Referencia Metodo Da Energia PDF

ARCE 302-Structural Analysis
Lecture Notes, Fall 2009

Ansgar Neuenhofer
Associate Professor, Department of Architectural Engineering
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Copyright 2009 Ansgar Neuenhofer (photo by author)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review of Statics
1.1 Goal of structural analysis
1.2 Structural idealizations
1.3 Summary of properties of moment and shear force diagrams
1.4 Example 1.1
1.5 Frames
1.6 Example 1.2
1.7 Statical determinacy-Instability-Degree of indetermincay
Problems
1
1
1
2
3
6
9
10
14
Principal of Virtual Forces

2.1 Introductory remarks
2.2 Virtual work-Principle of virtual forces
2.3 Procedure for analysis
2.4 Principle of virtual forces for trusses
2.5 Principle of virtual forces for beams
2.6 Principle of virtual forces for frames
2.7 Example 2.1
2.8 Example 2.2
2.9 Integration tables
2.10 Summary
2.11 Example 2.3
2.12 Example 2.4
2.13 Example 2.5
2.14 Example 2.6
2.15 Shear deformation
Problems
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
20
22
23
25
27
28
20
32
35
38
The Force Method

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Discussion
3.3 Example 3.1
3.4 Example 3.2
3.5 Example 3.2 (Alternative)
3.6 Example 3.3
3.7 Example 3.4
3.8 Force method for arbitrary degree of statical indeterminacy
3.9 Maxwell's law
3.10 Summary of force method
3.11 Example 3.5
3.12 Example 3.6
3.13 Example 3.7
3.14 The force method for space frames
Problems
49
49
49
50
53
55
57
60
64
64
65
65
70
73
75
78
The Slope-Deflection Method

4.1 General remarks
4.2 End moments for prismatic members
4.3 Example 4.1
4.4 Example 4.2
4.5 Example 4.3
4.6 Example 4.4
4.7 Summary of procedure
4.8 Comparison between slope-deflection and force methods
4.9 Fixed-end moments
Problems
88
88
89
93
95
97
99
102
103
104
106
The Moment-Distribution Method

5.1 Introduction
5.2 General description
5.3 Example 5.1
5.4 Example 5.2
5.5 Summary of steps
5.6 More discussion and illustration
5.7 Example 5.3
5.8 Summary
Problems
113
113
113
114
116
118
119
120
122
123
Approximate analysis of building frames under lateral load

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Discussion
6.3 The Portal Method
6.4 The Cantilever Method
Problems
126
126
126
128
133
143
Influence Lines
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Mller-Breslau principle
7.3 Use of influence lines
7.4 Example
7.5 Properties of influence lines of statically determinate structures
7.6 Influence lines of statically indeterminate structures
Problems
145
145
148
149
150
151
152
156
Review of Statics
1.1
Goal of structural analysis
The objective of a structural analysis is to determine the force (stress) and displacement (strain) demand of structures
using a mechanical model. The analysis must be both as economical as possible and as accurate as necessary. Since
the exact mechanical relations are extremely complicated, we rely on many approximations that are more or less accurate. With these approximations and simplifications we map the real structure onto our mechanical model. It is important that we are aware of these simplifications in order to judge whether or not certain models are appropriate. After selecting an appropriate structural model, we analyze the model under the most unfavorable combination of loads. The
results of structural analysis are the internal forces and deformations that form the basis for, say, reinforced concrete,
steel or timber design.
We have to always remember that the results of any structural analysis can never be better than the underlying model.
A crude model remains a crude model and yields crude results, no matter how many digits we include in our analysis,
in short garbage in-garbage out. In this class we talk little about modeling but assume that we already have an
appropriate mechanical representation of the real structure. Thus we are omitting a very important step of engineering work, if not the most important, a fact we should always be aware of.
1.2
Structural idealizations
All structures are three-dimensional. In structural analysis we usually work with one- or two-dimensional idealizations
of the real structure.
(a) 3-dimensional structural elements (rarely used in structural engineering)
(b) 2-dimensional structural elements (plate, shells)
Ly
requirement
H Lx
H
H Ly
Lx
(c) 1-dimensional structural elements

Structural elements whose two dimensions (width and height) are small compared to their length are commonly called
truss (axial force response) or beam (bending moment response) elements. In this class, we often use the term frame
member or frame element to denote a combination of truss and beam elements. We represent a frame element by its
axis, which is the connection of the centroids of the cross-sections.
In this class, we will be dealing with one-dimensional structural elements (truss, beam and frame members)
only. We use those to model plane (two-dimensional) structures and, to a smaller extent, space (three-dimensional) structures.
1.3
Summary of Properties of Moment and Shear Force Diagrams
In the following, we summarize key properties of shear force and bending moment diagrams.
In beam segments without distributed loading, the shear force is constant and the bending moment is linearly
varying.
In regions with a uniformly distributed load the shear force varies linearly and the bending moment is a quadratic parabola. In general, if the distributed load is of order n , the functions for the shear force and bending
moment are of order n+1 and n+2 , respectively.
At points where a concentrated force (a reaction force or an externally applied force) is applied the shear force
is discontinuous. It jumps upward or downward according to the direction of the force. The moment function has a change in slope at that point but is continuous.
An external moment causes a jump in the bending moment. It does not change the slope of the moment function, nor does it affect the shear force at that location.
The shear force is the derivative of the bending moment. Hence the moment function is one degree higher
than the shear force function. When the shear force is zero, the bending moment takes on its maximum.
ML
Ay
wL
+
V =0
By
M
linear
no change in slope
ML
+
linear
quadratic
M max
linear
change in slope
no change in slope
Fig. 1.1 Properties of shear force and bending moment diagrams.
linear
1.4
Example 1.1: Beam with internal hinges

50 kN
10 kN/m
[m]
5.00
2.00
6.00
2.00
5.00
Fig. 1.2 Beam with internal hinges.

Problem: Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the beam in Fig. 1.2.
Shown in Figure 1.2 is a beam with two internal hinges. The first important observation is that this structure is not a
single rigid body. If we remove the beam from its supports, it ceases to be rigid. We can easily see, that we can rotate
against because of the hinge. The consequence for calculating the support reactions is that we have to break the structure apart and look at free-body diagram of individual parts. Differently put, we cannot calculate the support forces by
looking at the structure as a whole because there are more unknown forces than there are equilibrium equations. We
have four unknown support reaction but only two equilibrium equations.
50
10
A
FA
FB
FE
FF
Fig. 1.3 Free-body diagram of whole structure.

50
10
FA
FB
FC
FC
FD
FD
FE
FF
Fig. 1.4 Free-body diagram of individual parts.

We cut the beam at the internal hinges resulting in the three free-body diagrams in Fig. 1.4. In applying the equilibrium
equations to the free-body diagrams it is important to find the right starting point. The center portion CD of the beam
contains only two unknown forces while the exterior portions contain three unknowns. Hence
1
MC = 0 FD = 6 10 6 3 = 30
(1.1)
=0
FC = 30 50 60 = 80
We have applied the 50-kN concentrated force to the center free-body diagram. Applying the force to the left-hand
portion of the beam is an alternative that would affect the results for FC but not the final results. We now apply
forces FC and FD to the exterior portions of the beam and solve for the support reactions FA , FB and FE , FF ,
3
respectively. Caution: Since the numerical results for FC and FD are negative, we change the direction of the arrows
representing these forces (see Fig. 1.5).
FA
80
FB
30
FE
FF
Fig. 1.5 Free-body diagrams of exterior parts after calculating FC and FD .

Applying the equilibrium equations to the free-body diagrams in Fig. 1.5 yields
=0
MF = 0
FB = 112
=0
FA = 32
FE = 42
Fy = 0
FF = 12
(1.2)
We have now calculated all support reactions. Before drawing the shear force and bending moment diagrams, it is good
practice to redraw the free-body diagrams and label all forces by their magnitude.
50
10
32
112
80
80
30
42
30
12
Fig. 1.6 Free-body diagrams with all forces known.
80
V
+
30
[N]
12
30
32
160
M
[Nm]
60
C
B
45
Fig. 1.7 Shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Unlike the previous examples, in which we wrote explicit equations for the shear force and bending moment variation,
we now use our experience gained in previous examples and try to draw the internal force moment diagrams directly
from the free-body diagrams in Fig.1.6.
4
Shear force
(1) At support A the 32 force acts down. Hence the shear force jumps down by 32.
(2) Nothing happens to the beam between supports A and B . Hence the shear force is constant.
(3) At support B a 112 force acts up. Hence the shear force jumps from 32 to 32+112=80.
(4) Nothing happens to the beam between support B and hinge C . Hence the shear force is constant.
(5) At hinge C the applied force 50 acts down. Hence the shear force jumps from 80 to 80-50=30. Note that the two 80
forces cancel when moving across hinge C (see Fig. 1.6).
(6) A lot happens between hinges C and D . A total force 10 6 = 60 acts down. However, this force is uniformly distributed. This cause the shear force to go down gradually from 30 to 30-60=-30. Note that the two 30 forces cancel
when moving across hinge D .
(7) Nothing happens to the beam between hinge D and support E . Hence the shear force is constant.
(8) At support E the 42 force acts up. Hence the shear force jumps from 30 to 30+42=12.
(9) Nothing happens to the beam between supports E and F . Hence the shear force is constant.
(10) Finally, we check whether the shear force calculated between supports E and F is consistent with the support force
at F . This is obviously the case.
Bending moment
(1) At support A the 32 force acts down. This force causes a linearly varying bending moment increasing from 0 at
support A to 32 5=160 at support B . Since the support force at A acts downward (preventing uplift) it causes tension
at the top and compression at the bottom of the beam. The bending moment is thus negative. The bending moment
must not jump at support B . On the other hand it must be zero sat the internal hinge C . Consequently, the moment has
to linearly decrease from 160 at support B to zero at hinge C .
(2) The beam segment CD is a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed 10-kN/m load spanning from
hinge C to hinge D . The moment variation is a quadratic parabola whose maximum value is
L2
62
= 10
= 45 kNm
8
8
This moment is positive since it produces tension at the bottom of the beam.
M =w
(1.3)
(3) We now turn to the left-hand segment of the beam. At hinge D the 30 force acts down. This force causes a linearly
varying bending moment increasing from 0 at hinge D to 30 2=60 at support E . Since the force at D acts downward,
it causes tension at the top and compression at the bottom of the beam. The bending moment is thus negative. The bending moment must not jump at support E . On the other hand it must be zero at support F . Consequently, the moment
has to linearly decrease from 60 at support E to zero at support F . As a quick check we argue along the same line
starting from support F . At support F a 12-kN force acts down. This force causes a linearly varying bending moment
increasing from 0 at support F to 12 5=60 at support E . Since the support force at A acts downward (preventing
uplift) it causes tension at the top of the beam and the moment is negative.
Whenever experience and problem complexity permit, we should try to distance ourselves from blind mathematics and adopt the approach followed in this example.
Remarks:
The bending moment diagram changes its slope at C but does not change the slope at D . Can you explain?
The shear force jumps at C but is continuous at D . Can you explain?
Fig. 1.8 Sketch of deflected shape.
1.5
Frames
We now apply the concepts learned before to find the internal force diagrams of frame structures.
w
C
(a)
(b)
Ax
Ay
Bx
By
Fig. 1.9 Three-hinge frame. (a) system and loading; (b) free-body diagram of whole structure.
Problem: Draw the shear force, axial force and bending moment diagrams for the frame in Fig. 1.9(a).
Solution: (1) As always, we first calculate the support reactions. Since there are four unknown reactions but only three
equilibrium equations for the structure as a whole, we have to dismember the structure to find the reactions. We find
the vertical reactions by looking at the structure as a whole (Fig. 1.9b). Equilibrium for the whole structure also
requires that the horizontal support forces Ax and Bx are equal and opposite.
M B = 0 Ay = w 2
Fy = 0 By = w 2
Fx
= 0 Ax = Bx
(1.4)
Cx
Cy
H
Cy
Cx
Ax
L
2
A
L/2
Bx
L/2
L
2
Fig. 1.10 Three-hinge frame. Cut at hinge to find horizontal reaction forces.
(2) Next, we cut the structure at hinge C and formulate equilibrium for one of the two resulting free bodies (Fig 1.10).
Since we know the vertical reaction force from Eq. (1.4), the two free-body diagrams in Fig. 1.10 involve three unknown forces each.
L L
L L
L2
L2
(1.5)
MC = 0 = w 2 2 w 2 4 Bx H Bx = w 8H Ax = w 8H

due to Ay
due to load
Important: Since a hinge cannot transfer a moment, there is no internal moment in Fig. 1.10 at point C . Also note that
by selecting C as the moment reference point, we avoid referencing the forces C x and C y transferred though the hinge.
6
M
P
L2
8H
M
V
II
L2
8H
L
2
L
2
L2
8H
III
L
2
Fig. 1.11 Three cuts for internal forces.

(3) With reaction forces known, we are now in the position to find the internal force variation by making cuts at arbitrary locations along the girder and the two columns. Figure 1.11 shows the resulting free-body diagrams. Equilibrium
for the three sections requires
Section I
Fx
= 0 V = w
L2
8H
Fy = 0 P = w 2
L2
L2
8H
Fy = 0 V = w 2 wx
M = 0 M = w 8H x
Section II
Fx
= 0 P = w
(1.6)
L2
L
x 2
M = 0 M = w 8 + 2 x 2
N
N
N
due
toAx due toAy due tow
Section III
Fx
= 0 V = w
L2
8H
L2
Fy = 0 P = w 2
M = 0 M = w 8H x
Note that because of the 90 degree angle at the column-girder junction, the axial force in the column turns into a shear
force in the girder, and the shear force in the column turns into an axial force in the girder.
(4) Before drawing the internal force diagrams, it is important to emphasize that we should consider the internal force
diagrams as a proper connection of values calculated at specific locations rather than plots of mathematical relations.
Columns: The axial force in the columns is constant and equal to the vertical reaction forces. Clearly, the columns are
in compression. The shear force in the columns is also constant and equal to the horizontal reaction forces. According
to our sign convention, the shear force is negative for the left column and positive for the right column. The bending
moment in the columns varies linearly from zero at the pin supports to a certain value at the column-girder junction.
We calculate this value by substituting x =H into the moment expression for sections I or III, or x =0 into the moment
expression or Section II. Hence
M = w
L2
L2
H =w
8H
8
(1.7)
Girder: The axial force in the girder is constant and equal to the horizontal reaction forces. By inspection, we conclude
that the girder is in compression. The shear force in the girder at the column junction is equal to the axial force in the
columns. Because of the uniformly distributed load acting on the girder, the shear force varies linearly and the bending
moment varies quadratically and is zero at hinge C .
The properties just discussed lead directly to the internal force diagrams below. We include a sketch of the deflected
shape of the frame for illustration. We observe that both columns and girder bend (the deflected shape is curved). Also
note that the two portions of the girder rotate against each other at the hinge. We will discuss a method to calculate
deflections in Chapter 2.
w
w
L2
8
L
2
L2
8
L
8H
L2
8H
P
w
L
2
L
2
Fig. 1.12 Internal force diagramsV , M , P and deflected shape for three-hinge frame.
L
2
L2
8H
1.6
Example 1.2
1m
1m
60 kN
C
60 kN
2m
B
1m
1m
2m
Fig. 1.13 Sample frame structure.

Problem: Find the three internal force diagrams for the frame structure shown.
Solution: We obtain the support reactions from the 3 global equilibrium conditions plus the condition that the bending
moment is zero at hinge C (for parts AC or BC). It is important to realize that we dont have to set up equations
describing the variations of the internal forces as a function of a local coordinate x. This is what we did in introductory
statics classes. All we need to do is determine the bending moment at selected locations (e.g. at the column-girder
connections and the points of application of external forces) and then properly connect those points. Always remember:
We want to do structural engineering with as little math as possible and as much experience and intuition as
possible.
70
80
80
10
10
20
20
60
M
40
[kNm]
[kN]
20
40
70
[kN]
sketch of deflected shape
10
Fig. 1.14 Internal force diagrams and sketch of deflected shape.

9
40
1.7
Statical Determinacy-Instability-Degree of Indetermincay
Trusses
We need to be able to identify whether a structure is statically determinate, statically indeterminate, or unstable.
Figures 1.15-1.17 depict examples for each of those properties.
The truss in Fig. 1.15 is constructed by adding eight triangular panels. All members are necessary for stability of the
truss, i.e. if we remove one member from the structure it becomes unstable and collapses under applied loads. The truss
is statically determinate. We will learn how to analyze this type of trusses in subsequent sections of this chapter.
The trusses in Fig. 1.16 are statically indeterminate. The structure in Fig. 1.16(a) has one more support than necessary
for stability. Since the indeterminacy is with respect to the reactions, the truss is termed statically indeterminate externally. The structure in Fig. 1.16(b) has more members than necessary for stability. We can remove one of the top three
members without sacrificing the stability of the structure. Since in this case the indeterminacy is with regard to the
numbers of members, the truss is called statically indeterminate internally. Analysis of indeterminate structures is
beyond the scope of this class.
The trusses in Fig. 1.17 are unstable. The structure in Fig. 1.17(a) is externally unstable because it has no support that
resists horizontal movement (we would have to turn one roller support into a pin support to make the truss statically determinate). The structure in Fig. 1.17(b) is internally unstable because it has too few members. More precisely, the
square panel is unstable since it has no diagonal (we would have to add one diagonal to make the truss statically determinate). Both structures undergo excessive displacements without forces being applied to it. Figure 1.17 illustrates
those displacement modes.
Although we will discuss formulas to calculate the degree of indeterminacy and instability in subsequent classes, the
best method by far to assess those properties is to use intuition, inspection, insight and experience.
Fig. 1.15 Statically determinate truss.

(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.16 Statically indeterminate trusses.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.17 Unstable trusses with collapse modes.
10
There are formulas for determining the degree of statical indeterminacy. Unfortunately, the following equations are not
foolproof since they constitute only a necessary but not a sufficient criterion for stability of the structure.
Degree of statical indeterminacy for truss structures
plane trusses
n = s + m 2nn
s:
Number of support reactions
space trusses
n = s + m 3nn
m:
Number of truss members
nn :
Number of nodes
(1.8)
n:
Degree of statical indeterminacy
Note: Usually, the best way of determining whether a structure is statically determinate, indeterminate or unstable is by
inspection.
n = 3 + 17 2 10 = 0
(statically determinate)
n = 3 + 11 2 8 = 2
(unstable)
n = 3 + 16 2 9 = 1
(statically indeterminate)
Fig. 1.18 Statically determinate, indeterminate and unstable truss structures.
11
Beams and frames

Degree of statical indeterminacy for plane frame structures
A formula similar to Eq. (1.8) exists to calculate the degree of statical indeterminacy for beam and frame structures.
n = s + i + 3m 3p
n = 5 + 0 + 0 3 1 = 2
s:
i:
Number of internal forces at hinges
m:
Number of closed loops without hinge
p:
Number of parts
n:
(stat. indet. to 2nd degree)
n = 5 + 4 + 0 33 = 0
(!! unstable!! CAUTION)
1
n = 3 + 2 + 3 3 3 1 = 11
2
2
2
2
4
n = 3 + 18 + 0 3 7 = 0
(stat. indet. to 11th degree)
(stat. det)
n = 4 + 4 + 31 3 3 = 2
(!! unstable!!, CAUTION)
Fig. 1.19 Statically determinate, indeterminate and unstable frame structures.
12
(1.9)
Degree of statical indeterminacy for space frame structures

For three-dimensional structures the formula is
n = s + i + 6m 6p
s:
i:
Number of internal forces at hinges
m:
Number of closed loops without hinge
p:
Number of members
n:
(1.10)
Example:
Fig. 1.20 Statically indeterminate three-dimensional frame.

For the 3-D frame above we obtain
n = 24 + 0 + 6 1 6 1 = 24
(stat. indeterminate to the 24th degree)
13
(1.11)
Problems
10 kN/m
1.1
C
D
F
G
6m
B
5m
3m
3m
4m
Solution:
153
188
80
11.25
35
40.8
20
40.8
+
35.2
[kNm]
91.3
[kN]
30.6
40.0
+
11.7
30.6
41.7
+
V
[kN]
28.0
1.2
10 kN/m D
F
3m
3m
50 kN
A
8m
4m
(a) Show that the two structures above are statically determinate.
(b) Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams of the two structures for the loading shown. Draw
the bending moment diagram on the tension side of the member.
14
(b)
(a)
3m
3m
4m
5m
3m
3m
4m
6m
6m
5m
6m
6m
1.3
(c)
3m
3m
4m
5m
(e)
3m
3m
4m
12 ft
12 ft
(f)
20 ft
12 ft
(g)
20 ft
(h)
20 ft
20 ft
Draw the bending moment diagrams of the above structures for the given loading. All applied forces, moments and
distributed loads have unit magnitude and intensity, respectively.
15
12 ft
5m
(d)
1.4
10 kN/m
20 kN
20 kN
(a)
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
2.00 m
10 kN/m
2.00 m
20 kN
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
10 kN/m
(b)
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
2.00 m
20 kN
25 kNm
(c)
1.00 m
2.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
1.00 m
20 kN
2.00 m
2.00 m
25 kNm
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
10 kN/m
(d)
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
2.00 m
2.00 m
25 kNm
25 kNm
25 kNm
(e)
1.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
2.00 m
1 kN/m
(f)
(g)4.00 m
2.00 m
3.00 m
1.00 m
1 kN/m
10 kNm
2.00 m
1.00 m
2.00 m
4.00 m
Find the shear force and bending moment diagrams of the beams for the given loading. Sketch the deflected shape.
16
20
Solution:
20
(a)
20
20
20
20
M
+
20
20
(b)
10
10
15
20
15
20
20
(c)
1.667
1.667
20
25
30
8.33
(d)
25
20
20
20
10
21.67
25
M
25
5
+
20
(e) V
6.25
6.25
25
12.5
6.25
6.25
12.5
25
1.5
1.5
(f) V
2.5
2.5
3.125
2
3.125
17
Principal of Virtual Forces

If Newtons laws are the salt of the earth,
energy principles are manna from heaven.
2.1
Introductory remarks
If we apply external loads to a structure, these loads cause external displacements at their point of application. The product of external loads and corresponding displacements is the external energy or external workWe imposed on the
structure.
The applied loads also cause internal forces and corresponding deformations (strains). The product of internal forces and
corresponding deformations, integrated over the entire structure is the strain energy stored in the structure, also called
the internal energy or internal workWi . The energy principle or law of conservation of energy states that the external
energy is equal to the internal energy stored in the structure. We assume that forces are applied slowly such that neither
heat or kinetic energy is generated.
2.2
Virtual work-Principle of virtual forces
Virtual work is done by virtual (imagined) forces on actual (real) displacements or the work done by actual forces along
virtual displacements. Accordingly, we distinguish between the principle of virtual forces and the principle of virtual
displacements. In this class, we use the principle of virtual forces to calculate a specific displacement (more precisely
a single component of the displacement) or a rotation at any point on the structure.
When applying the principle of virtual force, we apply a virtual or dummy load P at the point and in the direction of the
desired displacement or a dummy moment in the direction of a desired rotation . With the virtual force acting, we
apply the real loading to the structure. As the structure displaces under the real loading, the virtual force does external
virtual
We = P
(2.1)
work as it moves through the real displacement of the structure. The dummy load also does internal virtual work
Wi =
M (x ) (x ) dx + N (x ) (x ) dx + V (x ) (x ) dx
(2.2)
which is the work done by the internal virtual forces (virtual axial force N , virtual shear forceV and virtual bending
moment M along the strains (axial strain , shear strain and curvature ) caused by the real loading. Note that we
denote virtual (dummy) quantities by the prime-symbol.
In order for a system to be in equilibrium, the internal virtual workWi must be equal to the external virtual workWe .
Hence
P =
(2.3)
It is important, that the domain of integration is the entire structure and x is a coordinate along a structural member.
For convenience, if we let P = 1 , we obtain
=
(2.4)
where M , N andV are the internal virtual forces caused by a unit virtual force P = 1 . Now we can use HOOKEs
law to express the real strains in terms of the corresponding real internal forces
(x ) =
N (x )
EA
(x ) =
M (x )
EI
(x ) =
V (x )
GA
(2.5)
and obtain
=
M (x )
N (x )
V (x )
dx + N (x )
dx + k V (x )
dx
M (x ) N
EI
EA
GA
N
N
(2.6)
The factor k is a shape factor that accounts for the nonlinear distribution of shear stresses and shear strains (see ARCE
222, = VQ / It ) across the section. We will take a closer look at the shape factor in Section 2.15.
18
Analogously, we can use a unit virtual moment to calculate an unknown rotation at any point on the structure. The virtual work equation becomes (analogous to Eq. 2.3)
M L =
(2.7)
where M , N andV are the internal virtual forces caused by a virtual moment M L . We use the index L to distinguish
between the concentrated virtual moment that acts as a load on the left-hand side of the preceding equation and the internal virtual moment on the right-hand side. Again, we let M L = 1 and obtain
=
(2.8)
where M , N andV are the internal virtual forces caused by a unit virtual moment M L = 1 .
We summarize:
We use a virtual force to determine unknown displacements and a virtual moment to determine unknown
rotations.
2.3
Procedure for analysis
(1) Determine the internal force diagrams of the structure for the actual loading
(2) Place a unit load on the structure at the point and in the direction of the desired displacement (if we want to determine a rotation, we place a unit moment at that point, in direction of the desired rotation). Determine the internal
force diagrams of the structure for the unit loading.
(3) Evaluate the strain energy integrals (internal virtual work), which according to Eqs. (2.6) and (2.8) gives us the
desired displacement or the desired rotation directly.
2.4
Principle of virtual forces for trusses
Truss members carry axial force only such that Eq. (2.6) reduces to
=
N (x )
dx
EA
N (x )
(2.9)
Furthermore since the axial force is constant in each member (except for the effect of self weight of the member which
is typically small), we can drop the dependence on x and the above integral reduces to a summation
=
Ni
NE A L
i =1
(2.10)
where n is the number of members in the truss.

