 Is a tool with a large, flat, often metal head attached to a lever (or handle).
 Used for striking punches and chisels.
C-3)- Flatters and set hammers:
Flatters are used for flattening the work-piece. These have flat faces with sharp or rounded
edges according to requirements and are placed on the work-piece and struk with the sledge
hammer.
d)- Fuller:

• Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows.
• They are often used in pairs; the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into hardy
hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle
• The work-piece is placed on the bottom fuller and the top fuller is placed on the work-
piece and struck with a hammer.
• The top fuller is also used for finishing corners.
e)- Tongs:
• Tongs are used to hold the work-piece. When the work-piece is heated, tongs used to hold it.
f)- Hardies:
• Hardies are used to notch, neck or cut metallic rod. They are made of high strength, high
toughness and wear resistance steels to withstand impacts and wear.
• The square shank of the hardy is placed into the hardy hole on the flat surface of the anvil and
the rod to be cut is placed on the cutting edge and struck with either a hammer or a hammer and a
chisel according to the type and dimensions of the rod.
g)- Chisels:
• Chisel has a cutting edge as the hardy but fitted with a handle. The chisels are made of the same
materials as those of hardies.
• There are two kinds of chisels: - Cold chisel (used for cutting hard metals in cold conditions) - Hot chisel
(used for cutting soft metals in hot conditions) The cutting edge of the hot chisel is much thinner (the
edge is 30o ) than that of the cold chisel (the edge is 60o )

h)- Punches:
• It is a tool and used for punching the work-piece.
2.1.2)- Main hand forging operations:

a)- UPSETTING:
• Upsetting is the process through which the cross-section of workpiece is increased with a
corresponding reduction in length.
• In this process, the work-piece is heated then heavy blow is given by hammer. The swelling of the
work-piece takes place at the hot portion.
b)- PUNCHING A HOLE:
• Punching is the process of producing the holes by forcing the punch through the work-piece.
c)- CUTTING (COLD):
• A long work-piece is cut into several required length.
• Notches is made and chisel is placed over notch then hammered then turn 180o and chisel
place opposite the metal cut-off in two pieces.
d)- NECKING:

e)- FLATTENING :
• The flattening is carried out for leveling and finishing flat surfaces.
f)- SWAGING:
• Swaging is the operation of changing the shape of cross-section of job to some specific
shape such as round, square, hexagonal etc..
• Swaging operation is carried out with pair of swages or by swage block.

2.2)- Die forging:

Die forging is classified into:
- Open die forging (Roughing)
- Closed die forging (Final shape)
2.2.1)- Open Die forging:
• In open die forging, a work is compressed between two flat dies, so that
the metal flows without constraint in a lateral direction relative to the die
surfaces.
• In open die forging, a work is compressed between two flat dies or dies of very simple shape.
• A rough shape or near dimensions of the required forged piece can be obtained.
• The process is used for mostly large objects or when
the number of parts produced is small.
• Open die forging is often used to perform the work-piece for closed die forging
2.2.2)- Closed Die forging:
• The work-piece is deformed between two die halves which carry the
impressions of the desired final shape.
• The work-piece is deformed under high pressure in a closed cavity.
• Normally used for smaller components.
• The process provide precision forging with close dimensional tolerance.
• Closed dies are expensive.
3)- Sheet metal working:

3.1)- Basic concept of sheet metal working:

• Sheet metal forming is a process that materials undergo permanent deformation by cold forming to produce a variety
of complex shape.
• Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 to 6 mm
• Thickness of Plate stock > 6 mm
• The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the output of the rolling process. Typically, sheets of
metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of standard size.
• If the sheets are thin and very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore, the first step in any sheet metal
process is to cut the correct shape and size from larger sheet.

3.2)- Sheet metal products:

Sheet metal are used for consumer and industrial products such as:
• Car bodies
• Aircraft
• Fuel tanks
• Railway cars and locomotives
• Office furniture appliances
• Cookware
• Farm and construction equipment

3.3)- Advantages of Sheet metal parts

• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• Economical mass production for large quantities.
3.4)- Sheet metal working terminology:

• Punch-and-die: - Tooling to perform cutting, bending, and drawing

• Stamping press :- Machine tool that performs most sheet metal operations
• Stampings :- Sheet metal products made by press machine.

3.5)- Sheet metal working processes:

The basic types of sheet metal processes are:
1- Cutting
• Shearing to separate large sheets: Shearing involves using two cutting edges along a straight line to separate a
metal sheet.

 Blanking: Blanking involves cutting sheet metal along a straight line in a single step, to separate a piece from
the surrounding stock. The part that is cut out is the desired product, and is called a blank.
• Punching/piercing to make holes in sheet metal: Punching is similar to blanking, except that the cut piece is
scrap, and is called a slug. The remaining stock is the desired product.