2.5
Principle of virtual forces for beams
Beams carry shear forces and bending moments such that Eq. (2.6) reduces to
=
M (x )
M (x )
V (x )
dx + k V (x )
dx
EI
GA
(2.11)
We will show in Section 2.15 of this chapter that the shear deformations are small for typical beams and frames whose
section depth is small compared to the length. Consequently, in this class, we will always neglect shear deformation in
beams and frames unless otherwise noted. With this approximation the virtual force expression for beams is simply
=
M (x )
M (x )
dx
EI
(2.12)
2.6
Principle of virtual forces for frames
Ignoring shear deformations, the principle of virtual forces for frames (structure that carry both bending moments and
axial forces) gives us
=
M (x )
M (x )
N (x )
dx + N (x )
dx
EI
EA
(2.13)
19
2.7
Example 2.1
10 kN
10 kN
3m
10 kN
B
4m
4m
Fig. 2.1 Example 2.1.

Problem: Find the vertical displacement at B and the horizontal displacement at E of the truss above for the given
loading. The axial stiffness is EA=10, 000 kN .
Solution:
1. Member forces for real loading.
We first find the member forces resulting for the given loading.
13.3
C
18.0
18.0
6.01
6.01
10.0
C
T
[kN]
10.0
Fig. 2.2 Member forces for real loading.

2. Member forces for virtual loading.
Vertical displacement at B
To find the vertical displacement at B , we apply in the vertical direction a unit virtual force at B and calculate the
resulting member forces resulting from this load.
0.667
0.601
D
0.601
0.601
3m
P = 1
C
0.333
4m
Fig. 2.3 Member forces for virtual loading (vertical displacement at B ).
20
0.601
C
A
4m
T 0.333
Horizontal displacement at E
To find the horizontal displacement at E , we apply in the horizontal direction a unit virtual force at E and calculate the
resulting member forces resulting from this load.
P = 1
D
0.500
E
3m
0.451
0.451
0.451
C
T
0.451
A
B
4m
4m
T
0.250
0.750 T
Fig. 2.4 Member forces for virtual loading (horizontal displacement at E ).

3. Summation
Since the truss structure has seven members, we have to include seven terms in the virtual work summation (see Eqs. 2.9
and 2.10)
P
N =
1
N
dx =
EA
i =1
E A N
N i Li
(2.14)
The calculations are best arranged in tabular form:

N [kN]
N ( B )
L [m]
N N L ( B )
AB
10.0
BC
10.0
0.333
0.750
4.000
13.33
0.333
0.250
4.000
13.33
DE
10.0
-13.3
-0.667
0.500
4.000
35.47
-26.6
4
5
AD
-18.0
-0.601
0.451
3.606
39.01
-29.3
DB
6.01
0.601
-0.451
3.606
13.02
-9.77
BE
6.01
0.601
0.451
3.606
13.02
9.77
EC
-18.0
-0.601
-0.451
3.606
39.01
29.3
166.2
13.4
Member
1
2
N ( E
N N L ( E
30.0
The vertical displacement at B and the horizontal displacement at E are thus

B =
166.2 kNm
1
N N L =
= 0.017 m=17 mm
10, 000 kN
EA
13.4 kNm
1
E =
= 0.0013 m=1.3 mm
N NL =
10, 000 kN
EA
Note:
(2.15)
Since the cross-sectional area A and the modulus of elasticity E are constant throughout the structure, we can
move the product of the two quantities (the axial stiffness EA ) out of the integral. If either E or A varies, we
must include them in the summation.
We can select the direction of the virtual force arbitrarily. The sign of the result automatically gives the correct
direction of the displacement. Positive results obtained in this example for both displacements indicate that the
displacements are in direction of the applied virtual force.
When the real and virtual member forces have different signs, i.e. real member force is compression and virtual
member force is tension or vice versa, the corresponding term in the summation is negative.
21
Fig. 2.5 Deflected shape of truss.

Figure 2.5 shows the deflected shape of the truss structure. Note that the horizontal displacement of joint E is much
smaller than the vertical displacement at joint B which is consistent with the analysis above.
2.8
Example 2.2
w
EI L / 2
=?
L/2

Problem: Find the midspan displacement for a simply supported beam of span L and flexural stiffness EI under a
uniformly distributed load w .
Solution: To find a specific displacement of a beam we use Eq. (2.12).
1. Bending moment diagram for real loading.
We find the real moment diagram by simple statics.
w
L2
8
Fig. 2.7 Moment diagram for real loading.

2. Bending moment diagram for virtual loading.
Since we want to find the vertical displacement at midspan, we apply at midspan a unit load in the vertical direction. We
find the virtual moment diagram by simple statics.
P =1
L
1
4
Fig. 2.8 Moment diagram for virtual loading.
22
3. Integration.
Measuring a coordinate x from the left support, we can write for the two bending moment diagrams
M (x ) =
wL
wx 2
x
2
2
M (x ) =
0x L
L/4
1
x= x
2
L /2
0x
L
2
(2.16)
Integrating the product of the two moment functions in the preceding equation according to Eq. (2.12) gives (because of
symmetry, we only need to consider half the beam)
=
1
EI
2w
=
EI
M (x ) M (x ) dx =
L /2
x
x
L
4
4
2
2
EI
L /2
1 wL
wx 2
x
x
dx
2 2
2
(2.17)
L4
2w L4
5wL4
dx =
=
EI 96 256 384EI
This is the same result derived in ARCE 223 either by double integration or the moment area method. We observe, that
in order to find displacements or rotations at specific points using the principle of virtual forces we need to evaluate the
integral of products of simple functions (shapes), e.g. rectangles, triangles, trapezoids and parabolas. In the following
section, we will learn how to evaluate these integrals without formally integrating.
2.9
Integration Tables
2.9.1
Discussion
We can write the integral that we need to evaluate when applying the principle of virtual work as
=
M EI dx = (EI )
i =1
i M i* M i * Li
(summation over n segments of the beam)
(2.18)
where
M * :
typical value of virtual moment M
M* :
typical value of virtual moment M
tabulated integration factor depending on the shape of M and M
L:
Length of beam segment
EI :
Flexural stiffness of beam segment
Hence we can always evaluate the virtual work integrals by simple table look-up.
2.9.2
Example
As an example, we derive the -factor for two linear functions (triangles) where the triangles have opposite orientation.
Recall that in the context of the principal of virtual forces one factor in the integral of Eq. (2.19) is the real internal force,
the other represents the virtual internal force. Clearly, from a mathematical viewpoint the above concept can be used
whenever we have to integrate the product of two functions f1(x ) and f2 (x ) over a given interval (Fig. 2.9).
Problem: Find the factor such that
L
f1(x ) f2 (x ) dx = F1 F2 L
(2.19)
23
f1(x )
F1
x
f2 (x )
F2
Fig. 2.9 Integrating the product of two linear functions.

Writing the two triangular variations as functions of x gives
f1(x ) =
F1
L
(L x )
(2.20)
(2.21)
and
f2 (x ) =
F2
L
Integrating the product of the two functions yields

L
f1(x ) f2 (x ) dx
F2
L
F1
L
(L x ) dx =
F2 F1
L L
(Lx x 2 ) dx
F1 F2 x 2 x 3
L
L L 2
3 0
1
= F1 F2 L
6
(2.22)
Hence, the -factor for two triangles with different orientation is 1/6. Factors for the most common internal force distributions are listed on the next page.
It is often necessary to split up the area under a moment diagram into several parts before applying the integration tables,
e.g, subdividing a trapezoidal moment shape into two triangles. Note that it is unnecessary to find the two distances
L1 and L2 when subdividing an internal force diagram that varies from a positive to a negative value (see Fig.2 .10).
a
+
b
L
L1
L2
Fig. 2.10 Subdividing trapezoid into two triangles.
24
b1
M1
b2
M2
a1
a2
L
Fig. 2.11 Integrating the product of trapezoidal functions.
The integral of the product of the two moment functions is
1
M (x )M (x ) dx = 6 a b L + 3 a a L + 6 b a L + 3 b b L = 6 a
1
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
(2a 2 + b2 ) + b1 (2b2 + a2 ) L
(2.23)
If M 1 and M 2 are identical trapezoids (a1 = a 2 , b1 = b2 ) , a case often encountered when analyzing a structure by the force
method (Chapter 3), the above formula reduces to
1
M (x )M (x ) dx = 3 (a
1
2
1
+ b12 + a1b1 L
(2.24)
Throughout this class, we will be using Eqs. (2.23) and (2.24) over and over again.
2.10 Summary
Before discussing more examples, we summarize the principal of virtual forces to calculate displacements at specific
locations in a structure.
P = 1
P = 1
Absolute displacement
P = 1
Relative displacement
M = 1
M = 1
Relative rotation
(hinge rotation)
Absolute rotation
Fig. 2.12 Principle of virtual force (basic cases).
25
Table 2.1: M i M k -Tables ( -values)
Mi
Mk
1
2
1
2
Mk
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
6
1
4
1
2
1
4
1
3
2
3
1
3
5
12
2
3
5
12
17
48
2
3
1
4
17
48
Mk
Mk
Mk
Mk
S
Mk
M (x )M (x ) dx = M
i
Mi
Mi
Mk L
Note : Curved functions are quadratic parabolas with horizontal slope @ S
26
2.11
Example 2.3
EI
L/2
L/2

Problem: Find the rotation EI at the two supports for the simply-supported beam under a concentrated force at midspan.
Solution:
EI
L/2
L/2
PL
4
Fig. 2.14 Bending moment diagram for real loading.

Since we want to find the rotation at support A , we apply a virtual moment M = 1 at that location. The direction of the
unit virtual moment is arbitrary. The sign of the answer will indicate the correct sense of the rotation. A positive results
means the rotation is in the direction of the applied dummy moment, a negative result indicates the sense of rotation is
opposite to the applied moment. Since we expect the rotation to be counterclockwise, lets apply the moment in the
counterclockwise direction. The results should then be positive. Simple statics gives
M = 1
L/2
0.5
L/2
M
1
Fig. 2.15 Bending moment diagram for virtual loading.

3. Integration.
To find the rotation , we have to integrate the product of the two moment functions in Fig. 2.13 and 2.14 (same procedure as in Example 2.2). Using Table 2.1, we find that the -factor to integrate the product of two triangles shaped like
those above is . Hence
EI =
1 PL
PL2
1 L =
4
16
M (x )M (x ) dx = 4
(2.25)
The end rotation of a simply supported beam under a concentrated force at mid-span is thus
=
PL2
16EI
(2.26)
27
2.12
Example 2.4
w = 1 kN/m
C
A
10 m
EI
4m

Problem: Use the principle of virtual forces to find the vertical displacement and the rotation at C .
Solution:
1
102
= 12.5
8
42
=2
8
[kNm]

In order to find the vertical displacement at C , we apply a virtual force at C in the vertical direction (direction is arbitrary). We obtain the corresponding moment diagram by simple statics.
4
P = 1
10 m
4m
Fig. 2.18 Bending moment diagram for virtual loading P = 1 .

In order to find the rotation at C , we apply a virtual moment at C (direction is arbitrary). We obtain the corresponding
moment diagram by simple statics.
M = 1
10 m
4m
Fig. 2.19 Bending moment diagram for virtual loading M = 1 .

3. Integration
Displacement
We compare the real moment diagram in Fig. 2.16 to the virtual moment diagram in Fig. 2.17. Since we do not have a
single integration factor for the entire beam, we have to integrate segments AB and BC separately. We consider the
real moment diagram along segment AB as a superposition of a negative triangle of magnitude 8 and a positive parabola
of magnitude 12.5. We consider the real moment diagram along segment BC as a superposition of a negative triangle of
magnitude 8 and a positive parabola of magnitude 2. All integration factors are = 1/ 3 (see Table 2.1).
28
EI =
M (x )
1
(x ) dx = 4
M
8
10
4
12.5
10
+ 4
8 4
4
2 4

3 triangle x triangle triangle x parabola triangle x triangle triangle x parabola

due to P =1
1
= (320 500 + 128 32) = 28 kNm 3
3
(2.27)
The negative answer indicates that the vertical displacement of point C is opposite to the direction of the applied virtual
force. Point C thus moves up.
Rotation
We compare the real moment diagram in Fig. 2.16 to the virtual moment diagram in Fig. 2.18. Again, we consider the
real moment diagram along segment AB a superposition of a negative triangle of magnitude 8 and a positive parabola of
magnitude 12.5. We consider the real moment diagram along segment BC a superposition of a negative triangle of magnitude 8 and a positive parabola of magnitude 2.
EI =
=
M (x )
(x ) dx
M

due to M =1
1
1
2
(1 8 10 +
1 2 4 = 4.33 kNm2
1 12.5 10
) 1 8 4 +

3
2
3

triangle x tringle
rectangle x tringle
rectangle x parabola
Fig. 2.20 Deflected shape with calculated displacement and rotation .

.
29
(2.28)
2.13
Example 2.5
F = 10 kN
2m
EI = 5000 kNm2
4m
= 1 + 2
5m
5m
Fig. 2.21 Example 2.5: Sample structure and deflected shape (displacements vastly exaggerated).
Problem: Find the vertical displacement and the hinge rotation (angle change) at A . Neglect axial deformation in all
members.
Solution:
The structure is a frame structure. i.e. the member are subject to bending moment and axial force. To find a specific displacement of a frame by the principle of virtual forces we use Eq. (2.13). Since we ignore axial deformation, we do not
have to include the virtual work done by the axial forces such that the integral is that of Eq. (2.12).
After finding the reaction forces, drawing the real moment diagram is straightforward. Note that in order to find the
horizontal reaction forces, we have to dismember the structure and take moments about hinge A .
10
16.667
M
4.167
16.667
4.167
5
Fig. 2.22 Reaction forces and moment diagram for real loading.
2. Bending moment diagram(s) for virtual loading.
To find the vertical displacement at A , we apply a unit vertical force at A (see Fig. 2.22). To find the rotation hinge A ,
we apply a unit pair of moments at A (see Fig. 2.23). Note that the direction of both the applied force and moment is
arbitrary.
30
P = 1
1.667
0.417
1.667
0.417
0.5
0.5
Fig. 2.23 Reaction forces and moment diagram for virtual loading P = 1 .
M = 1
1.000
0.667
0.667
0.1667
0.1667
0
Fig. 2.24 Reaction forces and moment diagram for virtual loading M = 1 .
3. Integration.
Using the integration factors for triangles with equal and opposite orientation, we get
1
EI =
M M dx = 2 3 16.667 1.667 4 + 3 16.667 1.667
173.8
= 0.035 m
5000
22 + 52 = 173.80
1
1
2
2
M M dx = 2 3 16.667 0.667 4 + 6 16.667 (2 0.667 + 1.0) 2 + 5 = 99.44
99.44
=
= 0.020 rad= 1.14D
5000
(2.29)
EI =
Remarks
Watch for the proper sign in the integral expression. When the real and virtual moment diagrams have opposite
signs, the corresponding contribution in the integral (summation) is negative.
Since we neglect axial and shear force deformation, it is not necessary to determine the real and virtual axial
force and shear force diagrams.
In order to avoid mistakes, we should select a certain order in the summation and stick with it in all our work,
e.g. -factor x real moment x virtual moment x member length .
The positive answer for indicates that the displacement is in direction of the applied virtual force (down).
The negative answer for indicates that the change in angle is in the direction opposite to the applied virtual
moment (compare the deflected shape in Fig. 2.20 to the applied virtual moment in Fig. 2.23).
31
2.14
Example 2.6
50 kN/m
C
EI
= 10, 000 kNm 2
EA
= 50, 000 kN
4m
2I
100 kN
F
2m
6m
2m

Problem:
Determine the vertical displacement at locations A, B,C , D of the frame structure for the given loading. Neglect axial
force deformation except in member CF .
Solution:
1. Bending moment diagram for actual loading.
The structure is statically determinate such that we obtain the bending moments by statics. Since we consider axial deformation only in member CF , we do not have to draw a complete axial force diagram but use the bending moment diagram to show the axial force N in member CF .
200.0
225.0
+
M
NCF = 283.3 kN
[kNm]
233.3

We use the principal of virtual forces to calculate the deflection at locations A, B,C , D . Hence we need to analyze four
virtual load cases (unit force at A, B,C , D ) resulting in the four virtual moment diagrams shown in the figure below.
Like the real moment diagram, they are obtained by elementary statics. Again, we do not need the complete axial force
diagrams (only the virtual axial force in member CF ), since we ignore axial deformation except in member CF .
32
2.000
P = 1
4m
N = 0.333
2m
6m
for A
2.667
2m
4m
P = 1
N = 0
for B
2m
6m
2.000
2m
4m
P = 1
N = 1
M
for C
2m
6m
2m
2.000
P = 1
4m
N = 1.333
+
2m
6m
0.667
2m
for D
Fig. 2.27 Virtual bending moment diagrams.

3. Perform integration
For each of the four virtual bending moment diagrams we have to calculate the strain energy integral
=
1
EI
M (x )M (x ) dx + EA N (x )N (x ) dx
(2.30)
The results are
33
A =
B =
1 1
1 1
(200 2 225) 2 6.00 + 233.33 2.667 4.472
10000 6
2 3
1
0.333 283.33 4
50000
1
1 1
233.33 2 4.472
10000 2 3
= 11.2 mm
= 34.8 mm
(2.31)
C =
D =
1
1 283.33 4
50000
= 22.7 mm
1 1
1
1 1
(200 225) 2 6.00 + 200 2 2.00 233.33 0.667 4.472
10000 3
3
2 3
1
+
1.333 283.33 4
= 35.3 mm
50000
4. Summary
Fig. 2.28 Sketch of deflected shape.
34
2.15
Shear deformation
Shape factor k
2.15.1
If we include flexural, axial and shear virtual work, the expression for a specific displacement in a frame structure is
P =
M EI dx + N EA dx + k V GA dx
(2.32)
where M , N ,V are the internal bending moment, axial force and shear force, respectively, and the prime-symbol
denotes the corresponding virtual forces. Selecting P = 1 gives
= flexural + axial + shear =
M EI dx + N EA dx + k V GA dx
(2.33)
The shape factor k accounts for the nonlinear shear stress and shear strain distriubution across the section. In what
follows, we derive the shape factor for a rectangular section.
Derivation of k for rectangular cross-section
The internal virtual work done by virtual shear stresses along real shear strains is
Wi =
( dA) dx
(2.34)
Since we dont want to evaluate the volume integral in the previous equation in our displacement calculations, we
calculate the shape factor based on the requirement
G dA dx = k V GA dx
(2.35)
or
G dA = kV GA
(2.36)
Calculating k based on the preceding equation allows us to perform the integration along the member, as if the shear
stresses were uniformly distributed across the section. From the shear formula (see ARCE 222, 223)
=
V Q
I t
(2.37)
we calculate the maximum shear stress, that occurs at the centroid of the cross section, as
max = 1.5
V
A
(2.38)
V
A
y2
(y ) = max 1 4 2
d
max = 1.5
Fig. 2.29 Shear stress distribution across rectangular section.

Knowing that the shear stress is parabolically distributed across the section (see figure above), we can write for the shear
stress variation across the section
35

y2
V
y2
(y ) = max 1 4 2 = 1.5 1 4 2
A
d
d
d
d
y
2
2
(2.39)
d
d
y
2
2
(2.40)
Using HOOKEs law gives

(y ) =
(y )
V
y2
= 1.5
1 4 2
G
GA
d
Replacing V byV in Eq. (2.39) we obtain for the virtual shear stresses
(y ) = 1.5
V
y2
1 4 2
A
d
(2.41)
Substituting the expressions for the real shear strains and the virtual shear stress in Eq. (2.40) and (2.41), respectively
into the integral in Eq. (2.36) yields
d / 2
d /2
(y ) (y ) dA =
d / 2
V V 9
y 2
1
4
2 dA
GA2 4
d
V V
9 8
=
b d
2
GA
4 15
2
4
V V
9
1 8 y 2 + 16 y 4 dy
b
GA2
4
d
d
d /2
6 V V
V V
=
=k
5 GA
GA
(2.42)
The shape factor for a rectangular section is thus k = 6 / 5 .

2.15.2 Significance of shear deformation
In order to shed some light on the significance of shear deformation we consider the cantilever structure in Fig. 2.29.
The structure has uniform rectangular cross section d x b and is subject to a force P at the top. Interest is in the relative
contribution of shear and flexural displacements to the total displacement for varying aspect ratio L / d . We obtain the
total displacement at the top by combining flexural and shear deformations
total = flex + shear =
M
V
PL3
PL
dx + k V
dx =
+ 1.2
3EI
EI
GA
GA
(2.43)
PL
Fig. 2.30 Cantilever structure subject to shear and bending.