2- Bending
• Bending in sheet metalwork is defined as straining of a metal sheet to take a permanent angle along a straight
axis.
• It is forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by bending without failure
3- Drawing
• Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes, such as a cup

3.5.1)- Sheet metal cutting (shearing) operations:

a)- Simple shearing
Shearing is a sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line
using two cutting edges to separate a metal sheet. Typically used to
cut large sheets into smaller section for subsequent operations.

b)- Blanking
Blanking is an operation of cutting a flat shape from a sheet metal. The part punched out is called
the blank and the remaining sheet is the scrap

c)- Piercing
Piercing is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are carried out in the sheet metal. In this
operation, the hole is the required operation and the material punched out is the scrap

d)- Lancing
Lancing is a combination of cutting and bending operations. It is the operation of cutting a sheet
metal through part of its length and then bending the cut portion. There is no scrap in this
operation.

e)- Notching
Notching is the cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet

f)- Shaving
Shaving operation is done to cut the edges of the blanked part in accurate dimension. The shaving
operation removes the rough and uneven edges of the blanked part.
g)- Trimming
Trimming operation is done to remove the excess material from the perimeter of a part, such as
trimming the flange from a drawn cup.

g)- Perforating
Perforating is an operation of producing number of holes evenly spaced in regular pattern on
a sheet metal.

h)- Slitting
Slitting is an operation of cutting straight lines in the sheet. No scrap material is produced.

3.5.2)- Sheet metal bending operations:

• Bending is the creation of a formed feature by angular displacement of a sheet metal workpiece.
• During bending operation, the metal on the inner side
of the neutral plane is compressed, and the metal on the
outer side of the neutral plane is stretched.
• Bending causes no change in the thickness of the sheet
metal.
• The material is stressed beyond the yield strength but
below the yield strength.

a)- V-bending
In V-bending, a sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die.

b)- Edge bending

Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal.

c)- Roll bending

Three rolls are bending the metal plate depending on their relative positions. Two Lower rolls are
driving . Upper roll is adjustable. Large metal sheets and plates are formed into curved sections
using rolls.

d)- Roll forming

Roll forming, is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of
sheet metal is passed through sets of rolls mounted on consecutive stands,
each set performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired
cross-section profile is obtained. Roll forming is ideal for producing constant
profile parts with long lengths and in large quantities.

e)- Curling bending

Curling is the operation of forming the edges of a component into a roll or curl by bending the sheet metal. This
is done to strengthen the edges and to provide smoothness to the surface.

-
Spring back in bending
Spring back is the elastic recovery of the material after unloading of the tool.
Spring back is encountered in all forming operations, but most easily occurs in bending.
Reasons for spring back is that when bending
pressure is removed, elastic energy remains in
bent part, causing it to recover partially
toward its original shape.
Compensation of spring back by:
- Over bending
- Carried out at elevated temperature

3.5.3)- Sheet metal drawing operations:

Drawing is a forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes, such as a cup

a)- Stretch forming

• Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent to
achieve shape change.
• Stretch forming is a forming operation by using tensile
forces to stretch the material over a tool or form block. •
Stretch forming is used in the aircraft industry to produce
parts of large radius of curvature and automotive (used in braking system).
b)- Deep drawing
• Deep drawing is a process of forming a flat work piece into a hollow
shape. The sheet metal blank is positioned by the blankholder over the
die cavity and then the punch pushes metal into the opening.

c)- Spinning
• Spinning is metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped over a rotating
mandrel using a rounded tool or roller.
• In the spinning process, the metal blank is clamped against a form block, which is rotated at high speed.
• Three types of spinning:
1. Conventional spinning
2. Shear spinning
3. Tube spinning

1. Conventional spinning
• Practiced by pressing a tool against a circular metal blank.
Used for low production.
• A conventional spinning has a circular blank of flat or
preformed sheet metal is placed and held against a mandrel and
rotated while a rigid tool deforms and shape the material over
the mandrel.
• Spinning tools or spinning rollers are forced against the
rotating blank either by hand or by auxiliary power or both
• Employing a series of axial and radial strokes ,the blank is spun onto the mandrel causing the metal to
flow to the shape of the desired part.
2. Shear spinning
Metal is formed using high shear
forces. Use of automated CNC
machines. Suitable for high
production runs.

3. Tube spinning
• In tube spinning, the thickness of hollow, cylindrical blanks is reduced or
shaped by spinning them on a solid, round mandrel. The reduction in wall thickness results in a longer tube.
• This operation may be carried out externally or internally.
• The parts may be spun forward or backward.
• Forward Tube Spinning:
- Solid Mandrel
- Metal is spun over the mandrel externally.
- External Finishing is obtained
• Backward Tube Spinning:
- Hollow Mandrel
- Metal is spun inside the hollow mandrel.
- Internal Finishing is obtained.
• Applications of Tube Spinning:
- Rocket
- Missile
- Pressure vessels
- Automotive components, such as car and truck Wheels.
d)- High-energy rate forming (HERF)
• Spinning is metal forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped over a rotating
mandrel using a rounded tool or roller.
• Processes to form metals using large amounts of energy over a very time.
• Three types of High-energy rate forming:
1. Explosive forming
2. Electro Hydraulic Forming
3. Electromagnetic Forming
1. Explosive forming
• Explosive forming, is distinguished from conventional forming in that
the punch is replaced by an explosive charge.
• Explosives used are generally high–explosive chemicals, gaseous
mixtures
• Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) metal into a die cavity
• Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose energy is transmitted to
force part into cavity
• In the explosive forming process, the sheet metal blank is placed over a die cavity and an explosive charge is
denoated in medium (water) at an appropriate distance from the blank.
• Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace industry
e)- Ironing
• Ironing is metal forming process that makes wall thickness of cylindrical
cup more uniform.
• Examples: beverage cans and artillery shells

f)- Embossing
• Embossing is metal forming process that is used to create
indentations in sheet such as raised (or indented) lettering.