Using the relation between the modulus of elasticity and the shear modulus for concrete
G=
E
E
E
=
=
N
2 (1 + ) concrete/masonry 2 (1 + 0.25) 2.5
(2.44)
we obtain
total
= flex + shear =
PL3
2.5 PL
1 PL3
PL
+ 1.2
=
+ 3
3EI
EA
3 EI
EA
36
(2.45)
With
I =
1 3
bd
12
I
1
= d2
A 12
A = bd
(2.46)
the ratio of flexural deformation to shear deformation becomes

2
L
flex
L3A
12L2
=
=
= 1.333
2
d
shear
3I 3L
9d
(2.47)
The relative contribution of shear and flexural deformation to the total deformation is then
2
flex
total
L
L
1.333
4
d
d
=
2 =
2
L
L
1 + 1.333
3 + 4
d
d
flex shear
,
total total
1
2
L
1 + 1.333
d
3
2
L
3 + 4
d
(2.48)
flex
total
shear
=
total
0.8
0.6
0.4
shear
0.2
0
0
total
1
L
5 d
Fig. 2.31 Relative contribution of shear and flexural deformations to total deformation.
The figure above plots the relative contribution of shear and flexural displacement to the total displacement. For an
aspect ratio of L / d = 1 for example, the shear and flexural displacements are about 43% and 57%, respectively.
L
=4
d
L
=2
d
L
=1
d
L
= 0.5
d
Fig. 2.32 Increasing shear deformation with decreasing aspect ratio L / d .
37
Problems
2.1
1 k/ft
10 k
6 ft
6 ft
12 ft
(b)
(a)
10 k
4 ft
1 k/ft
10 k
4 ft
4 ft
6 ft
6 ft
(d)
(c)
5 k ft
10 k ft
5 k ft
12 ft
12 ft
(e)
(f)
1 k/ft
10 k ft
1 k/ft
10 k ft 5 k ft
12 ft
10 k ft
12 ft
(g)
(h)
Use the principle of virtual forces to calculate the midspan deflection EI and the two end rotations EI A and EI B of
the simple beams above for the given loading.
Solution:
EI [k-ft3 ]
EI A [k-ft2 ]
EI B [k-ft2 ]
a
360
90
90
b
270
72
72
c
613.3
160
160
d
135
40.5
31.5
Note:
Positive values for : displacement is down
Positive values for A : rotation is clockwise
Positive values for B : rotation is counter-clockwise
38
e
45
10
20
f
45
30
0
g
90
12
12
h
315
72
102
2.2
4 kN/m
10 kN
3m
(a)
A 5 kN
3m
EI =20, 000 kNm2
6m
Find the horizontal displacements at A and B for the frame shown. Neglect axial deformation in all members.
Solution:
A = 0.020 m = 0.8 "
B = 0.028 m = 1.1 "
2.3
10 kN
3m
EI =20, 000 kNm2
5 kN
3m
EA=5, 000 kN
6m
Find the horizontal displacements at A and B for the frame shown. Neglect axial deformation in the bending members,
but consider axial deformation in the truss members.
Solution:
A = 0.024 m = 0.94 "
B = 0.046 m = 1.81 "
39
2.4
100 k
100 k
15 ft
10 k/ft
6 ft
Calculate the horizontal and vertical displacement at A . The structure has uniform 3 ft x 3 ft square cross section.
Use E =576, 000 k/ft2 .
Solution:
h = 0.0336 ft=0.4 in v = 0.0250 ft=0.3 in
2.5
10 k
A 10 k
6 ft
EA=10, 000 k
8 ft
For the simple truss shown, find the horizontal and vertical displacement of point A .
Solution:
A, H = 0.034 ft = 0.41 "
A,V = 0.008 ft = 0.097 "
2.6
50 kN
20 kN/m
20 kN/m
A
C
B
3.00
1.00
[m]
2.00
E
2.00
F
1.00
3.00
Find EI c , where c is the angle change at hinge C due to the given loading. The beam has constant flexural
stiffnes EI .
Solution:
40
EI c = 21.6 kNm 2
G
2 kN/m F
4m
2.7
4m
EI =15, 000 kNm2

B
A
3m
3m
3m
3m
Find the horizontal displacement and rotation of point E of the above frame structure ( EI =15, 000 kNm2 ). Neglect
axial deformation.
Solution:
E = 0.889 103 rad(cw)
E = 0.0107 m
2.8
b =1
G = 0.625E
d
The simply supported beam above has a rectangular cross section d x b . For L / d = 10, 5, 2 and 1 , find the relative contribution of bending and shear to the total displacement.
Solution:
L /d
10
F [%] 98.5
S [%] 1.5
5
94.2
5.8
2
27.7
72.3
2.9
1
39.5
60.5
F1
F2
EI
F3
r
Find the horizontal displacement at A for the semi-circular arch. Consider the three forces separately and ignore axial
deformation.
Solution:
due to F1 : A = F1
r3
2EI
due to F2 : A = F2
r 3
r 3
due to F3 : A = F3
4EI
2EI
41
2.10
10 kN/m
20 kN
20 kN
A
4.00
EI = 10, 000 kNm2

EA = 20, 000 kN
[m]
2.00
2.00
2.00
5.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
Calculate the vertical displacement at locations A, B,C and D of the given frame structure. Neglect axial force deformation in the girder ADA .
Solution:
A = 26.3 mm
B = 6.2 mm
C = 6.4 mm
D = 28.4 mm
12
13
14
15
16
17
10
11
3.00 m
18
19
20
21
22
10 @1.00 m
133 T
162 T
162 T
178 T
178 T
13.8
T
.1
18
183
87.0 T
10.0 C
18.4
157
8.57 C
155 C
10.0 C
5C
24.
113 C
7.50 C
10.0 C
.4
112 C
133 T
33
.0
35
.0
82.7 T
5.55 C
82.7 T
40
.4
C
50.3 C
10.0 C
19.0 T
9T
34.
50.1 C
2.50 C
10.0 C
19.0 T
21.
5C
25
0.50 m
2.11
C
186
C
202
Calculate the vertical displacement of joint 8 of the truss structure above ( EA=100 MN ). All applied forces have magnitude 10 kN and the resulting member forces are provided by the figure above (forces in kN). The joints of the bottom
chord lie on a quadratic parabola with zero slope at node 12.
Solution:
8 =9.7 mm
42
2.12
F
F
F
L
EA
F
L
The 3-D truss structure above (in ARCE circles known as the 12-node model) has square roof and wall panels of dimension L , i.e. all angels are either 45 or 90 degrees. Find the horizontal and vertical displacements of points A and B (in
terms of F , EA and L ). Hint: First analyze the roof plane as a plane truss with roller supports representing the wall
diagonals and find the reaction forces at the roller supports.
2.13
10 kN/m
A
4m
4m
Using the principle of virtual forces, find the:

(a) vertical displacement at B ; (b) hinge rotation at B ; (c) rotation at C . The flexural stiffness is EI = 10, 000 kNm2
Solution:
(a) B = 0.075 m
(b) B = 0.0427
(c) C = 0.0213 ccw
2.14
(a)
(b)
Using the principle of virtual forces, find the vertical displacement of the tip of the cantilever for the two loading
conditions. The beam has constant flexural stiffness EI .
Solution:
(a) =
11 wL4
120 EI
(b) =
1 wL4
30 EI
43
2.15
2.00 m
0.50 m
0.1 MN/m
E = 30, 000 MN/m2

b = 1m
8.00 m
Using the principle of virtual forces, find the vertical displacement of point A of the cantilever beam above. The beam
has uniform modulus of elasticity E and width b . The bottom face of the beam is a quadratic parabola with zero slope
at A . Subdivide the beam into 10 segments and use the SIMPSON integration rule to evaluate the virtual force integral
numerically.
Solution:
A = 0.0102 m
10 kN/m
2.16
A
C
3.00 m
3.00 m
3.00 m
Using the principle of virtual forces, find the midspan vertical displacement for spans AB and CD above. The beams
have uniform flexural stiffness EI .
Solution:
AB =
236.2
EI
CD =
135.0
EI
P,
E, A
rigid
2.17
A tension rod stabilizes a rigid post as shown. (a) For given values E , A, L, , derive a parameter k such that P = k .
(b) Find the angle that maximizes k .
Solution:
(a) k =
EA
cos2 sin (b) 35D
L
44
2.18
Two brackets support shelves of length L as shown in the picture.
(1) Where must the brackets be placed such that middle and end deflections are equal?
(2) Where must the brackets be placed such that the stresses in the shelves at the location
of the bracket and in the middle are equal? Consider the loading of the shelves uniform.
2.19
1k
2k
2k
2k
4k
1k
2k
1k
2k
4k
2k
1k
The 12-node truss structure shown above is loaded by a uniformly distributed load acting on the roof. Using the concept
of tributary area we have determined the corresponding 1 k, 2 k or 4 k point loads, acting on the truss joints. Columns
are removed and replaced by trusses as shown on the next two pages. For the ten designs, use the principle of virtual
forces to calculate the vertical displacement of point A for the given loading. All members of the truss have axial
stiffness EA .
Note that for clarity the following structural elements are not included in the diagrams:
(a) diagonals in the wall planes
(b) diagonals in the roof plane (except for designs "Skewed" and "Ooo-La-La") where the roof diagonals also act as the
chords of the trusses
(c) the out-of-plane bracing of the truss joints below the roof plane.
45
Skewed
Same Old Saturday Night
3'
12 '
A
12 '
12 '
12 '
12 '
12 '
Ooo-La-La
Longey
Corner Delight
T-Bone
46
Double Trouble
Baseball Cap
Storefront
Drive Thru
Designs by Jake Feldman, Professor Emeritus of Architectural Engineering
47
2.20
A
A
Longey
Same Old Saturday Night
B
B
Double Trouble
T-Bone
A
A
Storefront
Corner Delight
Drive Thru
Baseball Cap A
A combined dead and live load of 36 psf acts on the eight 36 ft x 24 ft x 12 ft structures shown above. The load is
transferred from the joists through the girders into the columns (one-way). Use the principal of virtual forces to find the
vertical displacement of point A or points A and B of the structures. The girders have uniform flexural stiffness EI .
Neglect axial deformation in the columns. Lateral force resisting structural elements are not shown.
48
The Force Method of Structural Analysis
3.1
Introduction
The structures analyzed so far have all been statically determinate. For a statically determinate structure, we can determine the reactions and internal forces of the structure using equilibrium equations alone. Knowing the internal forces,
we can apply the principle of virtual forces (Chapter 2) to find displacements provided the material and section properties for the members are known. For statically indeterminate structures, the equilibrium conditions do not suffice to calculate the support forces and internal forces. For analysis if indeterminate structures we thus need to develop additional
equations.
Two fundamental procedures are available to analyze statically indeterminate structures: The force or flexibility method
and the displacement or stiffness method. In this chapter, we discuss the force method, the oldest of the two analysis methods. In the force method, we choose redundant forces as unknowns and employ additional conditions of compatibility
to obtain sufficient equations to solve the problem. By compatibility we mean that the structure must fit together and the
deflected shape is consistent with the boundary conditions imposed by the supports. Redundant forces are forces that we
can remove from the structure without sacrificing stability of the structure. They may be external (reaction forces) or internal forces (member forces). The number of redundant forces is equal to the degree of statical indeterminacy. For each
redundant force, we have to write a compatibility equation, which results in a set of compatibility equations (mathematically, a set of linear algebraic equations) that we have to solve simultaneously.
In this chapter, we make use of the following assumptions.
(1) Hookes law is valid, i.e. force and displacement (stress and strain) are linearly related.
(2) Displacements are small compared to the dimensions of the structure.
(3) Equilibrium is formulated for the undeformed structure.
Based on the assumptions above, the principle of superposition holds which can be stated as follows: The combined
effect of any number of loads can be obtained by adding the effects of each individual load separately. As we will demonstrate in the next section, the principle of superposition forms the basis for the force method.
3.2
3.2.1
Discussion
Redundant
A
L/2
B EI
L/2
C
L
Fig. 3.1 Sample system to illustrate force method.

We discuss the main feature of the force method by the two-span continuous beam in Fig. 3.1. The structure consists of a
single member and has four constraints, two at pin A and one each at rollers B and C . In previous classes, we learned
that three constraints are sufficient for stability of a single member in two dimensions, provided the three constraints do
not constitute a parallel or concurrent force system. Stability, we recall, means preventing rigid-body displacements under any loading condition. Since this structure in Fig. 3.1 has one more constraint than necessary for stability, it is statically indeterminate to the first degree. Thus there is one redundant reaction force. We designate one of the three reaction
forces, say C as the redundant force. Note that the reaction at B could as well be considered a redundant, since the pin
at A and the roller at C are sufficient to prevent all motions.
3.2.2
Statically determinate base structure and compatibility
The first step in the force method is to select a statically determinate base structure, also referred to as primary structure, by removing redundant forces from the original indeterminate structure. The number of constraints to be removed
is equal to the degree n of statical indeterminacy. Since the above structure is statically indeterminate to the first degree
49
we have to remove one constraint. As mentioned above, we remove the roller support at C, such that the base structure is
a simple statically determinate beam with cantilever.
Both the given loading and the redundant force (magnitude is unknown) are now applied to the base structure. The
original indeterminate structure is thus a superposition of two separate load cases applied to the base structure
(see Fig. 3.2).
F
EI
(a)
C 0
M0
(b)
(c)
C 1
MC
Fig. 3.2 Principle of superposition in force method.

We next analyze the determinate structure separately for the external loads and the redundant forces. We refer to the
base structure with external loads applied as the 0-structure, the base structure with the first redundant force applied as
the 1-structure, the base structure with the second redundant force applied as the 2-structure and so on. For each of
the n + 1 load cases applied to the base structure we calculate the displacements at each location where a redundant force
acts. The sum of these displacements is then equal to the known value of the displacement at the location of the redundant force. If we select a reaction force at a roller as redundant, the sum of the displacements for the base structure will
be zero. This procedure generates a set of n compatibility equations. For the example above, the compatibility equation
is
C
=
superposition
3.3
C 0 + C 1
(3.1)
roller at C
Example 3.1
F
A
L/2
B
L/2
EI

Problem: Find the bending moment diagram for the two-span continuous beam above.
Solution: We apply the procedure described in the previous section.
1. Statically determinate base structure
We remove the support reaction at C to create a statically determinate base structure that we can analyze by statics.
50
We repeat that the selection of a redundant is arbitrary because we can always select the base structure in several different ways. Instead of removing a vertical support we can remove the resistance to bending at the middle support. In that
case, the base structure would consist of two simply supported beams. We will address different options for selecting the
base structure later.
Since the principle of superposition holds, the original statically indeterminate can be viewed as the superposition of two
load cases acting on the statically determinate base structure: (0) the external load and (1) the (yet unknown) support
force acting at C (see Fig. 3.2).
Next, we analyze the base structure for those two load cases:
2. Moment diagrams and displacements for base structure
(a) external loading
EI
10
M0
" 0 " -structure
L/4
Fig. 3.4 Deflected shape and moments of base structure for given external load (0-structure).
Figure 3.4 illustrates the analysis of the base structure for the external loading whose magnitude is known. The applied
fore F causes the displacement 10 at C , which is location where we apply the redundant force one, or short location 1
(since the structure is indeterminate to the first degree, there is only one redundant force). We always denote the
displacements for the base structure by two subscripts. The first subscript (1) indicates the location of the displacement;
the second subscript (0=external loads) indicates the force that causes the displacement. Clearly, the
displacement 10 violates the prescribed boundary condition, which requires that 1 = 0 .
(b) redundant loading
Next we look at the displacement caused by the support force C. Since the real support force is unknown, we apply a
force x 1 =1 of unit value at C. Selecting a force of unit magnitude is only for a convenience. The direction of the redundant force is arbitrary (since the applied force F has the tendency to lift the beam up from support C , we apply the redundant force downward and expect a positive result). The unit force acting at location 1 causes a displacement 11 .
The displacement 11 is the displacement at the location where we apply the redundant force one (first index=1) caused
by a unit force for redundant one (second index=1). The displacement 11 is termed flexibility coefficient (displacement at
the location and in direction of a unit force). By superposition (the material is linearly elastic), the force of yet unknown
magnitude x 1 causes the displacement 11 = x 111 .
L
EI
C
1
11
" 1" -structure
M1
Fig. 3.5 Deflected shape and moments of base structure for unit value of redundant (1-structure).
3. Compatibility equation
Since the statically indeterminate structure is the sum of the two determinate structures in Fig. 3.2, the sum of the two
displacements must be zero and we can write the compatibility equation
1 = x 1 11 + 10 = 0
(3.2)
11
51
Solving the compatibility equation yields

x1 =
10
(3.3)
11
Using the principle of virtual forces learned in Chapter 2 to calculate the delta-values gives
1
=
EI
1
=
EI
11
10
1
EI
1
M 0 M 1 dx =
EI
M 1 M 1 dx =
1 1
2 L
L L 2L
=
M 1 M 1 dx =
3 EI
EI 3
3
1 1 FL
1
L

LL = F
M 0 M 1 dx =
16 EI
EI 4 4
(3.4)
Note that we can view the moment diagram M 1 as both the real and the virtual moment diagram ( M 1 = M 1 ).
Substituting in Eq. (3.3) we obtain
x1 =
Note:
10
11
3
F
32
(3.5)
The sign convention for the delta values is that displacements are positive if they are in direction of the
applied redundant. Since the redundant is applied downward and the base structure moves up at the location of
the redundant, 10 is negative (see Fig. 3.4).
Since we neglect shear deformation in Eq. (3.4), we do not need the shear force diagramsV0 andV1 to calculate
the displacements for the base structure.
4. Final moment diagram by superposition

Applying the concept illustrated in Fig. 3.2, we obtain the final moment diagram by linear superposition
M = M 0 + x 1M 1
(3.6)
From Figs. 3.4 and 3.5 we obtain the moment at support B of the continuous two-span beam
MB = 0 +
M0
3
3
F (L ) = FL
32
32
M
(3.7)
x1
For the moment in span AB we obtain

M 0.5AB
=F
L 13
L
3
+ F =
FL
2 64
4 32
x1
M0
(3.8)
M1
Connecting these two points with M = 0 at the external supports gives us the bending moment diagram, shown in Fig.
3
3.6.
F
A
L
32
EI
FL
Fig. 3.6 Deflected shape and moments of indeterminate structure.
13
FL
64
We can write Eq. (3.6) in a more general form

R = R0 + x 1R1
(3.9)
where R is any desired response quantity of the original statically indeterminate structure. R0 is the value of that response quantity for the primary structure due to the given load. R1 is the values of that response quantity for the primary
structure due to unit value of the redundant force x 1 .
52
3.4
Example 3.2
3m
50 kN D
3m
100 kN
6m
6m
Fig. 3.7 Example 3.2: Indeterminate truss.

Problem: Find the member forces of the truss above for the given loading. The structure has constant axial stiffness EA .
Solution:
Since the truss structure in Fig. 3.7 is indeterminate to the first degree, we form a determinate base structure by releasing
one redundant force. We select the horizontal reaction force at C . The base structure is shown in Fig. 3.8.
50 kN D
3m
3m
B
3m
3m
100 kN
A
6m
x1 = 1
6m
C
6m
6m
Fig. 3.8 Statically determinate base structure.

2. Member forces for base structure
141.4
T
250.0
T
167.7
212.1
T
N0
10 (< 0)
167.7
Fig. 3.9 Member forces and deflected shape of base structure for external load (0-structure).
53
2.000
C
2.236
2.236
N1
T
1.414
1.414
11
Fig. 3.10 Member forces and deflected shape of base structure for unit value of redundant force (1-structure).
The displacements of the base structure are
10 =
10
N0
1 5
N N 0i Li
EA
EA i =1 1i
N
1 5
N 1 1 dx =
N N 1i Li
EA
EA i =1 1i
dx =
(3.10)
As in Chapter 2, we organize the calculations in a table:

N1 N1 L
L [m]
167.7
-2.236
6.708
-2515
33.54
167.7
-2.236
6.708
-2515
33.54
AD
-141.4
1.414
8.485
-1697
16.97
DC
-212.1
1.414
8.485
-2545
16.97
DB
250.0
-2.000
3.000
-1500
12.00
-10774
113.02
Member
AB
BC
N 0 [kN]
N1 N 0 L
N1
The redundant force (the horizontal reaction at C ) is thus

x1 =
10
11
10774
= 95.32 kN
113.02
4. Final member forces by superposition

We obtain the final member forces by superposition
N 0 [kN]
N1
N = N 0 + x 1N 1
Member
AB
167.7
-2.236
-45.44
BC
167.7
-2.236
-45.44
AD
-141.4
1.414
-6.61
DC
-212.1
1.414
-77.32
DB
250.0
-2.000
59.35
54
(3.11)
C
6.61
45.44
77.32
45.44
59.35
N
Fig. 3.11 Final member forces and deflected shape.
3.5
=0
Example 3.2 (Alternative)

In this section, we present an alternative analysis of the previous example by considering the force in member BD as the
redundant. The redundant force is now an internal force. When we release the axial force in this member (internal release), the remaining members and the two pin supports at A and C are sufficient to ensure stability of the structure (we
can view the base structure as two independent two-member trusses). We can view this release as a sleeve-like mechanism. Member BD retains its position in the structure but is unable to transmit an axial force.
3m
50 kN D
x1 = 1
3m
100 kN
A
6m
6m

2. Member forces for base structure
As in the previous examples, we have to analyze the determinate base structure for two load cases: Load case 0 is the
two external forces applied to the base structure and load case 1 is a unit value of the redundant x 1 applied to the base
structure. Since the redundant force is the force in member BD , load case 1 is a unit force in member BD .
55
0.707
0.707
T
35.35
35.35
0
C
111.8
T
1.000
111.8
N0
N1
1.118
1.118
Fig. 3.13 Member forces of base structure for external load (0-structure) and unit redundant force (1-structure).
As before, we calculate the displacements of the base structure in a table:
N 0 [kN]
N1
L [m]
N1 N 0 L
N1 N1 L
Member
AB
-111.8
1.118
6.708
-838.5
8.385
BC
-111.8
1.118
6.708
-838.5
8.385
AD
35.35
-0.707
8.485
-212.1
4.243
DC
-35.35
-0.707
8.485
212.1
4.243
DB
1.000
3.000
3.000
-1677
28.25
The redundant force (the force in member BD ) is thus

x1 =
10
11
1677
= 59.35 kN
28.25
(3.12)
As expected, the answer for the redundant force matches the final force in member BC of the first solution strategy.
D
D
D
D
x1 = 1
11
10
B
0
B
B
Fig. 3.14 Illustration of displacements 11 and 10 .

Figure 3.14 illustrates the two displacements for the base structure. The displacement 11 is the overlap in the axial force
release in member BD . This overlap is the relative displacement between B and D (the amount by which joints B and
D approach each other due to x 1 = 1 which is sum of virtual work of members 1 through 4 in column 7) plus the axial
deformation within member BD (member 5 in column 7). Likewise, the displacement 10 is the relative displacement
between joints B and D due to external loading. Since the external load causes joints B and D to move away from each
other (in the direction opposite to that of x 1 ), 10 is negative.
56
4. Final member forces by superposition

We obtain the final member forces by superposition, the results match those obtained before.
N 0 [kN]
N = N 0 + x 1N 1
N1
Member
AB
-111.8
1.118
-45.44
BC
-111.8
1.118
-45.44
AD
35.35
-0.707
-6.61
DC
-35.35
-0.707
-77.32
DB
1.000
59.35
3.6
Example 3.3
w

Problem: Find the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the two-span continuous beam above. Select the
moment at the mid-support as redundant (internal release).
Solution:
The two-span continuous beam is indeterminate to the first degree. Instead of selecting a reaction force as redundant (see
Example 3.1) we now consider the internal moment at B the redundant. Thus we obtain the statically determinate base
structure by removing the resistance to the bending moment at the middle support, i.e. inserting a hinge at B . The resulting base structure consists of two simply supported beams AB and BC . Figure 3.16 shows the original structure (the
two-span continuous beam) as a superposition of two load cases acting on the base structure.
w
C
=
w
+
MB
Fig. 3.16 Statically indeterminate structure as superposition of two load cases for the statically determinate base structure.
57

As before (Examples 3.1 and 3.2), we need to analyze the base structure for two load cases: (0) the external load w and
(1) the unit redundant moment x 1 =1 acting at the middle support. When the external load acts on the primary structure, a
slope discontinuity (angle change) 10 occurs at support B . Again we use the subscript 1 to indicate that the displacement is at the location where redundant 1 acts and the subscript 0 to indicate that the cause of the displacement is the given external load. Clearly, the slope discontinuity at B violates the internal compatibility requirement of continuity such
that the redundant moment must restore compatibility at B . To restore compatibility we apply a unit value of the redundant moment to the base structure, which causes slope discontinuity 11 . Since the compatibility requirement is that of a
rotation, the displacements 10 and 11 are rotations. These rotations are the sum of the rotations at B of the two simply
supported beams BA and BC (see Figs. 3.17 and 3.18).
base structure under external load (0-structure)
Figure 3.17 shows the deflected shape and the moment diagram for the base structure under given external load w .
w
10
M0
+
wL2
wL
8
8
Fig. 3.17 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for external load (0-structure).
2
base structure under unit value of redundant (1-structure)

Figure 3.18 shows the deflected shape and the moment diagram for the base structure under unit value of the redundant
force x 1 =1 .
X1 = 1
11
M1
Fig. 3.18 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for unit redundant (1-structure).
3. Displacement values and compatibility equation
For the two-span continuous beam in this example we must have slope continuity at B , i.e. there may not be a change in
slope at the middle support. Clearly, the base structure violates this requirement by producing slope discontinuities at B
(see Figs. 3.17 and 3.18). Using the principle of virtual forces, we obtain the delta-values (as in the previous examples,
the moment diagram M 1 serves as both real moment diagram for unit redundant and virtual moment diagram)
EI 10 =
M 0M 1 d x =
1
wL2
wL3
1
L=
3
8
24
(3.13)
58
and
EI 11 =
M M dx = M
1
2
1
dx =
1 2
1
1 L = L
3
3
(3.14)
Slope continuity requires

1
x 1 11 + 10
princ. of superposition
11
(3.15)
slope is continuous
Note that 1 is the slope discontinuity at B which must be zero because of the continuity of the beam at B .
The redundant moment is
x1 =
10
11
3wL3
wL2
=
24L
8
(3.16)
The support moment of a two-span continuous beam under uniformly distributed load is thus M B = wL2 / 8 . The negative sign is indicating that the moment acts in the direction opposite (tension at the top) to that assumed (tension at the
bottom).
With the compatibility equation solved we obtain the bending moments of the indeterminate system by superposition
M = M 0 + x 1M 1
(3.17)
wL2
8
_
M
wL2
wL2
8
8
Fig. 3.19 Bending moment diagram for two-span continuous beam under uniformly distributed load.
5. Shear force diagram

Since we didnt draw the shear force diagram for the primary structure, we cannot obtain the shear forces for the indeterminate system by superposition. The shear forces are most easily determined directly from the moment diagram for the
indeterminate structure using the statics-relation
Vl =
Mr Ml
L
+V *
Vr =
Mr Ml
L
V *
(3.18)
where M r and M l are the bending moments at the right and left member ends, respectively. The term V * is the static
shear force, i.e. the support reaction for a simply supported beam. For a member with zero span loading,V * = 0 . Thus
wL2
0
w L
8
=
+
= 0.375wl
L
2
wL2
0
8
w L
=
+
= 0.625wl
L
2
VAB
VBC
wL2
0
w L
8
=
+
= 0.625wl
L
2
wL2
0
8
w L
=
+
= 0.375wl
L
2
VBA
VCB
59
(3.19)
0.375wL
+
0.625wL
Fig. 3.20 Shear force diagram for two-span continuous beam under uniformly distributed load.
3.7
Example 3.4
w
A
Fig. 3.21 Three-span continuous beam.

Problem: Find the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the three-span continuous beam above.
Solution:
The structure is statically indeterminate to the second degree and therefore two compatibility equations are needed for
the solution. As mentioned before we usually have several alternatives of selecting the base structure. The figure below
depicts some possible base structures with the two redundant forces either being support reactions or internal bending
moments. We will observe in homework assignments that Case 2, in which the redundant forces are the two support
moments, yields the least computational effort. This is because the virtual work integrals take on a particularly simple
form.
w
A
x1
x1
x2
x2
x2
x1
Fig. 3.22 Various statically determinate base structures.
60
We choose the two support moments as redundant forces and introduce the corresponding hinges, resulting in the statically determinate base structure below. Figure 3.23 shows the original indeterminate structure as a superposition of three
load cases acting on the determinate base structure: (0) external load, (1) redundant (yet to be determined) moment at A
and (2) redundant (yet to be determined) moment at B.
w
D
L
=
w
M B = x1
+
MC = x 2
Fig. 3.23 Principle of superposition for three-span beam.

The deflections of the statically determinate base structure along with the moment diagrams for the three loading
conditions are shown below.
20
10
wL2
8
M0
wL2
8
Fig. 3.24 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for external load (0-structure).
61
X1 = 1
11
21
M1
+
Fig. 3.25 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for unit redundant 1 (1-structure).
X2 = 1
12
22
M2
+
Fig. 3.26 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for unit redundant 2 (2-structure).
3. Displacement values and compatibility equations
The slope discontinuity at supports A and B must be zero for the original (statically indeterminate) structure. Since
the statically indeterminate structure is the sum of three loading conditions acting on the statically determinate structure,
this condition can be expressed as follows:
(1) The slope discontinuity at A (location of redundant one) due to the external loading plus the slope discontinuity at
A due to the support moment MA plus the slope discontinuity at A due to the support moment MB is zero.
(2) The slope discontinuity at B (location of redundant two) due to the external loading plus the slope discontinuity at
B due to the support moment MA plus the slope discontinuity at B due to the support moment MB is zero.
This is the essence of the force method for higher degree of statical indeterminacy. Recasting (1) and (2) from English
into Math leads to the set of compatibility equations
1 = 10 + x 111 + x 212 = 0
(3.20)
2 = 20 + x 121 + x 222 = 0
or in matrix form

11 12 x 1
= 10

x
20
21 22 2
(3.21)
The square and symmetrical matrix of flexibility coefficients ij is called the flexibility matrix. Note that the first index
of a flexibility coefficient ij describes the location of the deformation, the kind of deformation (displacement or rotation)
62
and the direction of the deformation. The second index indicates the cause of the displacement (see Figs. 3.24, 3.25,
3.26). For example 12 is the angular (since redundant 1 is a moment) displacement at location 1 (the location where the
first redundant acts) in direction of redundant 1due to a unit redundant acting at location 2.
With the bending moment diagrams in Figs. 3.24-3.26 we are able to determine the six delta-values needed in the
compatibility equations (3.20).
1
2L
3
EI 11 =
M 1 dx =
EI 22 =
M 2 dx
EI 12 =
M 2 dx
EI 21 =
M 2 M 1 dx
EI 10 =
EI 20 =
1 wL2
L
3 8
1 wL2
M 2 M 0 dx =
L
3 8
1
M 0 dx = 2
=
=
2
L
3
2
L
3
1
L
6
1
L
6
wL3
12
wL3
24
(3.22)
Canceling out EI , we can write the two compatibility equations as

0.6667 0.1667 x 1
0.0833
2
0.1667 0.6667 x 2 = 0.04217 wL
(3.23)
Solving simultaneously gives

x1 =
7
wL2
60
x2 =
2
wL2
60
(3.24)
Both unknown moments have negative value indicating that they act opposite (tension at top) to the applied unit moment
(tension at bottom).
With the two support moments calculated, the bending moment diagram for the statically indeterminate structure is
M = M 0 + x 1M 1 + x 2M 2
(3.25)
7
wL2
60
wL
8
wL2
8
+
1
wL2
30
Fig. 3.27 Moment diagram for indeterminate structure.
63
5. Final shear force diagram

As before, considering moment equilibrium for the individual spans gives the shear force diagram
0.583wL
0.383wL
+
0.033wL
_
0.417wL
0.617wL
Fig. 3.28 Shear force diagram for indeterminate structure.

3.8
Force Method for arbitrary degree of statical indeterminacy
For more redundant forces, we follow the procedure of the previous example. For a structure that is statically indeterminate to degree n we need to remove n redundant forces, i.e. we need to remove n constraints in order to form a statically
determinate base structure. For each of the n redundant force we write a corresponding compatibility equation leading to
a set of compatibility equations.
x 111 +x 212 + + x n 1n + 10 = 0
x 121 +x 222 + + x n 2n + 20 = 0
(3.26)
x 1n 1 +x 2n 2 + + x n nn + n 0 = 0
Solving these equations gives as the magnitude of the redundant forces and we obtain the final solution for any response
quantity R by superimposing the n + 1 load cases analyzed for the base structure ( n unit redundant load cases plus the
given load).
R = R0 + x 1R1 + + x n Rn
(3.27)
As we see from Eq. (3.26) the computational effort increases rapidly with increasing degree of indeterminacy. For a
structure that is indeterminate to degree n we have to calculate n(n + 1) delta-values. If we use the symmetry of the
flexibility matrix ( ij = ji ), we can realize some computational savings. We can show that the number of displacement
values needed is then n / 2 (n + 3) . The symmetry of the flexibility matrix is a result of MAXWELLs law.
3.9
Maxwells law
The displacement of a point A on a structure due to a unit force at point B is equal to the displacement of point B due to a
unit force at point A.
The rotation of a point A on a structure due to a unit moment at point B is equal to the rotation of point B due to a unit
moment at point A.
The rotation of a point A on a structure due to a unit force at point B is equal to the displacement of point B due to a unit
moment at point A.
As a consequence of this theorem, the flexibility coefficients are symmetric, i.e. we obtain the same value when switching the indizes ( ij = ji ).
64
3.10 Summary of force method

(1) Determine the number of degrees n to which the structure is statically indeterminate and remove n redundant forces
or moments to make the structure statically determinate. Draw the statically determinate base system and show the external forces and all redundant forces (redundant forces are reactions and/or member forces).
(2) Draw the internal force diagram(s) of the statically determinate base system for both the external forces and all redundant forces (one at a time). While it was essential to sketch the deflected shape of the base structure to understand the
concept of the force method, it is generally unnecessary to do so when solving problems.
(3) Determine all necessary displacement values i 0 and ij using the tables of -values (Table 2.1), set up the
compatibility equations and solve for the unknown redundant forces. Note that a negative value for a redundant indicates
the redundant acts opposite to the corresponding unit force or moment.
(4) Determine the moment diagram for the indeterminate structure using the principle of superposition.
(5) Determine the shear force and axial force diagrams for the indeterminate structure using statics.
3.11
Example 3.5
20 kN
10 kN
I
A
6m
I
= 2 m2
A
A
B
4m
4m

Problem: Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the frame structure above. Also find the
horizontal displacement at joint C . Neglect axial deformation in the frame members but consider it in the two-force
(truss) member AD .
Solution:
The structure is statically indeterminate to the second degree such that we need two compatibility equations for the
solution.
65

We select the horizontal reaction at B and the force AD as redundant forces. Thus one redundant is an external force, the
other an internal force and the statically determinate base structure is a single unit supported by a pin at A and a roller
at B . The base structure with external and unit redundant loading applied is shown below.
20 kN
I
10 kN
x1 = 1
A
I
= 2 m2
A
B
4m
6 m
x2 = 1
4m
66

+
60
70 = 30 + 40
M0
4.8
4.8
M1
in AD: N 1 = 1
6
+
M2
Fig. 3.31 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for external load and unit values of redundant forces
(0, 1, 2-structures).
The two compatibility equations are
x 111 + x 212 + 10 = 0
x121 + x 222 + 20 = 0
(3.28)
The displacements for the base structure are
1
4.82 (6 + 8) + 2 12 10
3
1
EI 22 = 62 6 2 + 62 8
3
1
1
EI 21 = 4.8 6 6 4.8 6 8
3
2
1
1
1
EI 10 = 60 4.8 6 60 4.8 8 40 4.8 8
3
3
4
1
1
EI 20 = 60 6 6 + (60 + 40) 6 8
3
2
EI 11 =
= 127.5
= 432.0
= 172.8
= 1728
= 3120
67
(3.29)
Note that it is a popular mistake to ignore the axial deformation in member AD when calculating the displacement 11 (see Section 3.5).
We solve
127.5 x 1 172.8 x 2 = 1728

172.8 x 1 + 432 x 2 = 3120
(3.30)
and obtain
x 1 = 8.22 kN
x 2 = 3.93 kN
(3.31)

M = M 0 + x 1M 1 + x 2M 2
5. Final shear and axial force diagrams from statics
3.04
23.6
26.7
deflected shape
7.43
10.5
12.6
0.5
[kNm]
[kN]
3.93
+
8.22
N
17.5
[kN]
Fig. 3.32 Final internal force diagrams and deflected shape.

6. Horizontal displacement at C
To find the horizontal displacement at C , we use the principle of virtual forces. Hence
EI C =
M M dx + A N N d x
(3.32)
where M is the final moment diagram shown in Fig. 3.32 and M is a virtual moment diagram obtained from applying a
virtual force in the horizontal direction at C . It can be shown (the proof is beyond the scope of this class) that it is not
necessary to find the virtual moment diagram M for the original indeterminate structure. Instead, we can calculate the
virtual moment diagram for any statically determinate structure that is obtained from the original indeterminate structure by removing constraints, e.g. removing supports or introducing hinges. We call such a structure a reduced structure. The big advantage of using a statically determinate structure for the virtual moment diagram is that we dont have
to go through a complete indeterminate analysis again just to find the virtual moment diagram. For example, we can se68
lect as the reduced structure the determinate base structure of the previous analysis for which the moment diagram is
particularly simple.
P = 1
6m
+
M
B
8m
Fig. 3.33 Reduced structure for virtual loading and corresponding moment diagram.
EI C =
M M dx = 3 3.04 6 6 + ( 3 3.04 6 23.58 + 4 40.0) 6 8 = 206 kNm
(3.33)
Note that the preceding equation contains no axial force deformation since all members of the reduced structure are
assumed axially rigid.
An alternative and may be even simpler reduced structure is the determinate truss shown in Fig. 3.34 obtained from the
original structure by releasing the moment connections at joints C and D . No virtual moments exist. Since we ignore
axial deformation in all members except member AD , we just have a single term in the virtual work integral in Eq.
(3.34).
1.00
P = 1
0.75
6m
B
8m
1.25
M = 0
Fig. 3.34 Reduced structure for virtual loading and corresponding virtual axial force diagram.
EI C =
I
N N dx = 2 8.22 1.25 10 = 206 kNm 3
A
(3.34)
Note that the preceding equation contains no flexural deformation since all members of the reduced structure are truss
members.
69
3.12
Example 3.6
10
G
3.00
kN
m
X1 = 1
I
= 0.5 m2
A
D
X2 = 1
5.00
X3 = 1
[m]
B
4.00
4.00
Fig. 3.35 Example 3.6: Structure and statically determinate base structure.
Problem: Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the structure above. Neglect axial force
deformation except in member CG.
Solution:
We first determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. Since the structure has three external constraints, two internal
forces at C and F and four internal forces at D and G and consists of 4 parts
n = 3 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 4 4 3 = 15 12 = 3
(3.35)
Hence the structure is statically indeterminate to the third degree. Hence we need three releases with corresponding redundant forces to create the statically determinate base system. Since the structure is externally statically determinate,
i.e. there are three reaction forces and all reactions are given by statics, we may not select any reaction forces as a redundant force. Here we chose as redundant forces the force in member CG and the shear force and axial force in member DE. The statically determinate base system is shown in Fig. 3.35. Figure 3.36 plots the bending moments for the
base structure. Recognizing that there are no reaction forces due to the redundant loading, drawing the moment diagrams
should not pose a mayor problem.
70
2. Moment diagrams for base structure

+
20.0
20.0
80.0
N1 = 1
80.0
2.40
2.40
M1
M0
80.0
[kNm]
4.00
4.00
4.00
M3
M2
4.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
Fig. 3.36 Moment diagrams for base structure.

From the moment diagrams and the axial force in member CG we obtain the displacement values
1
2.42 (3.00 + 4.00) + 0.5 12 5.00
3
1
= 42 4 4.00 + 42 2 5.00
3
1
= 52 2 5.00 + 52 8.00
3
1
= 4 2.4 4.00
3
= EI 23 = EI 31 = EI 32
EI 11 =
= 15.94
EI 22
= 245.3
EI 33
EI 12
EI 13
= 283.3
(3.36)
= 12.80
=0
1
2.4 80 4.00
= 256.0
3
1
1
1
EI 20 = 4 80 4.00 4 80 5.00 + 40 4 4.00 4 4.00 (2 80 + 40) = 2453
3
6
6
1
1
EI 30 = 5 80 5.00 + 5 80 8.00
= 2600
2
2
EI 10 =
The set of compatibility equations is
71
(3.37)

0 x 256.0
15.94 12.80
1
12.80
245.3
0
x 2 = 2453
0
x 3 2600
0
283.3

(3.38)
has the solution

x 1 = 8.36
x 2 = 9.56
x 3 = 9.18
(3.39)
4. Final moment diagram

After solving for the redundant forces the bending moments are readily available from the principle of superposition
M = M 0 + x1M 1 + x 2M 2 + x 3M 3
(3.40)
We obtain the shear forces from the bending moments using the moment equilibrium for the member, hence
V =
Mr Ml
L
V *
(3.41)
The axial forces N are then obtained from equilibrium at the joints.
20.0
+
20.0 +
21.7
41.8 20.1
20.0
+
6.7
38.3
5.4
9.6
+
[kNm]
[kN]
9.2
4.13
+
20.0
8.4
9.2
0.4
7.63
6.7
15.0
9.2
N
30.4
[kN]
9.6
+
9.2
Fig. 3.37 Internal force diagrams and deflected shape for Example 3.6.
72
3.13
Example 3.7
10 kN/m
D
3m
I
= 2 m2
A
3m
x2 = 1
x1 = 1
8m
4m
Fig. 3.38 Example 3.7: Structure and statically determinate base structure.
Problem: Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the structure above. Neglect axial force
deformation except for member BF .
We first determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. Since the structure has four external constraints, two internal
forces at B, D and E and four internal forces at F and consists of 4 parts
n = 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 4 4 3 = 14 12 = 2
(3.42)
Hence the structure is statically indeterminate to the second degree and we need two releases with corresponding redundant forces to create the statically determinate base system. Since the structure is externally statically determinate, i.e.
there are four reaction forces and all reactions are given by statics, we may not select any reaction forces as a redundant
force. As already observed for other structures, there are several possible base structures. We select as redundants the
force in member BE and the moment at B. We determine the internal forces for the base structure by statics and drawing
the diagrams should be relatively effortless.
+
60
45
M0
[kNm]
180
3.33
180
N2 = 1
+
+
1.00
M1
M2
3.33
Fig. 3.39 Bending moments for base structure.
73

From the internal forces we obtain the flexibility coefficients and the right-hand side
1 2
1 6.00 2 + 12 8.00 = 12.00
3
1
EI 22 = 3.3282 (6.00 + 2 8.00 + 4.00) + 2 12 52 = 110.42
3
1
1
EI 12 = 1 3.328 6.00 + 1 3.328 8.00 = 19.97
3
2
1
1
EI 10 = 1 6.00 (45 180) 1 180 8.00 = 990.0
3
2
1
EI 20 = 3.328 [60 (4.00 + 8.00) + 180 (6.00 + 8.00) 45 6.00] = 3295
3
EI 11 =
(3.43)
set up the compatibility equations

12.00 19.97 x 1 990
19.97 110.42 x 2 = 3295

(3.44)
and solve for

x 1 = 46.98 kNm
x 2 = 21.34 kN
(3.45)
4. Moments for indeterminate structure

11.0
+
45.0
[kNm]
47.0
62.0
Fig. 3.40 Bending moment diagram for indeterminate structure.

Donts
x1
x2
x2
x1
Fig. 3.41 Incorrect base structures.

Under no circumstances may we select base structures that are unstable. The figure above shows two examples. The
structure on the left-hand side collapses because the moment at E caused by axial force in member BF cannot be resisted
because of the release at E. In the example on the right-hand side, the vertical reaction force must not be selected as a redundant since it is given by statics. The same holds for the horizontal reaction force, which is zero by statics.
74
3.14
The force method for space frames
3.14.1 Discussion
Members of space frames are subject to six internal forces. These are the axial force, two shear forces in and two bending moments about the principle axes of the cross-section (subsequently denoted strong and weak axes) and the torsional moment. As for plane frame structures, we typically neglect shear and axial deformation. Using the principle of virtual forces, the displacements for the statically determinate base structure are then
3.14.2
Example 3.8
C
x
Member
BC
CD
BE
EF
FG
P = 24 kN
F
D
E
3.60 m
4m
EI S = 600, 000 kNm2

EI W = 400, 000 kNm2
GJ = 500, 000 kNm2
G
3m
4m
strong axis (S)

y
y
x
y
y
3m

Problem: Find the three bending moment diagrams (strong and weak axis bending and torsion) of the space frame above
for the given loading. Neglect axial force deformation. The flexural stiffness about the principal axes and the torsional
stiffness as well as the orientation of the principal axes are given in the table above. AB is a two-force member.
We can determine the support reactions in the x and z -directions by statics. The y -component of the support forces at
D and G , however, cannot be found from the equations of equilibrium. The structure is thus statically indeterminate to
the first degree.
C
C
B
D
Dz
Dx
Dy = 1
24 kN
E
Ax A
3.60 m
Az
F
D
4m
3m
3.60 m
Gx
4m
3m
4m
Gz
3m
4m
3m
Fig. 3.43 Statically determinate base structure for 0 and 1 loading.
75
x1 = 1

For the 0 loading we can find the support forces
= 0 Az = 12 Ax = Az
DG
= 0 Dz = 0
= 0 Dx = Ax = 10
3
= 10
3.6
AD
= 0 Gz = 12
CD
= 0 Gx = 0
(3.46)
For the 1 loading, all reaction forces except the y -components at D and G are zero. Figure 3.44 plots the corresponding moment diagrams (three for each load case) .
36
3.6
3.6
36
3.6
3.6
MT ,1
MT ,0
36
3.6
36
3.6
+
48
+
M S,0
M S ,1
36
3.6
3
3
M W,0 = 0
M W,1
Fig. 3.44 Moments (bending and torsional) for base structure.
76
3.6

As for plane structures, we obtain the displacement values directly from the moment diagrams using the principle of
virtual work
11
10
1
1
1
M S1 (x ) M S1 (x )dx +
MW 1 (x ) M W1 (x )dx +
MT 1 (x ) M T1 (x ) dx
EI S
EI W
GJ
1
1
1
=
M S1 (x ) M S0 (x ) dx +
MW 1 (x ) M W0 (x ) dx +
MT 1 (x ) M T0 (x ) dx
EI S
EI W
GJ
=
(3.47)
Doing the numbers for our example gives

EI S 11
EI S 10
x1
600
600 2
2
3.62 6.00 + 3.62 8.00 +
( 3.63 + 3.03 + 32 8.00) = 378.6
500
400 3
3
1
= 3.6 48 8.00 = 691.2
2
691.2
=
= 1.82 kN
378.6
=
(3.48)
4. Moments for indeterminate structure

We obtain the final moment diagrams by superposition
M S = M S1 + x 1 M S1
M W = M W1 + x 1 M W1
M T = M T1 + x 1 M T1
(3.49)
36
36
36
6.6
6.6
36
6.6
6.6
41.4
MT
MS
[kNm]
[kNm]
36
6.6
5.5
5.5
MW
[kNm]
6.6
5.5 5.5
Fig. 3.45 Moment diagrams (bending and torsional) and deflected shape for indeterminate structure.
77
Problems
3.1
40 k
2 k/ft
B
20 ft
7 ft
7 ft
Use the force method to find the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the two-span beam above (constant EI ).
(1) The redundant is the support reaction at B . (2) The redundant is the support reaction at D .
(3) The redundant is the bending moment at B . (4) The redundant is the bending moment at C .
Solution:
Strategy 10
11
x1
1
40267
768.6
52.4
2
28233
2222
12.7
3
1157
11.33
102
4
4033
45.33
89.0
depending on assumed direction of x 1
27.3
102
14.9
100
+
M
3.2
[k-ft]
25.1
89.0
12.7
[k]
2 k/ft
10 ft
EI = const.
20 ft
Use the force method to find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the two-hinge frame above
(constant EI ). Neglect axial force deformation.
(1) The redundant is the horizontal support reaction.
(2) The redundant is the bending moment at girder mid-span.
(3) The redundant is the bending moment at the column-girder junction.
78
Solution:
Strategy 10
11
x1
1
13333
2667
5
2
1333
26.67
50
3
1333
26.67
50
depending on assumed direction of x 1
3.3
E
3m
100 kN
4m
4m
Use the force method to determine the member forces of the above truss structure ( EA=const. ).
Solution:
Member
AB
BC
DE
CE
AD
BE
BD
Force [kN] 24.8 C 54.3 T 54.3 C 67.8 C 59.3 C 40.7 T 98.8 T
3.4
1 k/ft
C
EA = 4 k
EI = 1 k-ft2
9 ft
D
12 ft
12 ft
Three truss members support beam AC as shown. Calculate the force in truss member BD and the moment in the beam
at B . Draw the bending moment diagram. Neglect axial deformation in the beam, but not in the truss members.
Solution:
FBD = 14.62 k (C)
M B = 15.72 k-ft
79
3.5
141.42
3m
45
4m
3m
4m
(a) Determine the degree n of statical indeterminacy of the structure above.

(b) Select a statically determinate base structure, apply the redundant forces and draw the bending moment diagrams M 0 and M i , i = 1 n.
3.6
10 kN/m
G
2.00
4.00
20 kN
[m]
B
2.00
3.00
Use the force method to determine the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams of the structure for the given loading. Neglect axial deformation. The structure has constant flexural stiffness.
3.7
10 kN/m
11.0
D
3m
I
= 2 m2
A
+
45.0
[kNm]
3m
B
8m
47.0
C
4m
62.0
Use the force method to determine the bending moment diagram of the structure for the given loading. Neglect axial
deformation except for member BF . The structure has constant flexural stiffness.
80
3.8
50 k
5 k/ft
C
20 ft
20 ft
D
7.5 ft
7.5 ft
6.0 ft
Use the force method to determine the bending moment diagram of the structure for the given loading. The beam has
constant flexural stiffness. Discuss two solution strategies regarding their computational effort: (a) Redundants are the
moments at A, B,C ; (b) redundants are the vertical reaction forces at B,C , D . Then analyze the structure using the more
economical strategy.
Solution:
221
79.6
90
+
39.8
250
35.16
+
5
62
=22.5
8
7.52
=35.16
8
172
3.9
A
10 k
9 ft
6 ft
2I
9 ft
Use the force method to determine the bending moment and shear force diagrams of the structure for the given loading.
Solution:
15.89
9.57
2.83
+
37.98
M
26.55
2.83
7.17
7.17
81
3.10
B
2.00
C
15 kN/m
[m]
I
= 2 m2
A
2.00
5 kN
H
4.00
4.00
4.00
(1) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. (2) Use the force method to calculate the bending moment, shear
force and axial force diagrams. (3) Calculate the horizontal displacement at location B. Neglect axial force deformation
except for member EH.
3.11
10 kN/ m
6m
I
= 0.5 m2
A
F
3m
5m
E
5m
3m
(1) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy of the above frame structure. (2) Use the force method to calculate
the bending moment diagram for the given loading. (3) Calculate the rotation at hinge A. Neglect axial force deformation
except for member CF.
Solution:
19.0
5.67
31.2
31.2
19.0
[kNm]
82
3.12
B
100 kN
6m
F
EI =const.
A
5m
3m
3m
4m
Calculate the bending moment diagram of the above frame structure for the given loading. Neglect axial deformation.
Solution:
400
196
266
330
70
70
241
M
[kNm]
3.13
20 k
EI =const.
12 ft
Calculate the bending moment diagram of the above semi-circular arch for the given loading (ordinates every 30
degrees). Neglect axial deformation.
Solution:
6.1
22.1
6.1
22.1
43.6
[k-ft]
83
3.14
4m
B
100 kN
4m
4m
Use the force method to determine the member forces of the above truss structure ( EA=const. ).
Solution:
Member
AB
BC
DE
CE
AD
BE
BD
Force [kN] 36.0 C 36.0 T 61.3 C 76.7 C 54.0 C 46.0 T 90.0 T
3.15
4 k/ft
40 k
10 ft
2I
20 ft
Use the force method to determine the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams. Neglect axial deformation
in all members.
84
3.16
P1 A
17.7
17.7
+
3m
P2
3m
EI =1000 kNm2
27.3
30.1
27.3
14.9
+
12.3
12.3
14.9
[kNm]
+
30.1
5m
Two lateral forces P1 and P2 act on a two-story frame. The moment diagram corresponding to this loading is given.
(a) Find the forces P1 and P2 applied to the frame. (b) Use the principal of virtual work to find the horizontal displacement
of A .
Solution:
(a) P1 = 20 kN, P2 = 10 kN
(b) A = 0.147 m
3.17
20 k
EI =const.
12 ft
Calculate the bending moment diagram of the above semi-circular arch for the given loading (ordinates every 30
degrees). Neglect axial deformation.
Solution:
8.88
8.88
12.47
36.35
12.47
M
[k-ft]
+
26.54
+
26.54
85
2.5 m
5m
3m
(d)
2.5 m
(c)
5m
3m
5m
(e)
2.5 m
3m
(b)
2.5 m
3m
(a)
3m
3m
3.18
(f)
2.5 m
2.5 m
For each of the frame structures shown, calculate the stiffness k of the frame in the direction of the force. Assume
uniform flexural stiffness EI and neglect axial deformation.
Solution:
Structure
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
k
1
[ ] 0.0417 0.121 0.538 0.385 0.826 0.909
EI m 3
Deflected shape (for illustration only):
(a)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(f)
86
3.19
P2 = 100 kN
P1 = 50 kN
G
C
B
z
y
5m
E
2.50 m
Member
AB
BC
CD
DE
FG
GH
HI
IJ
CH
strong axis
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
y
3.00 m
2.50 m
3.00 m
A
EI weak = 10, 000 kNm2
EI strong = 30, 000 kNm2
GJ = 2, 500 kNm2
For (a) P1 and (b) P2 , draw the three moment diagrams (strong axis bending, weak axis bending and torsion) of the space
frame. The above table provides the orientation of the frame members with respect to the global coordinate system.
3.20
2 k/ft
2 k/ft
Member
AD
BE
CF
DE
EF
strong axis
y
y
x
y
x
12 ft
A
C
16 ft
EI weak = 200, 000 k-ft2
EI strong = 600, 000 k-ft2
16 ft
GJ = 120, 000 k-ft2
Draw the three moment diagrams (strong axis bending, weak axis bending and torsion) of the space frame for the given
loading. The above table provides the orientation of the frame members with respect to the global coordinate system.
87
The Slope-Deflection Method
4.1
General Remarks
Like the force method, the slope-deflection method is a classical procedure to analyze statically indeterminate beams
and frames. The slope-deflection method is less general than the force method, since we have to neglect axial and shear
deformation. Since we ignore axial deformation in the slope-deflection method, we cant apply the method to analyze
trusses. As we will learn in this chapter, the slope-deflection method works in the exact opposite manner as the force
method.
In the slope-deflection method, we use expressions that relate the moment at each end of the member to two types of rotations, the member end rotation and the chord rotation. The chord rotation is the relative displacement of the member
ends divided by the length of the member. We then formulate equations whose unknowns are the joint and chord rotations, then solve for the rotations and derive the bending moments from the rotations.
To become familiar with the main features of the slope-deflection method, we consider the beam below. If we desire to
find the bending moment diagram with the force method we would have to analyze a system that is statically indeterminate to the third degree. In the slope-deflection method, the degree of statical indeterminacy is irrelevant. In fact, the
higher the degree of indeterminacy the more advantageous the slope-deflection method becomes. This is because
the slope-deflection method is displacement driven and focuses on unknown displacements and rotations of the structure rather than unknown forces. The slope-deflection method is thus called a displacement method. In the structure below, joints A and C are fixed both against translation and rotation and joint B is fixed against translation. Therefore only
one unknown displacement exists, which is the rotation B at joint B . In the slope deflection methods unknown rotations are often referred to as degrees of freedom. The beam considered here has one degree of freedom. It is kinematically indeterminate to the first degree.
M AB
EI
M BA = M BC
MCB (a)
=
0
M AB
=?
0
M BA
=?
B = 0
(b)
+
0
M BA
M =?
M =?
(c)
M =?
M =?
Fig. 4.1 Deflected shape and bending moment for (a) original structure, (b) fixed-end condition (kinematically determinate), (c) for joint rotation.
88
In Fig. 4.1(b) we form a kinematically determinate base structure by restraining the joint rotation at B (in the force
method we form a statically determinate base structure by releasing redundant forces). The kinematically determinate
structure, however, violates equilibrium, since the two member-end moments at joint B are not the same (the bending
moment in Fig. 4.1(b) may not jump at B (In the force method we violate compatibility for the base structure). We now
release the artificially restrained beam and joint B rotates (see Fig. 4.1c) by an amount B until moment equilibrium
= M BA + M BC = 0
(4.1)
at joint B is satisfied (in the force method, we write compatibility equations to calculate the redundant forces).
The preceding equations expresses equilibrium at joint B with respect to the two member end moments M BA and M BC
acting at B . In the slope-deflection method, we express the member end moments in terms of the unknown rotations and
the applied loads. Hence
M BA = f (B , P ), M BC = f (B , P )
(4.2)
In what follows, we derive the slope-deflection equations, more precisely the moment-rotation relation for a flexural
member of uniform cross-section.
slope deflection
statics (design)
+M
+M
Fig. 4.2 Sign convention: slope-deflection method and conventional statics (design).
Important note: In order to formulate moment equilibrium at the joints, we must adopt a different sign convention than
that used so far when drawing bending moment diagrams. In the slope deflection method, a member end moment that
acts counterclockwise is positive. In contrast, when drawing a bending moment diagram a positive moment acts counter
clockwise at the right end of the member or the right cut section, but clockwise at the left end of the member or left cut
section (see Fig. 4.2). We will refer to the two sign conventions as the slope-deflection and statics sign conventions,
respectively.
End moments for prismatic members ( I =const. )
4.2
4.2.1
Fixed-end moments
In the slope-deflection method, we must start the analysis by transforming a member loading into equivalent moments
acting at the joints, assuming that both member ends are fixed against translation and rotation. These member end moments are termed fixed-end moments. We can calculate fixed-end moments for different loading conditions (uniformly
distributed load, triangular load, concentrated force) and support conditions (fixed-fixed or fixed-pinned) using the force
method. The results are widely tabulated (see Figs. 4.24 and 4.25).
4.2.2
End moments due to end rotation
The objective of this section is to derive the relationship between member end moments M ij and M ji and member end
rotations i and j (counterclockwise positive). As illustrated in the introduction to this chapter, we need this relationship
to formulate the joint equilibrium equations.
EI
M ij =?
M ji = ?
Fig. 4.3 Objective: Find member end moment caused by member end rotation (only joint rotation i shown).
89
Since we have learned how to calculate rotations from given moment diagrams (principle of virtual forces), we use the
following procedure to calculate moments due to given rotations.
(1) Apply a moment at one end of the member and hold the far end fixed.
(2) Calculate the moment diagram.
(3) Calculate the end rotation using the principle of virtual forces.
(4) Invert the result of (3) to obtain the desired moment-rotation relation.
After releasing the rotation and one end of the member and applying a moment, the structure in Fig. 4.3 is statically indeterminate to the first degree. We thus have to use the force method to find the moment diagram. We select as the base
structure a simply supported beam. Figure 4.4 shows the moments for the base structure.
M ij
M0
Fig. 4.4 Moments for base structure.
M1
1
The displacements for the base structure are

EI 11 =
1
L
3
1
EI 10 = M ij L
6
x1 =
1
M
2 ij
(4.3)
The moment diagram is thus

M ij
0.5M ij
Fig. 4.5 Moment diagram for applied end moment M ij (far end j fixed).
To find the desired end rotation we use the principle of virtual forces and apply a virtual moment M = 1 at joint i . We
use a simply supported structure for the virtual moment diagram (reduced structure).
M ij
11
0.5M ij
Fig. 4.6 Real and virtual moment diagram to find i due to applied M ij .
i =
1
EI
M M dx = 6 M
ij
1
L
2 1 2 1 L = M ij 4EI
(4.4)
Solving the preceding equation for M ij gives the desired moment-rotation relation
M ij =
4EI
L i
M ji =
1 4EI
2EI
2 L
L i
(4.5)
Clearly, for an end rotation j the results are

90
2EI
L j
M ij =
M ji =
4EI
L j
(4.6)
Combining the results we find the desired relation between end rotations i and j and end moments M ij and M ji
M ij =
EI
(4 i + 2j )
L
M ji =
EI
(2i + 4j )
L
M ij =
(4.7)
4EI
L i
EI
M ji =
M ij =
2EI
L j
2EI
L i
EI
j
L
M ji =
Fig. 4.7 Moments due to member end rotation.
4EI
L j
So far we have assumed moment transfer at both ends of the member. If one of the member ends is pinned, say joint j ,
we can eliminate j using the information M ji = 0 (zero moment transfer at node j ).
M ji =
EI
(2i + 4j ) = 0 j = 21 i
L
(4.8)
Note that the preceding equation is the second equation of Eq. (4.7) set to zero. Substituting the result of Eq. (4.8) into
the first equation of Eq. (4.7) gives the modified moment-rotation relation (with j eliminated)
M ij =
EI
L
4 + 2 1 = EI 3
i
2 i
i
L
(4.9)
M ij =
EI
3i
L
EI
i
M
j
Fig. 4.8 Moments due to member end rotation i for j -end pinned.
91
4.2.3
End Moments due to chord rotation
In general, the member end joints i and j do not only rotate but also displace relative to each other, so that the cord of
the member rotates. The easiest way to derive the effect of a cord rotation ij = ji (we measure clockwise positive)
on the member end moments is to recognize that the effects of a chord rotation on moment and curvature are equivalent
to those of two simultaneous nodal rotations (see Fig. 4.9).
"="
i
EI
i
ij = ji cw +
ij =
EI
j
L
j i
Fig. 4.9 Chord rotation viewed as two simultaneous joint rotations (scale exaggerated).
M ij =
i = ij
EI
6 ij
L
EI
j = ij
L
M ji =
Fig. 4.10 Moments due to chord rotation.
EI
6 ij
L
The two end moments M ji and M ij due to a chord rotation are thus
M ij = M ji =
EI
EI
(4 + 2)ij =
6ij
L
L
(4.10)
4.2.4
Summary
To obtain the complete relation for the member end moments we add the three effects of fixed-end moment, moment
due to joint rotation and moment due to chord rotation.
fixed-fixed
fixed-pinned
EI
(4i + 2j + 6ij )
L
EI
M ji = M j0i +
(2i + 4j + 6ij )
L
M ij = M ij0 +
M ij
= M ij0 +
M ji
=0
EI
i
EI
(3i + 3ij )
L
(4.11)
EI
j
92
4.3
Example 4.1
w
Fig. 4.11 Example 4.1. Three-span continuous beam.

Problem: Use the slope deflection method to find the member end moments for the three-span continuous beam and
draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams.
Solution: The continuous beam has four unknown joint rotations A , B , C and D . However, since we know that the
bending moment is zero at joints A and D , we can eliminate joint rotations A and D according to Eq. (4.8) by considering member AB pinned at A and fixed at B and member CD fixed at C and pinned at D (see Eq. 4.9). Hence we have to
work with unknown joint rotations B and C only. We first find the fixed-end moments, then write expressions for the
member end moments in term of the unknown joint rotations, and then require moment equilibrium at B and C to solve
for the two unknowns. Finally, we substitute the numerical values for the joint rotations into the expressions for the end
moments.
1. Fixed-end moments
The fixed-end moments for the above structure and loading are
0
M BA
=
wL2
8
0
M BC
=
wL2
12
MCB =
wL2
12
(4.12)
2. Member end moments in terms of B and C

EI
wL2
3B
=
+ 3B
L
8
EI
EI
wL2 EI
+
4B +
2C =
+
(4B + 2C )
L
L
L
12
0
M BA = M BA
+
0
M BC = M BC
MCB
0
= MCB
+
MCD
EI
3C
L
4EI
2EI
+
L C
L B
(4.13)
wL
EI
+
(2B + 4C )
L
12
EI
=
3C
L
3. Equilibrium equations
Summing moments at nodes B and C gives
MC
wL2 EI
+
(7B + 2C ) = 0
24
L
wL2 EI
=
+
(2B + 7C ) = 0
12
L
= M BA + M BC =
= MCB + MCD
(4.14)
We can write the two equations in matrix form

wL2
EI 7 2 B 24
=
L 2 7 C wL2
12
(4.15)
The solution for the joint rotations is

B =
wL3
,
360EI
C =
4wL3
360EI
`(4.16)
93
4. Member end moments

Substituting the values for the joint rotations into the expressions for the member end moments in Eq. (4.13) we obtain
wL2 EI
wL3
7
2
+
3
= wL
8
360EI
L
60
4wL3
7
wL2 EI
wL3
+
4
+ 2
M BC =
wL2
=
12
360EI 60
L 360EI
M BA =
(4.17)
2
MCB =
MCD =
wL
EI
+
12
L
wL
4wL
2
+ 4
360
360
3
1
= wL2
30
4wL3
EI
3
360
L
1
wL2
30
Note that we have satisfied moment equilibrium at joints B and C and the bending moments are the same as those calculated in Chapter 3 using the force method. We observe that the joint rotations depend on the flexural stiffness EI , the
member end moments, however, are independent of EI .
5. Bending moment diagram
All we need to draw the bending moment diagram is to connect the member end moments and add the static moment
wL2 / 8 for the loaded spans AB and BC .
7
wL2
60
wL2
8
1
wL2
30
wL2
8
Fig. 4.12 Bending moment diagram for three-span continuous beam.

6. Shear force diagram
From the moment diagram we find the shear force diagram by simple statics.
0.583wL
0.383wL
+
0.033wL
0.417wL
0.617wL
Fig. 4.13 Shear force diagram for three-span continuous beam.

C =
B =
wL
360EI
4wL3
360EI
Fig. 4.14 Deflected shape with calculated joint rotations.
94
4.4
Example 4.2
50 kN
2I
4m
3.5 m
D
4m
3m
3m
Fig. 4.15 Example 4.2: Non-sway structure with two unknown joint rotations.
Problem: Use the slope-deflection method to find the member end moments of the structure above. Draw the bending
moment, shear force and axial force diagrams.
Solution: The structure is non-sway since the joint displacements are all zero (remember that we neglect axial deformation in the slop-deflection method). Hence, chord rotations do not exist. The unknowns are the rotations at joints B and
C . Note that we dont have to find the rotations at joint D and E since we can use Eq. (4.8) to eliminate the rotation at
these joints.
1. Fixed-end moments.
The fixed-end moments for the above structure and loading are (see Fig. 4.24)
0
M BC
= 50
7
= 43.75
8
0
MCB
= 43.75
(4.18)
2. Member end moments in terms of B and C

Since the internal forces are independent of the true value of the flexural stiffness EI , we can select an arbitrary value
that is convenient in the moment expressions, e.g. EI = 140 .
M AB =
140
2B
4
= 70B
M BA =
= 140B
M BC
140
4B
4
280
= 43.75 +
(4B + 2C )
7
= 43.75 + 160B + 80C
MCB
= 43.75 +
MCD
MCE
140
3C
5
140
=
3C
5
280
(2B + 4C ) = 43.75 + 80B + 160C
7
= 84C
= 84C
3. Equilibrium equations
Summing moments at nodes B and C gives
95
(4.19)
= 0 =140B + 43.75 + 160B + 80C
300B + 80C = 43.75
= 0 = 43.75 + 80B + 160C + 84C + 84C
80B + 328C = 43.75
(4.20)
We can write the two equations in matrix form

300 80 B 43.75
80 328 C = 43.75
(4.21)
The solution for the nodal rotations is

B = 0.1940
C = 0.1807
(4.22)
Since we have selected an arbitrary flexural stiffness of EI =140 , the joint rotations expressed in terms of EI are
B = 0.1940
140
27.16
=
EI
EI
C = 0.1807
140
25.30
=
EI
EI
(4.23)

Substituting the values for the joint rotations into the expressions for the member end moments in Eq. (4.19) we obtain
M AB = 70B = 70 0.1940
= 13.58
M BA = 140B = 140 0.1940

M BC = 43.75 + 160B + 80C = 43.75 160 0.1940 + 80 0.1807
= 27.16
= 27.16
MCB
MCD
MCE
= 43.75 + 80B + 160C = 43.75 80 0.1940 + 160 0.1807

= 84C = 84 0.1807
= 84C = 84 0.1807
= 30.36
= 15.18
= 15.18
5. Internal force diagrams and deflected shape.

30.36
27.16
27.16
15.18
C =25.30 / EI
B = 27.16 / EI
+
15.18
58.74
M
[kNm]
13.58
24.54
[kN]
10.18
[kN]
10.18
25.46
3.03
3.03
24.54
11.47
Fig. 4.16 Internal force diagrams and deflected shape for frame structure.
96
20.35
(4.25)
4.5
Example 4.3
In the previous examples, the joints of the structure have not experienced any translational displacements. The deflected
shape of the structure and the internal forces are a function of the joint rotations only. For the frame below subject to lateral loading, this is no longer the case. The girder displaces in the horizontal direction. This lateral displacement causes
chord rotations in the columns AB and CD. As derived in Eq. (4.10), the chord rotation of a member has an effect on the
end moments of the member. We must therefore consider the column chord rotation as an additional unknown in the expressions for the member end moments and the moment equilibrium equations for the nodes are no longer sufficient to
solve the problem. The additional equation needed to solve for the unknowns is a force equilibrium equation as illustrated by the example below. Note that since we ignore axial deformation, points B and C deflect by the same amount
such that the two column chord rotations AB and CD are equal. Also, assuming the members to be axially rigid leads to
zero chord rotation in the girder BC ( BC = 0 ).
10 kN B
AB
CD
4m
EI = const.
D
5m
Fig. 4.17 Example 4.3: Simple sway structure.

Problem: Use the slope deflection method to find the member end moments of the frame structure above and draw the
bending moment diagram.
Solution:
An analysis of the frame with the slope-deflection method involves three degrees of freedom, the joint rotations B and
C and the chord rotation AB = CD = .
Since the loads are applied to the joints, no fixed-end moments exist.
2. Member end moments in terms of B , C and
Using the expressions for the member end moments derived before, selecting a reference flexural stiffness of EI = 20 ,
and knowing that A = D = 0 , we write
M AB
20
(2B + 6AB ) = 10B + 30
4
M BA
20
(4B + 6AB ) = 20B + 30
4
MCB
20
(4C + 2B ) = 16C + 8B
=
5
M DC
M BC =
MCD
20
(4B + 2C ) = 16B + 8c
5
20
(4C + 6CD ) = 20C + 30
=
4
20
(2C + 6CD ) = 10C + 30
4
3. Moment equilibrium equations

Summing up moments at joints B and C gives
97
(4.26)
= M BA + M BC = 36B + 8C + 30 = 0
= MCB + MCD = 8B + 36C + 30 = 0
(4.27)
4. Force equilibrium equation

10
VBA
VCD
5m
Fig. 4.18 Force equilibrium.

The two moment equilibrium equations above contain three unknowns. In order to formulate a third equation we consider equilibrium in the horizontal direction.
= 10 VCD VBA = 0
(4.28)
We can now relate the shear forces to the internal moments by

=
VBA
VCD
M BA + M AB
LAB
M DC + MCD
LCD
1
(20B + 30 + 10B + 30) = 7.5B + 15
4
1
= (10C + 30 + 20C + 30) = 7.5C + 15
4
(4.29)
Note that this is the same relation we frequently use to derive the shear force diagram from the moment diagram (Moment right minus moment left over L ). The minus changes into a plus because of the sign convention for the bending moments used in the slope-deflection method.
Hence the force equilibrium equation expressed in terms of the three unknowns is
= 7.5B 7.5C 30 + 10 = 0
(4.30)
and the three equations we have to solve simultaneously are

36 8 30 0

8 36 30 C = 0

7.5 7.5 30 10
(4.31)

Substituting the solution
0.3448
B
0.3448
0.5057
(4.32)
into the expression for the end moments yields (slope-deflection signs)
98
M AB
= 10 0.3448 + 30 0.5057 = 11.72
M BA
= 20 0.3448 + 30 0.5057 = 8.27
M BC = 16 0.3448 8 0.3448 = 8.27
MCB
= 16 0.3448 8 0.3448 = 8.27
MCD
M DC
= 10 0.3448 + 30 0.5057 = 11.72
= 20 0.3448 + 30 0.5057 = 8.27
(4.33)
6. Bending moment diagram.

To draw the bending moment diagram, we convert the signs to conventional statics.
8.3
8.3
+
11.7
11.7
[kNm]
Fig. 4.19 Bending moment diagram for simple sway frame.

4.6
Example 4.4
10 kN/m
15 kN
10 kN
C
4m
2m
D
2m
8m

Problem: Use the slope deflection method to find the member end moments of the frame structure above and draw the
bending moment diagram. The frame has constant flexural stiffness EI .
Solution:
For an analysis by the slope deflection method the unknowns are the two joint rotations B and C and one unknown
chord rotation .
99
4m
CE
2m
BD
Fig. 4.21 Chord rotations.

1. Chord rotations
Neglecting axial force deformation and assuming that the chord rotations are small we have (Fig. 4.21)
= BD 6 = CE 4
(4.34)
such that
CE = 1.5BD
(4.35)
Selecting BD as the unknown chord rotation, we thus have

BD =
CE = 1.5
(4.36)
0
M BA
= M BA = 15 2
0
M BC
=
10 8
12
= 30.00
= 53.33
0
MCB
=
(4.37)
10 82
= 53.33
12
3. End moments in terms of and

M BA = 30
48
4B + 2 D + 6BD =
(4B + 6 )
N
6
0
EI
48
0
= M BC
+
4B + 2C + 6 0) = 53.33 + (4B + 2C )
(
LBC
8
M BD =
M BC
EI
LBD
EI
48
(2B + 4C ) = 53.33 + 8 (2B + 4C )
LBC
3
EI
48
=
(3C + 3CE ) =
3 + 3
2
LCE
4 C
= 32B + 48
= 53.33 + 24B + 12C
0
+
MCB = MCB
= 53.33 + 12B + 24C
MCE
= 36C + 54
M DB =
EI
LBD
48
4 D + 2B + 6BD =
(2B + 6 )
6
N
(4.38)
= 16B + 48
4. Moment equilibrium equations
= 0 = 30 + 32B + 48 + 53.33 + 24B + 12C
56B + 12C + 48 = 23.33 (1)
= 0 = 53.33 + 12B + 24C + 36C + 54
12B + 60C + 54 = 53.33
100
(2)
(4.39)
5. Force equilibrium equation
= 0 = VBD VCE 10
M BD + M DB
VBD =
VCE =
LBD
M EC + MCE
LCE
=
=
32B + 48 + (16B + 48 )
6
0 + MCE
4
8B + 9C + 29.5 = 10
= 8B + 16
0 + (36C + 54 )
4
= 9C + 13.5
(4.40)
(3)
We solve

56 12 48 B 23.333

12 60 54 C = 53.33 B = 0.0632, C = 1.642, = 0.8228
8 9. 29.5 10.00
(4.41)

M BA =
= 30
M BD = 32B + 48 =
32 (0.0632) + 48 (0.8228)
= 41.5
M BC = 53.33 + 24B + 12C = 53.33 + 24 (0.0632) + 12 1.642 = 71.5

MCB = 53.33 + 12 (0.0632) + 24 1.6420
= 14.7
MCE = 36C + 54 = 36 1.6420 + 54 (0.8228)
= 14.7
M DB = 16B + 48 = 16 (0.0632) + 48 (0.8228)
= 40.5
7. Bending moment diagram

71.5
30
41.5
14.7
+
[kNm]
40.5
Fig. 4.22 Deflected shape and bending moment diagram for simple sway frame.
101
(4.42)
4.7
Summary of procedure
We summarize the slope-deflection method for sway structures by the frame below.
H
H2
E
H1
II
B
L2
L1
III
IV
VI
Fig. 4.23 Independent sway states.

(1)
(2)
(3)
Denote all structure nodes by numbers or letters (I).

Replace all moment connections with hinge connections (II).
Determine degree m of sway using the same formula that we use to calculate the degree of statical indeterminacy. If the structure in (II) is statically determinate, the original structure is non-sway and we skip steps 4 to 7.
If the structure in (II) is unstable, the degree of instability is equal to the number of sway degrees of freedom of
the original structure. For the frame above we obtain
m = 4 + 14 3 7 = 18 21 = 3
Hence it takes three additional constraints to properly constrain the structure in (II).
102
(4.43)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Convert sway structure into non-sway structure by adding m roller supports (III).
Select 1st sway state by displacing one roller and denote by 1 the chord rotation in a selected member.
Use kinematics to express all other chord rotations in terms of 1
Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the other sway states (V and VI) and express the chord rotation in each member by a
linear combination of the individual cord rotation. For the above frame, the results are
CG = DH = 1
GH = CD = 2
L
ED = 1 2
L2
AC = BE = 3
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
4.8
H1
H2
(4.44)
Write all member end moments as a function of the nodal rotations and chord rotations . For the chord
rotations, use the results in Eq. (4.44).
Write the moment equilibrium equation for all nodes where at least two members are moment-connected.
Write m force equilibrium equations at selected locations in the structure.
Solve the linear set of equations. The equations consist of k nodal and m force equilibrium equations.
Calculate the member end moments M ij .
Change the signs of the member end moments to reflect conventional statics sign convention, add the static
moment (if the member has a span loading) and draw the bending moment diagram.
Comparison between the slope-deflection and the force methods
We can recognize at this stage that the slope-deflection method works the opposite way of the force method. In the force
method, we calculate unknown forces (moments) based on compatibility requirements, in the slope deflection method,
we calculate displacements (rotations) based on equilibrium requirements.
Force method
(1) Identify the number of unknown (redundant) forces, i.e. the degree of statical indeterminacy.
(2) Create mechanisms to form a statically determinate base structure.
(3) Determine displacements at the releases due to given external loading.
(4) Determine the flexibility coefficients, i.e. the displacements at the releases due to unit value of the redundant forces.
(5) Solve the compatibility equations.
Slope-deflection method
(1) Identify the number of unknown displacements, i.e. the number of degrees of freedom.
(2) Fix all degrees of freedom to create a kinematically determinate structure.
(3) Determine fixed-end forces due to given external loading.
(4) Determine the stiffness coefficients, i.e. the moments at the joints due to a unit rotation (Eq. 4.11).
(5) Solve the equilibrium equations.
103
4.9
4.9.1
Fixed-end moments
Fixed-fixed condition
P
1
PL
8
1
PL
8
L/2
L/2
w
1
wL2
12
1
wL2
12
L
Pab 2
L2
Pa 2b
L2
a
w
2
wa
2L (3L 4a ) + 3a 2
12L2
wa 3
(4L 3a )
12L2
w2
w1
L2
(3w1 + 2w2 )
60
L2
(2w1 + 3w2 )
60
w
5
wL2
96
5
wL2
96
L/2
L/2
Fig. 4.24 Fixed-end moments for fixed-fixed condition.
104
4.9.2
Fixed-pinned condition
P
L/2
L/2
3
PL
16
3
PL
16
L/2
L/2
P
a
Pab
(L + a )
2L2
w
a
1 2
wL
8
1 2
wL
8
w
a
w2
w1
L2
(7w1 + 8w2 )
120
wa 2
2
(L + b )
8L2
w2
w1
Pab
(L + b )
2L2
wa 2
a2
1 2
4
2L
L2
(8w1 + 7w2 )
120
5
wL2
64
L/2
P
a
5
wL2
64
L/2
L/2
1
Pa
2
CAUTION:
1
Pa
2
CAUTION:
Tension at bottom
Tension at bottom
Fig. 4.25 Fixed-end moments for fixed-pinned condition.
105
L/2
P
a
Problems
4.1
EI
Derive the moment-joint rotation relation of the slope-deflection method in Eq. (4.7) using the force method. Select a
cantilever as the base structure. The member has uniform flexural stiffness EI .
w
4.2
P
(a)
0.6L
(b)
0.4L
w
M
(c)
(d)
L
0.6L
0.4L
Calculate the fixed-end moments for the given loading conditions. Draw the bending moment diagrams.
Solution:
24
18
PL (ccw), M BA =
PL (cw)
250
125
1
= wL2 (ccw), M BA = 0
8
1
1
wL2 (ccw), M BA = wL2 (cw)
12
12
(a):
M AB =
(b)
M AB =
(c):
M AB
(d)
M AB = 0.32M (cw), M BA = 0.12M (cw)
4.3
i
EI
2EI
L/2
L/2
For the member with non-uniform flexural stiffness above: Find the moment- joint rotation relation
M ij =
EI
(k + k2j )
L 1 i
M ji =
EI
(k + k4j )
L 3 i
using the force method.

Solution:
k1 = 4.3636
k2 = k 3 = 2.9091
k 4 = 7.2727
4.4
10 kN/m
10 kN/m
A
4.00
C
5.00
10 kN/m
D
5.00
E
4.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
Load case 2
Load case 1
Using the slope-deflection method, find the bending moment and shear force diagrams of the continuous beam above for
the two load cases. The beam has uniform flexural stiffness EI .
106
4.5
100 kN
C
A
5m
5m
D
5m
E
2m
(a) Using the slope deflection method, find the bending moment and shear force diagrams (calculate joint rotations
A , B , C and D ). The beam has uniform flexural stiffness EI .
(b) Using the slope deflection method, find the bending moment and shear force diagrams (calculate only joint rotations
0
B and C ). Start by calculating the fixed-end moment MCD
caused by the force at E .
Solution:
A =
11.11
22.22
77.78
288.9
, B =
, C =
, D =
EI
EI
EI
EI
ccw+
4.6
20 kN
15 kN/m
1.5 m
1.5 m
E
3.0 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
20 kN
A
4m
4m
Show that the structure above is non-sway and use the slope-deflection method to find the bending moment, shear force
and axial force diagrams of the above structure for the given loading.
Solution:
C = 0, D =
16.14
24.59
, E =
ccw+
EI
EI
107
4.7
100 kN
100 kN
2I
6m
2m
8m
2m
(a) Show that the structure above is non-sway. (b) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. (c) Using the slope
deflection method, find the joint rotations B and C ( E =const. ). (d) Find the member end moments and draw the
bending moment diagram.
200
36.9
97.4
Solution:
(c) B =
98.47
46.62
, C =
EI
EI
65.6 +
200
[kNm]
76.7
32.8
4.8
10 kN/m
20 kN
20 kN
4.00
[m]
EI =const.
D
2.00
2.00
2.00
5.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy of the above frame structure. (b) Using the slope deflection method,
find the joint rotations B and C . (c) Find the member end moments and draw the bending moment diagram. Use
symmetry.
Solution:
(b) B =
29.05
17.07
, C =
EI
EI
ccw+
108
4.9
150 kN
5m
20 kN/m
C
8m
10 kN/m
A
4m
10 kN/m
4m
(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy of the above frame structure. (b) Using the slope deflection method,
find the rotations at joints A, B and C . (c) Find the member end moments and draw the bending moment diagram. (d)
Comment on the effect of the point load at D on the bending moments. Use symmetry. The structure has uniform
flexural stiffness EI .
4.10
E
4m
20 kN D
10 kN/m
50 kN
20 kN
A
C
4m
F
2m
G
6m
6m
(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy and the degree of sway of the above frame structure. (b) Using the
slope deflection method find the bending moment diagram of the structure. (c) Repeat (b) using the force method. The
structure has uniform flexural stiffness EI .
109
4.11
F
20 kN C
3m
EI = const.
E
3m
10 kN B
5m
Use the slope-deflection method to find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the frame structure above. Make use of anti-symmetry.
4.12
A
10 k
9 ft
6 ft
2I
9 ft
Find the bending moment and shear force diagrams of the beam above: (a) by the force method, (b) by the slope-deflection method. (c) Use the principle of virtual forces to verify the joint and chord rotations found in (b). E =const.
Solution:
15.89
9.57
2.83
+
37.98
[k-ft]
[k]
26.55
2.83
7.17
7.17
110
4.13
0.08042 m
P2
5m
3m
P1
EI =10, 000 kNm2
deflected shape
not to scale
D
0.06084 m
5m
Two lateral forces are applied to a two-story frame (axially rigid), which cause the structure to deflect as shown.
(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. (b) Using the slope deflection method find the joint rotations B and
C . (c) Find the member end moments of the frame and draw the bending moment diagram. (d) Find the forces
P1 and P2 applied to the frame. Make use of anti-symmetry.
Solution:
(b) B = 7.67 103 , C = 3.13 103
(c)
M AB = M DE = 115, M BA = M ED = 84.6, M BE = M EB = 92.0

M BC = M EF = 7.38, MCB = M FE = 37.6, MCF = M FC = 37.6
ccw+
[kNm]
(d) P1 = 30 kN, P2 = 50 kN
1 k/ft
1 k/ft B
EI =const.
EI =const.
(a)
12 ft
12 ft
4.14
(b)
15 ft
15 ft
Use the slope-deflection method to calculate all joint and chord rotations of the frame structure for loading conditions (a)
and (b) and draw the bending moment diagram.
Solution:
(a) A = D = 0, B = C =
(b) A = D = 0, B =
40.17
ccw+
EI
AB = CD = BC = 0
11.97
37.68
, C =
ccw+
EI
EI
AB = CD =
111
48.41
, BC = 0 cw+
EI
4.15
Repeat Problem 4.14 assuming the columns pinned at the base.
Solution:
24.46
48.91
, B = C =
, ccw+
EI
EI
(a) A = D =
(b) A =
AB = CD = BC = 0
407.7
66.52
113.5
348.3
, B =
, C =
ccw+
D =
EI
EI
EI
EI
AB = CD =
4.16
270
, BC = 0 cw+
EI
26.3
B
26.3
16 kN/m
[kNm]
3m
2I
Solution:
13.2
4m
Calculate the member end moments by the slope-deflection method and draw the bending moment diagram.
4.17
12 kN/m
A
5m
C
2m
Use the slope-deflection method to calculate the rotations at joints A and B .

Solution:
A =
42.5
22.5
, B =
ccw+
EI
EI
42.5
EI
4.18
22.5
EI
50 kN
D
E
3m
C
200 kN
3m
EI =const.
B
8m
2m
Use the slope-deflection method to calculate the member end moments of the above frame. Draw the bending moment
diagram.
Solution:
MCA = 67.9, MCD = 67.9, M DC = 100, M DE = 100
112
[kNm] ccw+
5
5.1
The Moment-Distribution Method

Introduction
In the 1930s, Professor Hardy Cross developed the moment-distribution method. As the slope-deflection method, we use
the moment-distribution method to calculate the member end moments of planar structures whose members act primarily in flexure. Thus, we neglect axial and shear deformations in the analysis. With the member end moments known, we
use the equilibrium equations to find the axial and shear forces and the reactions at the supports. While the end result of
the moment distribution method is that of the slope-deflection method (the member end moments) the procedure is entirely different. In the slope-deflection method, we solve the equilibrium equations directly by solving a system of linear
algebraic equations, whose unknowns are the joint and chord rotations. In the moment distribution method, by contrast,
we solve the equilibrium equations iteratively. An iterative solution is a procedure in which each step improves the results from the previous step. If we perform enough steps, we obtain a solution that is sufficiently accurate for engineering purposes. Moment distribution methods exist for both non-sway and sway structures. In this class, we only discuss
the moment distribution method applied to non-sway structures.
Since many frame structural analysis programs are available, we probably should avoid using the moment distribution
method (or any other hand calculation procedure) to perform an exact analysis of a large building frame. Nevertheless,
the underlying principles of the moment distribution method can be quite useful in understanding and solving many
problems faced in everyday structural engineering practice.
5.2
General Description
Before presenting examples of the method, we must define some terminology.
(a) Fixed-end moment M ij0 : The moment developed at end i of member ij (due to loads, temperature, support settlement
or other causes) when the member ends are fixed against displacement and rotation (same as in the slope-deflection method). Fixed-end moments are widely tabulated (see Chapter 4).
(b) Member stiffness factor ki : The moment required at end i (end i is fixed against translation) to produce unit rotation
at end i when end j is fixed against rotation and translation. Stiffness factors (the same as those used in the slope-deflection method) are physical constants that depend only on the dimensions of the member, its modulus of elasticity and its
end conditions.
(c) Distribution factor i : The fraction of the total moment applied to a joint, which is distributed to a particular member
framing into the joint. Hence
i =
ki
(5.1)
where ki is the stiffness of the particular member and ki is the sum of all member stiffnesses framing into the joint.
The sum of the distribution factors for any joint is equal to unity,
(d) Carry-over factor C ij : the ratio of the moment produced at the far end j to the moment applied at the near end i of
member ij .
(e) Sign convention. We use the same sign convention used for the slope-deflection method. A moment acting on the
end of a member is positive when counterclockwise and negative when clockwise.
113
5.3
Example 5.1
10 k/ft
10 ft
8 ft

Problem: Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the beam and draw the bending
moment diagram ( EI =const).
10 k/ft
10 ft
8 ft
=
0
M BC
10 ft
8 ft
+
0
M BC
10 ft
8 ft
Fig. 5.2 Superposition of fixed-end condition and moment applied to the joint.
As in the slope-deflection method, the first step is to determine the fixed-end moment. We consider span BC fixedpinned such that the fixed-end moment is
0
=
M BC
10 82
8
= 80.00
(5.2)
2. Member stiffnesses and distribution factors

0
to
Since the fixed-end condition violates equilibrium, we need to unlock joint B and apply the unbalanced moment M BC
0
the joint in order to restore equilibrium. The moment M BC applied to joint B distributes to the two
members BA and BC . In order to find the portion of the total unbalanced moment that each of the two members
receives, we calculate the distribution factor for each member. Since the far-end of member BA is fixed, the member
stiffness is thus
kBA =
4EI
80
=
=8
LAB
10
(5.3)
where we have used an arbitrary flexural stiffness of EI = 20 . Since the far-end of member BC is pinned, the member
stiffness is thus
kBC =
3EI
60
=
= 7.5
LBC
8
(5.4)
114
We now add the stiffnesses of the two members framing into joint B to obtain
= kBA + kBC = 8 + 7.5 = 15.5
(5.5)
The distribution factors for the two members framing into join B are then
BA =
8
= 0.5161
15.5
BC =
7.5
= 0.4839
15.5
= 1(ok)
(5.6)
The preceding equation shows that member BA is somewhat stiffer than member BC and hence attracts 51.6% of the
moment applied to joint B while member BC receives the remaining 48.4%. Note that the absolute stiffness of each
member is irrelevant. All that matters is the relative stiffness. Moreover, the sum of the distribution factors at each joint
must equal 1.
kBA =
BA
1
1
=
= 0.1
10
LAB
kBC =
0.1
=
= 0.5161
0.19375
BC
0.75
0.75
=
= 0.09375
8
LBC
0.09375
=
= 0.4839
0.19375
k = 0.19735
(5.7)
= 1(ok)
3. Moment distribution
As mentioned above, we now apply the unbalanced moment (the fixed-end moment) to joint B and distribute the moment to the two members framing into joint B . The distributed end moments are calculated by multiplying the unbalanced moment by the distribution factor of each member. Since member BA is a little stiffer than member BC , AB
gets a little more of the unbalanced moment. Note that the sign of the distributed end moments is opposite to that
of the unbalanced moment. The distributed end moment M BA = 80 0.5161 = 41.29 is causing a moment
M AB = 0.5 M BA at the far-end of the member. We say the moment M BA is carried over to the other end of the member
with a carryover factor of 0.5. Note that the carryover moment has the same sign as the distributed end moment.
The final step is to add the distributed moment to the fixed-end moment for member BC . In all moment distribution calculations, the sign convention is the same as that used in the slope-deflection method, that is end moments are positive in
the counterclockwise direction. It is always a good idea to organize the moment distribution calculations in a table.
Table 5-1 Moment-distribution for Example 5.1.
Joint
Member
M ij0
Final Moments
A
AB
B
BA
0.5161
41.29/2 =
20.65
41.29
BC
0.4839
80.00
38.71
20.65
41.29
41.29
115
4. Moment diagram
With known end moments, we are able to draw the bending moment diagram. Turning moment distribution/slope-deflection signs back into statics signs we obtain
41.3
20.6
[k-ft]
Fig. 5.3 Bending moment diagram for Example 5.1.
5.4
Example 5.2
80 kN
80 kN
[m]
1
2
2.50 m
2.50 m
5.00 m
4
2.50 m
2.50 m

Problem: Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the beam and draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams ( EI =const).
Solution: The fundamental difference to the previous example is that we now have two joints (joints 2 and 3) at which
we need to perform a moment distribution (an analysis by the slope-deflection method would involve unknown rotations
at joints 2 and 3).
The fixed-end moments are the same as those calculated in the slope-deflection method.
M 120 = M 210 =
PL
80 5
=
= 50
8
8
M 340 =
3PL
3 80 5
=
= 75
16
16
(5.8)
We write the fixed-end moments at the appropriate location in the table.

Joint 2
The member stiffnesses for joint 2 are
k21 =
EI
5
= =1
L21
5
k23 =
EI
5
= =1
L23
5
(5.9)
The distribution factors for the two members framing into to joint 2 are thus
21 =
k21
k21 + k23
1
= 0.5
2
23 =
k23
k21 + k23
Joint 3
For joint 3, we have the member stiffnesses
116
1
= 0.5
2
(5.10)
k 32 =
EI
5
= =1
L32
5
k 34 =
0.75EI
0.75 5
=
= 0.75
L34
5
(5.11)
The distribution factors for the two members framing into to joint 3 are thus
32 =
34 =
k 32
k 32 + k 34
k 34
k 32 + k 34
1
= 0.5714
1.75
0.75
=
= 0.4286 (0.5714 + 0.4286 = 1.000 ok)
1.75
(5.12)
It is common practice to start the distribution process at the joint with the largest unbalanced moment, i.e. joint 3. We release joint 3 and distribute the unbalanced moment of 75 at joint 3 to the two member ends 34 and 32 according to the
distribution factors calculated earlier ( 0.5714 75 = 42.86, 0.4286 75 = 32.14) . (Strictly speaking, we have to
apply a moment equal and opposite to the unbalanced moment in order to enforce equilibrium at joint 3). Joint 3 is now
in equilibrium. The distributed moment at end 32 is carried over to member end 23 ( 0.5 42.86 = 21.43 ). The moment distribution at joint 3 is complete and we lock joint 3 again. The unbalanced moment at joint 2 is
50 21.43 = 71.43 . Next, we release joint 2 and distribute the unbalanced moment. Since members 21 and 23 have
the same stiffness, the two members equally share the unbalance ( 0.5 71.43 = 35.71 ). The distributed moment at end
21 is carried over to member end 12 ( 0.5 35.71 = 17.86 ). The moment distribution at joint 2 is complete and we lock
joint 2 again. We continue by releasing joint 3 again, and so on. The unbalanced moments become smaller and smaller
such that the total moments obtained by adding all incremental moments converge to the correct solution. We terminate
the distribution process, when the solution is accurate enough, i.e. when the unbalanced moments are sufficiently small
(when the unbalanced moment is within a few percent of the initial unbalance or within a few percent of the current total
moments).
The sign of the distributed end moments is opposite to that of the unbalanced moment.
The sign of the carryover moment is the same as that of the distributed end moment.
Table 5-2 Moment-distribution for Example 2.
Joint
Member
k
M ij0
1
12
2
21
1
0.5000
50
50
17.86
1.28
Final Moments
69.13
3
23
1
0.5000
35.71
2.55
21.43
35.71
5.10
2.55
11.73
11.73
32
1
0.5714
42.86
17.86
10.20
1.27
0.73
34.66
34
0.75
0.4286
75
32.14
7.66
0.54
34.66
4. Moment and shear force diagrams

We obtain the final moments by adding all moments in a column including the fixed-end moments. All that is needed to
draw the bending moment diagram is to account for the static sign convention and properly connect the calculated member end moments. If a span has no load (span 2), we connect the member end moments by a straight line. Otherwise we
add the static moment. The span moments in spans 1 and 3 are thus
1
80 5
M 1 = (69.1 + 11.7) +
= 40.4 + 100 = 59.6
2
4
1
80 5
= 17.3 + 100 = 82.7
M 3 = 34.7 +
2
4
(5.13)
117
69.1
34.6
11.7
[kNm]
59.6
82.7
Fig. 5.5 Bending moment diagram for Example 5.2.

As always, we obtain the shear force diagram from the moment diagram by
Vij =
M ji M ij
Lij
+Vij*
Vji =
M ji M ij
Lij
Vji*
(5.14)
whereVij* is the static shear force. For span without applied loadsVij* = 0 .
51.5
46.9
+
V
28.5
4.6
33.1
[kN]
Fig. 5.6 Shear force diagram for Example 5.2.

5.5
Summary of steps
1. Set up tabular solution and calculate the stiffness k , the distribution factors and the carry-over factors c .
2. Lock all joints against rotation.
3. Calculate the fixed-end moments M ij0 for all members.
4. Select joint to be unlocked first. Calculate the unbalanced moment at the joint and then release the joint and distribute
the moment to the near end of all members framing into the joint according to their distribution factors to bring the
moment on the joints into balance.
5. Calculate carry-over moments at the far ends of the members
6. Relock joint and repeat steps 4 and 5 going from joint to joint until unbalanced moments at all joints are negligible.
7. Sum the moments to get the total moments, which are the final member end-moments.
8. Calculate the shear forces from the end-moment by statics.
9. Change the sign of the member end-moments from moment distribution sign convention to statics sign convention,
add the static moment and draw shear and moment diagrams.
118
5.6
More discussion and illustration
FixedEnd Condition
FixedEnd Condition
1
Moment Distribution at 3, 2 Fixed; Unbalance at 2
Moment Diagram
Deflected shape
Fig. 5.7 Illustration of moment-distribution method.

Step 1: The moment distribution process starts by fixing joints 2 and 3 resulting in zero slope of the deflected shape at
these locations. The resulting moments M 0 are the fixed-end moments. There are fixed-end moments M 120 , M 210 and
M 340 . Since the center span 23 has no load on it, no fixed-end moments are generated. Since the moment diagram is discontinuous at joints 2 and 3, equilibrium is violated at these locations, an unbalanced moment exists. The deflected
shape shows this unbalance in form of a curvature change. This first step is entirely identical to the first step in the
slope-deflection method.
Step 2: Joint 3 is released, i.e. it is allowed to rotate while joint 2 is fixed. Joint 3 rotates clockwise until the moment unbalance disappears. The moment diagram is now continuous at joint 3 ( M 32 = M 34 ) and the curvature at the right and
left-hand sides of joint 3 are equal. The rotation of joint 3 not only causes a moment M 32 but also a moment M 23 , the
so-called carry-over moment. For this example, the carry-over moment increases the unbalance at joint 2.
Step 3: Joint 3 is fixed at its current rotation and joint 2 is released, i.e. it is allowed to rotate. Now joint 2 rotates
counterclockwise until the moment unbalance produced by the fixed-end moment M 230 and the carry-over moment of
step 2 disappears. The moment diagram is now continuous at joint 2 ( M 23 = M 21 ) and the curvatures at the right and
left-hand sides of joint 2 are equal. Analogous to step 2, the rotation of joint 2 affects the moment M 32 through the carryover effect such that the moment balance at joint 3 achieved in step 2 is destroyed.
Step 4: The new unbalance at joint 3 is corrected by releasing joint 3 a second time. The events correspond to those of
step 2 and result in a small unbalance at joint 2. We can restore equilibrium at joint 2 by releasing joint 2 again causing
an even smaller unbalance at joint 3. Eventually, this iterative process leads to acceptably small moment unbalances at
the joints and can be terminated.
119
5.7
Example 5.3
50 kN
E
3m
200 kN
3m
EI =const.
B
8m
2m

Problem:
Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the frame structure above. Draw the bending
moment diagram.
Solution:
5.7.1
Preferred Approach
Since we know the moment at joint D , we do not have to distribute the moment at D . Thus the only joint at which to
distribute the moment is joint C . We have to use caution, however, when we calculate the fixed-end moments. Since we
do not distribute the moment at D , we have to account for the effects of the cantilever loading by a fixed-end moment
at C produced by the 50 kN force acting at E . We have to consider member CD fixed-pinned.
0
MCD
50 2
= 50.00
2
0
MCA
=
3
200 6 = 225.00
16
(5.15)

0.75
= 0.09375
8
0.09375
=
= 0.4286
0.21875
0.75
= 0.1250
6
0.1250
=
= 0.5714
0.21875
kCD =
kCA =
CD
CA
k = 0.21875
(5.16)
Table 5-3 Moment-distribution for Example 5.3 (preferred approach)
Joint
Member
M0
M
M
C
CA
0.5714
225.00
157.13
67.9
CD
0.4286
50.00
117.87
67.9
Important: Before we distribute the moment at joint C , we have to calculate the total unbalanced moment at that joint.
The total unbalanced moment of 225+50=275 is the negative sum of the two fixed-end moments acting at C .
120
5.7.2
Alternative Approach
We distribute the moment at joints C and D . Thus we have to consider member CD fixed-fixed. The effect of the canti0
lever is now a moment M DE
= M DE = 50 2 = 100
0
M DE
= 100.00
0
MCA
=
3
200 6 = 225.00
16
(5.17)

kCD
CD
1
= 0.1250
8
0.1250
=
= 0.5000
0.2500
=
0.75
= 0.1250
6
0.1250
=
= 0.5000
0.2500
kCA =
CA
k = 0.2500
(5.18)
Table 5-4 Moment-distribution for Example 5.3 (alternative approach)
Joint
Member
M0
C
CA
0.5000
225.00
112.50
39.06
4.88
0.61
0.07
67.9
CD
0.5000
112.50
78.125
39.06
9.77
4.88
1.22
0.61
0.15
0.07
67.9
DC
1
DE
0
100
56.25
156.25
19.53
19.53
2.44
2.44
0.30
0.30
100
100
Clearly, we prefer approach 1 since it does not require iteration (repeated locking and unlocking at joints). However, we
should well understand the differences between the two strategies (highlighted in red).
100
67.9
266
+
M
[kNm]
Fig. 5.9 Moment diagram and deflected shape for Example 5.3.
121
5.8
Summary
In closing, we reemphasize the key idea behind the moment distribution method:
A moment applied to a joint (joint must be fixed against translation) is distributed to the connecting members
according to the relative stiffness of the members.
Some examples
M
L /2
1
M
2
+
1
M
2
EI
L /2
1
M
3
EI
L/3
2L / 3
M
L /2
L /2
EI
2
M
7
2
M
3
3
M
7
L /2
M
EI
2
M
3
+
2EI
L /2
Fig. 5.10 Key concept of moment distribution method.
122
4
M
7
1
M
3
Problems
5.1
50 k
5 k/ft
C
20 ft
20 ft
D
7.5 ft
7.5 ft
6.0 ft
Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the beam above. (a) Distribute the moments at
joints B,C and D . (b) Distribute the moment at joints B and C only. Draw the bending moment and shear force
diagrams.
5.2
100 kN
100 kN
2I
6m
A
2m
8m
2m
moment diagram ( E =const. ).
Solution:
Joint
Member
M [kNm]
A
AB
32.84
B
BA
65.68
BF
200
BD
36.94
BC
97.39
CB
76.8
C
CD
76.8
5.3
200
D
50
C
[kN]
200
200
E
3.00
EI =const
[m]
A
B
2.00
2.00
4.00
4.00
moment, shear force and axial force diagram.
Solution:
M AD = 46.7
M DA = 93.4
M DC = 100
M DE = 193.4
123
M ED = 125
M EB = 125.0 [kNm] ccw+
5.4
I2
I2
I1
=5
I2
I2
10 kN/m
I2
I1
I2
I
I2
I2
5m
2.5 m
moment diagram.
Solution:
M BA = 14.88 kNm
M BC = M BE = M BG = M BI = 2.38 kNm
M BD = M BF = M BH = 1.78 kNm
MCB = M EB = MGB = M IB = 1.19
M AB = 23.81 kNm
5.5
150 kN
5m
20 kN/m
8m
10 kN/m
A
4m
4m
10 kN/m
moment diagram. Use symmetry.
124
5.6
10 kN/m
3I
50 kN
3m
3m
3I
5m
moment diagram. Note that the structure in non-sway due to symmetry.
5.7
EI
2EI
L /2
L /2
For the member with non-uniform flexural stiffness above: Find the carry-over factors cij and c ji .
Solution:
cij = 0.667, c ji = 0.400
125
Approximate analysis of building frames under lateral load
6.1
Introduction
Thus far we have used exact procedures to calculate the internal force distribution and displacements of statically indeterminate structures. We have observed that an exact analysis can be quite time-consuming, particularly if the structure
is highly indeterminate. In this chapter, we will learn how to estimate the force demand in building frames under lateral
forces, usually due to wind or seismic excitation, approximately by making a few simplifying assumptions. Those simplifications render the structure determinate such that we can analyze it by applying the equilibrium equations only. The
main purpose for learning approximate methods is to verify the results of an exact analysis often performed by computer. Approximate methods are also helpful in the preliminary design phase when the exact structure configuration and
member sizes are still unknown.
6.2
Discussion
We will begin our discussion of approximate methods with a simple single-story single-bay frame with columns fixed at
the base. The frame is indeterminate to the third degree.
Fig. 6.1 Single-story frame.

Figure 6.2 qualitatively shows the deflected shape and the bending moment diagram of the frame for a lateral load. Also
shown by blue dots are the three inflection points of the frame which are located no too far from the midpoiint of the
members. Inflection points are points of zero curvature and hence zero bending moment. Thus we can consider a point
of inflection as if there was a hinge at that location. Each hinge, however, reduces the degree of statical indeterminacy
by one. The central idea behind approximate methods for lateral loads is to approximate the deflected shape by assuming
the inflection points to be located at mid-height of the columns and mid-span of the girders. Since the frame is
indeterminate to degree three, the introduction of three hinges has rendered the frame statically determinate and we can
analyze the frame by statics.
F
= point of inflection
Fig. 6.2 Deflected shape and moment diagram of single-story frame.
126
IC
IC
IG
Fig. 6.3 Frame with stiff girder.
approximate
exact
approximate
exact
large
IG H
large
IC L
IG H
IC L
Fig. 6.4 Deflected shape and moment diagram for frame with stiff girder.
We now examine how well the results of an approximate analysis match those of an exact analysis of the indeterminate
structure. Since the location of the point of inflection in the column depends on the relative stiffness of girder and column, we examine two cases: (1) a frame in which the girder is significantly stiffer than the columns and (2) a frame in
which the columns are significantly stiffer than the girder. In situations where the girder is stiff relative to the column
(Fig. 6.3) the approximation works well. Figure 6.4 shows that exact and approximate locations of inflection points are
close. The inflection points in the columns for an exact analysis are only slightly above mid-height such that the deflected shapes and the moment diagrams corresponding to the exact and approximate analyses are virtual identical (Fig. 6.4).
If the columns are stiff with respect to the girder (Fig. 6.5), the approximation of assuming hinges at mid-height of the
columns, does not work as well. This is because the points of inflection in an exact analysis are located well above midheight (see blue lines in Fig. 6.6). Consequently, the approximate analysis overestimates the moments in the girder and
underestimates those in the columns (Fig. 6.6). We can also notice the poor approximation in this case in the erroneous
slope discontinuity that exists in the deflected shape (red line in Fig. 6.6a).
IC
IC
IG
Fig. 6.5 Frame with stiff columns.
127
approximate
exact
approximate
exact
small
IG H
small
IC L
(a)
IG H
IC L
(b)
Fig. 6.6 Deflected shape and moment diagram for frame with stiff columns.
6.3
6.3.1
The Portal Method

Approximations of the portal method
Fig. 6.7 Single-story multi-bay frame. Structure, deflected shape and moment diagram.
Consider the four-bay frame above (Fig. 6.7), which is indeterminate to the 12th degree. As for single bay frames, we
can assume the inflection points to be located at the center of each girder and at the center of each column. Those
assumptions lead to the approximate structure in Fig. 6.8. Since we have introduced only nine releases (hinges), the
frame is still statically indeterminate to the third degree, a result verified by the formula of Chapter 1 to calculate n .
n = 5 3 + 9 2 10 3 = 3
(6.1)
Fig. 6.8 Single-story multi-bay frame with hinges at mid-height and mid-span (indeterminate to the third degree).
Before we can use statics to analyze the multi-bay frame, we thus need another simplifying assumption. A further approximation that renders the structure statically determinate is that each of the four bents of the frame is composed of a portal (Fig. 6.9) and each portal carries one fourth of the lateral force applied to the frame. The interior columns then represent the columns of two portals and thus carry twice the shear as the exterior columns.
128
P /4
P /4
P /4
P /4
V
V
V
V
V
Fig. 6.9 Single-story multi-bay frame considered a series of portals.
In summary, the portal method is based on the following assumptions (see Fig. 6.10):
(1) We place a hinge at the center of each girder and thus have point of zero moment at those locations.
(2) We place a hinge at the center of each column and thus have point of zero moment at those locations.
(3) The interior columns carry twice as much shear as the exterior columns.
2V
2V
2V
Fig. 6.10 Single-story multi-bay frame (portal method approximations).

P1
P2
P3
Fig. 6.11 Multi-story multi-bay frame.

For multi-story frames, we apply the assumptions regarding the distribution of the column shear forces to each story. For
the three-story frame in Fig. 6.11, the shear forces in the two exterior columns (subscript e ) and the interior column
(subscript i ) are
V1e =
P1 + P2 + P3
4
V2e =
P1 + P2
4
V3e =
P1
4
(6.2)
and
V1i =
P1 + P2 + P3
2
V2i =
P1 + P2
2
V3i =
P1
2
respectively (first subscript denotes story).

129
(6.3)
6.3.2
Example 6.1
H
20 k C
10 k B
12 ft
12 ft
12 ft
30 k D
14 ft
20 ft
14 ft
Fig. 6.12 Example 6.1:Three-story three-bay frame.

Problem: Analyze the frame by the portal method and
(a) find the reactions at supports A and E ,
(b) draw the bending moment diagram for the frame.
Solution:
1. Column shear forces
Assuming that interior column carry twice the shear as the exterior columns, we find for the shear force in the columns
10 + 20 + 30
= 10.00 k
6
20 + 30
= VNO =
= 8.33 k
6
30
= VOP =
= 5.00 k
6
VAB = VMN =
VEF = VIJ = 2 10
VBC
VFG = VJK = 2 8.33 = 16.67 k
VCD
= 20.00 k
(6.4)
VGH = VKL = 2 5.00 = 10.00 k
2. Bending moments
Once we have calculated the shear force in the columns, we find the approximate magnitude of the column endmoments by statics (see Fig 6.13)
M =V
H
2
(6.5)
H/2
M
V
Fig. 6.13 Free-body diagram for half column.
130
We next find the moments in the girder by considering moment equilibrium of the joints (see Fig 6.13).
D
30
30
30
60
30
60
80
80
30
80
100
50
50
100
110
110
60
110
120
Fig. 6.14 Moment equilibrium at joints (for half structure).

30
30
30
60
30
80
100
50
30
60
80
80
110
120
60
50
110
100
110
M
[k-ft]
60
120
Fig. 6.15 Approximate moment diagram (approximate analysis by portal method).
131
3. Equilibrium of segments between hinges

With the column shear forces known, we can establish equilibrium for two or three-hinge substructures to find the axial
force in the columns and the shear and axial force in the girders. For example, if we analyze the frame in order
DCBHGF (other sequences work as well), we have no more than three unknown forces for each free-body diagram.
The results are shown below. An alternative would be to first calculate the girder shear from the girder moments. Doing
so, we only need to apply two equations of equilibrium to the segments between hinges.
30 D
25.00
25.00
15.00
4.29
3.00
6 ft
6 ft
4.29
5.00
10.00
4.29
1.29
7 ft
7 ft
4.29
10 ft
1.29
10.00
6 ft
6 ft
5.00
20
16.67
10.00
16.67
11.42
8.00
6 ft
6 ft
11.42
16.67
8.33
15.71
4.71
7 ft
7 ft
10 ft
15.71
4.71
16.67
10
8.33
15.71
6 ft
6 ft
8.33
8.33
5.00
15.71
6 ft
6 ft
11.00
20.00
10.00
31.42
9.43
7 ft
7 ft
10 ft
Fig. 6.16 Equilibrium of segments between hinges (for half structure).

The reactions at A and E are thus
Ax = 10 k , Ay = 31.42 k , M A = 60 k-ft(ccw)
E x = 20 k , Ey = 9.43 k , M E = 120 k-ft(ccw)
132
(6.6)
6.4
The Cantilever Method
6.4.1
Approximations of the cantilever method
The portal method usually works well for structures with small to average aspect ratio H / B . For tall and slender structures (large aspect ratio) it is appropriate to assume that the building frame behaves like a cantilever beam. The crosssectional areas of the columns form the cross section of the imaginary beam. For any horizontal section through the building, we consider the stresses in the columns, like those in a beam, linearly distributed across the section. The forces in
the columns resulting from these stresses constitute the resisting moment that balances the overturning moment due to
the lateral loads. For lateral loading the cantilever experiences only bending but no resultant axial force such that the
neutral axis, i.e. the axis of zero stress, passes through the centroid of the cross section (see Fig 6.17). As in the portal
method, we assume points of inflection to be located at mid-height of the columns and mid-span of the girders.
In summary, the cantilever method is based on the following assumptions (see Fig. 6.17):
(1) We place a hinge at the center of each girder and thus have point of zero moment at those locations
(2) We place a hinge at the center of each column and thus have point of zero moment at those locations
(3) The axial stress in each column is proportional to its distance from the centroid of the column areas. If the columns
have uniform cross-sectional areas, the force in a column is also proportional to its distance from the centroid of the column areas.
Fig. 6.17 Approximations of the cantilever method.
6.4.2
Analysis procedure
(1) Consider free bodies obtained by a cut through the hinges in each story. Calculate the axial force in each column by
equating the external overturning moment produced by the lateral forces above the cut to the internal moment produced
by the column axial forces (Fig. 6.18). Example2 6.2 and 6.3 will present how to proceed using the techniques learned in
ARCE 222.
(2) Considering equilibrium at the joints (Fig. 6.16, same as in portal method) to calculate the shear forces in girders and
columns and the axial forces in the girders. As in the portal method, start at an exterior joint so that the corresponding
free-body diagram does not involve more than three unknown forces.
(3) Calculate the bending moments M g in the girders and the bending moments M c in the columns by
M g = Vg
L
2
(6.7)
and
133
M c = Vc
H
2
(6.8)
respectively.
P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
Fig. 6.18 Free-body diagram to calculate axial forces in columns.
134
6.4.3
Example 6.2
Problem: Reanalyze Example 6.1 (Section 6.3.2) using the cantilever method. Assume uniform cross-sectional area A
for all columns.
Solution:
1. Column axial forces
The moment of inertia of the cross section formed by the columns (see Fig. 6.19) is (parallel axis theorem)
I = 2 (102 + 242 ) A = 1353 A
(6.9)
Since we assume the axial stresses in the columns to be linearly distributed across the section (recall that the section
depth is the width of the building) we can use the flexure formula
i =
M
x
I i
(6.10)
to calculate the stress i in column i where x i is the distance from the centroid of the column layout to a column i . We
then multiply by the area A to obtain the axial force in the columns. The column axial forces expressed in terms of the
overturning moment M are thus
FABCD =
M
24A = 0.01775 M
1353A
FEFGH =
M
10A = 0.007396 M
1353A
(6.11)
We obtain the column axial forces in each story be calculating the overturning moment M for each story about the hinge
in that story (see Fig. 6.18) and then substituting M in Eq. (6.11).
1st story:
M = 30 30 + 20 18 + 10 6 = 1320 k-ft
FAB = FMN = 0.01775 1320 = 23.43 k
FEF = FIJ = 0.007396 1320 = 9.76 k
2nd story:
M = 30 18 + 20 6 = 660 k-ft
FBC = FNO = 0.01775 660 = 11.72 k
FFG = FJK = 0.007396 660 = 4.88 k
3rd story:
M = 30 6 = 180 k-ft
FCD = FOP = 0.01775 180 = 3.20 k
FGH = FKL = 0.007396 180 = 1.33 k
(6.12)
We should note that finding the axial stresses and axial forces in the columns involves exactly the same procedure as finding the stresses in cross-section of a beam (see Fig. 6.18). In particular, we should recall that the moment of inertia I
and the flexure formula Eq. (6.10) we introduced in ARCE 222 is the result of two assumptions: (1) stress distribution
across the section is linear and (2) moment equilibrium of the section (internal moment equals moment produced by the
stresses).
Columns
Columns
Columns
Columns
A, B,C , D
E , F ,G , H
I ,J , K, L
M , N , O, P
Area A
Area A
14 ft
10 ft
Area A
10 ft
Area A
14 ft
Fig. 6.19 Cross section of beam formed by column areas.

Section 6.4.4 presents a more detailed example on how to estimate the axial forces in the columns.
135
2. Equilibrium of segments between hinges

30 D
26.27
26.27
15.00
4.53
3.19
6 ft
6 ft
3.19
3.73
11.27
G
3.19
7 ft
1.33
7 ft
10 ft
1.33
3.73
11.27
20
17.51
6 ft
6 ft
3.19
17.51
10.00
8.52
12.07
6 ft
6 ft
8.52
18.79
6.21
4.88
11.72
7 ft
7 ft
10 ft
4.88
11.72
6.21
6 ft
6 ft
18.79
8.76
5.00
8.76
16.60
11.72
6 ft
11.72
6 ft
10
22.54
7.46
9.76
23.43
7 ft
7 ft
10 ft
Fig. 6.20 Equilibrium of segments between hinges (cantilever method).

The reactions at A and E are thus
Ax = 7.46 k , Ay = 23.4 k , M A = 44.8 k-ft(ccw)
E x = 22.5 k , Ey = 9.76 k , M E = 135 k-ft(ccw)
136
3. Moment diagram
22.4
67.6
22.4
22.4
59.6
45.3
37.3
67.6
121
44.7
37.3
82.0
113
59.6
113
82.0
135
166
M
44.7
135
[k-ft]
Fig. 6.21 Moment diagram (approximate analysis by cantilever method).
portal method
exact indeterminate analysis
cantilever method
Fig. 6.22 Moment diagrams for approximate and exact methods (exact analysis is for IC =IG )
137
6.4.4
Example 6.3
J
30 k D
20 k C
10 k B
A = 10 in2
A = 10 in2
A = 20 in2
12 ft
A = 20 in2
12 ft
12 ft
12 ft
12 ft
40 k E
16 ft
20 ft
Fig. 6.23 Example 6.3: Estimating axial forces for cantilever method.
Problem: Using the cantilever method, estimate the column axial forces of the frame above.
Solution: Since the columns have different spacing and different cross-sectional area, we first need to find the centroid
of the section composed by the four columns (see Fig. 6.24)
xc =
x A
A
i
0 20 + 12 10 + 28 10 + 48 20
= 22.67 ft
60
(6.13)
The moment of inertia of the cross section formed by the columns is (parallel axis theorem)
= (0 22.67)2 20 + (12 22.67)2 10 + (28 22.67)2 10 + (48 22.67)2 20

= 22.672 20 + 10.672 10 + 5.332 10 + 25.332 20
(6.14)
= 24533 ft2 in2
22.67 ft
A =20 in2
A =10 in2
Col.
Col.
A, B,C , D, E F ,G, H , I , J
12 ft
16 ft
A =10 in2
A =20 in2
Col.
K , L, M , N ,O
Col.
P,Q, R, S ,T
20 ft
Fig. 6.24 Cross section (non-symmetrical) of beam formed by column areas.
138
Since we assume the axial stresses in the columns to be linearly distributed across the section (recall that the section is
the width of the building) we can use the flexure formula
M
x
I i
i =
(6.15)
to calculate the stress i in column i where x i is the distance from the centroid of the column layout to a column i . The
axial force N i in column i is then
N i = i Ai =
M
x A
I i i
(6.16)
For a cut through the hinges in the first story, the overturning moment is (see Fig. 6.25)
M = (40 3.5 + 30 2.5 + 20 1.5 + 10 0.5) 12 = 3000 k-ft
(6.17)
30 k
20 k
10 k
Q
6 ft
12 ft
12 ft
12 ft
40 k E
Ax
Fx
A
Ay
Kx
Py
Ky
Fy
12 ft
Px
16 ft
20 ft
22.67 ft
10.67 ft
5.33 ft
25.33 ft
Fig. 6.25 Free-body diagram for first story column axial forces.
Using Eq. (6.16), the axial forces in the columns of the first story are
Ay =
Ky =
3000 k-ft
2
24533 ft in
3000 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
22.67 ft 20 in = 55.44 k
5.33 ft 10 in = 6.52 k
(T)
(C)
Fy =
Py =
3000 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
3000 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
139
10.67 ft 10 in = 13.04 k (T)
(6.18)
25.33 ft 20 in = 61.96 k (C)
30 k
20 k
R
6 ft
12 ft
12 ft
40 k
Gx
Bx
Lx
Qx
Gy
By
Qy
Ly
12 ft
16 ft
20 ft
22.67 ft
10.67 ft
5.33 ft
25.33 ft
Fig. 6.26 Free-body diagram for second story column axial forces.
Likewise, we obtain for the overturning moment of the second story (see Fig. 6.26)
M = (40 2.5 + 30 1.5 + 20 0.5) 12 = 1860 k-ft
(6.19)
The column forces are

By =
Gy =
Ly =
Qy =
1860 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
1860 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
1860 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
1860 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
22.67 ft 20 in
= 34.4 k
(T)
10.67 ft 10 in
= 8.09 k
(T)
(6.20)
5.33 ft 10 in
= 4.04 k
(C)
25.33 ft 20 in
= 38.4 k
(C)
140
The overturning moment for the third story is (see Fig. 6.27)
M = (40 1.5 + 30 0.5) 12 = 900 k-ft
(6.21)

Cy =
Hy =
My =
Ry =
900 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
900 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
10.67 ft 10 in2 = 3.92 k
(T)
5.33 ft 10 in
= 1.96 k
(C)
25.33 ft 20 in2 = 18.6 k
(C)
24533 ft2 in2

24533 ft2 in2
(T)
(6.22)
900 k-ft
900 k-ft
22.67 ft 20 in2 = 16.6 k
30 k
S
6 ft
12 ft
40 k
Hx
Cx
Mx
Hy
Cy
12 ft
Rx
Ry
My
16 ft
20 ft
22.67 ft
10.67 ft
5.33 ft
25.33 ft
Fig. 6.27 Free-body diagram for third story column axial forces.
141
40 k
T
6 ft
Ix
Dx
Nx
Iy
Dy
Sx
Sy
Ny
12 ft
16 ft
20 ft
22.67 ft
10.67 ft
5.33 ft
25.33 ft
Fig. 6.28 Free-body diagram for fourth story column axial forces.
Finally, the overturning moment for the fourth story is (see Fig. 6.28)
M = 40 0.5 12 = 240 k-ft
(6.23)

240 k-ft
Dy =
Iy =
240 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
Ny =
Sy =
22.67 ft 20 in2 = 4.43 k
(T)
10.67 ft 10 in2
(T)
24533 ft2 in2
240 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
240 k-ft
24533 ft2 in2
= 1.04 k
(6.24)
5.33 ft 10 in
25.33 ft 20 in2
= 0.52 k
(C)
= 4.96 k
(C)
Note that the relative magnitude, i.e. the ratio of the column axial forces, does not change over the height of the building.
142
Problems
6.1
C
25 k
15 ft
12 ft
50 k
15 ft
20 ft
15 ft
Use the portal method to approximately analyze the frame structure above. Draw the bending moment, shear force and
axial force diagrams.
6.2
E
30 k
25 k
20 k
16 ft
12 ft
12 ft
12 ft
30 k
20 ft
20 ft
Use the cantilever method to approximately analyze the frame structure above. Draw the bending moment, shear force
and axial force diagrams.
143
6.3
4.00
100
B
5.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
8.00
Use the cantilever method to estimate the axial forces in columns A, B and C of the ten-story building (clearly indicate
tension or compression). Also find the bending moment in column D .
Solution
FA = 265(T)
FB = 44 (T)
FC = 309(C)
(ans )
M D = 34.8(ans )
144
7
7.1
Influence Lines
Introduction
max. compression
max. tension
Fig. 7.1 Illustration of influence line and internal force diagram.
145
7.1.1
General Remarks
When designing structures, we have to determine the most unfavorable set of internal design forces due to all possible
external design loads or load combinations. In many cases, we have to consider movable loads whose most unfavorable
positions cannot be readily determined. In these cases, influence lines help us to determine the load positions for
maximum effects.
An influence line is defined as a diagram that describes the variation of a load effect as a concentrated force of unit magnitude moves across the structure. We can determine influence lines for all possible load effects like internal forces,
stresses, displacements, strains, etc. In this class, we focus on influence lines for internal forces in beams.
Throughout this chapter, we have to strongly differentiate between influence lines for an internal force and internal
force diagrams. Internal force diagrams, like moment, axial force or shear force diagrams show the value of an internal
force at several, usually all locations in the structure due to a stationary loading. An influence line, on the other hand,
shows the variation of an internal force at one particular location say at location r as a function of the position of a unit
load.
Figure 7.1 helps us distinguish between the concepts of influence lines and internal force diagram. If we fix position of
the truck in Fig. 7.1 and look at all the member forces that this load position causes, we are considering an internal force
diagram. If, in contrast, we look at one specific member of the truss and investigate how its force varies with the position
of the truck, the result of that analysis is the influence line for that member force.
7.1.2
Internal Force Diagram Revisited
Let us first recall the idea of an internal force diagram and look for the bending moment diagram M of the beam with
cantilever shown in Fig. 7.2.
w
A
a
Fig. 7.2 Beam with cantilever (internal force diagrams revisited).

We find the shear force and bending moment by cutting the beam at an arbitrary section x and considering equilibrium
of the portion of the beam on one side of the section. As always, we define the bending moment as positive when it
causes tension at the bottom of the beam. Figure 7.3 shows the two free-body diagrams.
w
M
x1
M
V
x2
Fig. 7.3 Free-body diagrams to calculate internal forcesV and M .

Applying the equations of equilibrium gives
M (x1 )
V (x1 )
= Ax1 w
=A
x12
2
0 x1 L
0 x1 L
M (x 2 ) = Px 2
V (x 2 ) = P
146
0 x2 a
0 x2 a
wL
a
with A =
P
2
L
(7.1)
By plotting the preceding equations, Fig. 7.4 shows the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
P
A +
wL A
Pa
wL2 / 8
Fig. 7.4 Moment and shear force diagrams for beam with cantilever.
7.1.3
Influence Line by statics
For simple structures, we can determine influence lines directly. For the beam with cantilever considered above, let us
determine the influence line for the bending moment M r and the shear forceVr at midspan. Thus we need to determine M r andVr as a function of the position x of a unit load F = 1 (see Fig. 7.5).
x
F =1
r
L /2
L /2
Fig. 7.5 Find influence lines for overhanging beam.

Obviously, we need to consider two cases, case 1 is for the unit load acting at the left-hand side of locations r and case 2
for the unit load acting at the right-hand side of location r . The figure below shows the free-body diagrams corresponding to the two cases.
x
F =1
r
L
Case 1: x
2
Mr
Vr
L/2
L
Case 2: x >
2
Mr
Vr
L/2
Fig. 7.6 Free-body diagrams to find influence lines "M r " and "Vr " by statics.
Equilibrium for Case 1 gives
Mr
Vr
L
L
L x L
L
x
1 ( x) =
1 ( x) =
2
2
2
2
2
L
x
= A1 =
L
= A
L
2
L
0x
2
(7.2)
L
< x L +a
2
L
< x L +a
2
(7.3)
0x
Equilibrium for Case 2 gives

Mr
Vr
L
L x L
1
=
= (L x )
2
L
2
2
L x
=A=
L
= A
147
Plotting the above equations gives us the two desired influence lines.
"M r "
L
4
1
2
+ L
1 +
2
L /2
a
2
L /2
"Vr "
Fig. 7.7 Influence lines "M r " and "Vr " for overhanging beam.
It is important to note that the coordinate x in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6 as well as Eqs. 7.2 and 7.3 denotes the location of the
load and not that of the bending moment or the shear force as in Eq. (7.1). In order to clearly distinguish between force
diagram and influence line it is helpful to use quotes to denote influence lines.
7.2
Influence lines by kinematics-Mller-Breslau principle
The direct method of determining influence lines (see previous section) is limited to simple structures. A general method
to determine influence lines can be derived from the principle of virtual displacements. We illustrate the procedure using
the same sample structure as before (see Fig. 7.5). To find the influence line for the bending moment M r , we create a
mechanism at the section r where the influence line is desired, i.e. we remove the resistance of the beam against bending at that section. We then impose a rotation at that section and set up the virtual work equation, i.e. we equate internal
and external work. We obtain
M r r + F vm = 0
(7.4)
where M r is the bending moment at location r due to F at location m and vm is the deflection at m due to the imposed deformation r . If we let Fm = 1 , r = 1 , drop the prime-symbol and consider a variable location m we can write
M r = vm = v(x )
(7.5)
Hence the bending moment at r due to a unit load is equal to the displacement at the location of the load due to a unit rotation at r . But the moment at r due to a unit load acting at an arbitrary location x is by definition the influence line for
the moment at r . Hence
" M r " = v(x )
(7.6)
due to r = 1 . Figure 7.8 illustrates the procedure. The result is the same as that obtained by the direct method (see
Fig. 7.7).
148
F =1
L /2
L /2
Mr
F =1
L
4
a
2
"M r "
vm
r = 1
Fig. 7.8 Influence line "M r " = deflected shape due to r = 1 .

In the same manner we can determine influence lines for a shear force V . We need to remove the resistance to the shear
force and introduce a complementary, that is a vertical deformation of unit magnitude in the direction opposite to the positive sign of that force (see Fig. 7.9). The desired influence line is then the deflected shape resulting from the imposed
deformation. The result is the same as that of "Vr " in Fig. 7.7.
Mr
Vr
r
r
r
vr = 1
r = 1
Fig. 7.9 Positive internal forces, negative unit deformation.

The idea of finding influence lines as deflected shapes was developed by Mller-Breslau in 1886. In summary, the
Mller-Breslau principle states: The influence line for an internal force at location r is the deflected shape of the
structure produced by removing at r the capacity with respect to the force and then introducing a (negative) unit
displacement that corresponds to the restraint removed.
7.3
Use of Influence Lines
7.3.1
General Remarks
Once influence lines have been determined it is straightforward to use them in order to determine the corresponding load
effect under any loading condition. We recall that the ordinate of the influence line at a point is the value of the load
effect due to a unit load acting at that point. Thus, all we need to do is sum all the loads times their corresponding ordinate of the influence line. For an arbitrary load effect Sr we thus have
Sr = Pi i + w(x ) (x ) dx
(7.7)
where Pi and w(x ) are concentrated forces and distributed loads, respectively. Note that the above equation is based on
the principle of superposition, which states that the forces in an elastic structure are proportional to the magnitude of the
applied loads.
149
Example: Find the value of the bending moment at midspan of the beam in Fig. 7.10 (7.2) under the loading shown.
w
A
L
L
4
a
2
"M r "
Fig. 7.10 Influence line and loading.

Applying Eq. (7.7) gives
M r = w L
7.4
L 1
a
L2
a
P = w P
4 2
2
8
2
(7.8)
Example 7.1
1m
100 kN
100 kN
10 kN/m
r
3m
3m
4m
5m
Fig. 7.11 Example 7.1

Problem:
(a) Draw the influence lines for the shear force and bending moment at location r of the beam above.
(b) Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the shear force and the bending moment due to the uniformly distributed load (dead load) and the moving loads shown. The relative position of the two concentrated forces is fixed.
Solution:
(a) We obtain the influence line for the shear force at r by first removing the capacity of the section to transmit shear (but
not axial force or bending moment) and then introducing a unit displacement in the direction opposite to the positive direction of the shear force. Note that we obtain all influence ordinates by simple proportions (similar triangles).
We obtain the influence line for the bending moment at r by first removing the capacity of the section to transmit a bending moment (but not axial force or shear force) and then introducing a unit rotation in the direction opposite to the positive direction of the bending moment. Again, we obtain all influence ordinates by simple proportions (similar triangles).
150
(0.500, 0.333)
max
(0.667, 0.533)
min
0.6667
0.5
"Vr "
+
0.5
[]
(2.000,1.600)
min
2.00
max
(1.000,1.500)
"M r "
[m]
1.50
Fig. 7.12 Influence lines for shear force and bending moment.
(b)
Distributed load (dead load)
The value for the shear force and moment at location r due to the distributed load is the area under the influence line
multiplied by the magnitude of the load, hence
Vr = 0.5 9 0.6667 10 = 30 kN
M r = 0.5 (1.5 6 2 9) 10 = 45 kNm
(7.9)
Moving load
To calculate the maximum shear force and bending moment due to the moving load, we position the two forces such that
the combined influence is maximized. To calculate the minimum shear force and bending moment (or maximum negative values) due to the moving load, we position the two forces such that the combined influence is minimized. Finding
the controlling position for moving loads, sometimes involves some trial and error. For influence lines that are piecewise
linear as is the case for statically determinate structures, one of the concentrated forces is always placed at the maximum
ordinates of the influence line. We obtain
minVr
= (0.667 + 0.533) 100 = 120 kN
maxVr = (0.5 + 0.333) 100 = 83.33 kN
min M r
= (2 + 1.6) 100
max M r = (1.5 + 1) 100
= 360 kNm
= 250 kNm
(7.10)
Combining dead load and live load gives

minVr
= 30 120 = 150 kN
maxVr
= 30 + 83.33 = 53.33 kN
min M r
= 45 360 = 405 kNm
max M r
= 45 + 250
= 205 kNm
(7.11)
7.5
Properties of influence lines of statically determinate structures
Influence lines of statically determinate structures are always piecewise linear. This is because the induced deformation
does not cause any internal forces or curvatures in the beam. Consequently, we can obtain the influence lines for statically determinate structures by simple geometry.
151
7.6
Influence Lines of Statically Indeterminate Structures
7.6.1
General remarks
It can be shown that Eq. 7.4 holds irrespective of whether the structure is statically determinate or indeterminate. That is
we find influence lines for statically indeterminate structures by imposing a negative unit complementary deformation at
the location where the influence line is desired. The fundamental difference, however, is that statically indeterminate
structures offer resistance to the imposed deformation. That resistance causes deformations, i.e. curvature and/or axial
strains, such that the segments of the influence lines are generally curved.
The analytical treatment of influence lines for statically indeterminate structures is thus beyond the scope of this class.
Our main objectives regarding influence lines for indeterminate structures are:
(1) become familiar with the shape of influence lines for internal forces of continuous beams,
(2) sketch influence lines for internal forces of continuous beams,
(3) establish live load patterns to produce maximum effects in continuous beams.
As a first example, we consider the two-span continuous beam in Fig. 7.13 and consider the influence line for the bending moment at midspan AB . According to the Mller-Breslau principle, we first remove the capacity with respect to
bending at that location, i.e. place a hinge at midspan AB , and then introduce a relative rotation of unit magnitude at the
hinge. The resulting deflected shape is equal to the influence line (Fig. 7.13).
A
B
L /2
L /2
C
L
"M B "
=1
Fig. 7.13 Influence Line for span moment of two-span continuous beam.
7.6.2
Live load patterns to maximize forces in multi-span beams (Skip Loading)
Building codes require that we vary the position of the live loads to maximize a certain force at a particular section. In
most cases, we find the largest live loads effects by placing the live load on certain portions of the structure but not on
others. We may use influence lines to identify the portions of a structure that we should load to maximize the design
force at critical section. Shown in Fig. 7.14 are examples of influence lines for a four-span continuous beam. We obtain
the influence line "MC " for the support moment at C by first introducing a hinge at that location and then rotating the two
member ends relative to each other. We obtain the influence line for the span moment M 2 correspondingly. We generate
the influence line for the support force at A (equal to the shear force at A ) by first removing the vertical support at A and
then introducing a vertical displacement.
152
2
L
=1
"M C "
"M 2 "
=1
"VA "
"VCB "
+
+
1
Fig. 7.14 Influence lines for four-span continuous beam.

From Fig. 7.14, we can derive the following rules regarding live load effects
(1) We obtain the maximum moment in span i by loading spans ..., i 2, i, i + 2,...
(2) We obtain the minimum moment in span i by loading spans ..., i 1, i + 1,...
(3) We obtain the minimum support moment (maximum negative value) by loading the two spans adjacent to the support and every other span next to those. This live load pattern also yields the absolute maximum values of the shear forces at this support and the maximum support force.
(4) We obtain the maximum support moment and the minimum support reaction force by a live load pattern that is opposite to (3).
To further illustrate the above rules, we look at a five-span continuous beam in Fig. 7.15. Shown are all relevant live
load patterns and the corresponding design forces associated with each loading pattern. Qualitative bending moment and
shear force diagrams due to dead load (uniformly distributed across all spans, Case 0) and each live load pattern are plotted in Fig. 7.15. Figure 7.16 shows the shear fore and bending moment envelope diagrams. An envelope is a plot of the
maximum and minimum forces (for beams these are shear force and bending moment) that can occur at any given section accounting for different positions of the live load. Clearly, we must include the dead load forces in the envelope diagrams.
153
max M 1, max M 3 , max M 5

min M 2 , min M 4
maxVAB , maxVFE , max A, max F
max M 2 , max M 4
min M 1, min M 3 , min M 5
minVAB , minVFE , min A, min F
min M B
minVBA , maxVBC , max B
max M B
maxVBA , minVBC , min B
min MC
minVCB , maxVCD , max C
max MC
maxVCB , minVCD , min C
min M D
minVDC , maxVDE , max D
max M D
maxVDC , minVDE , min D
min M E
minVED , maxVEF , max E
10
max M E
maxVED , minVEF , min E
Fig. 7.15 Live load patterns for five-span continuous beam.
154
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 7.16 Moment and shear force diagrams for dead load (Case 0) and different live load patterns (Cases 1-10).
max M
min M
A
B
maxV
+
minV
V
Fig. 7.17 Moment and shear force envelope diagrams for five-span continuous beam.
155
Problems
7.1
A
5 ft
10 k
10 k
min
5 ft
max
4 ft10.00 4 ft
5 ft
8 ft
8 ft
3 ft
3.75
(1) Find the influence line for the (a) moment at A , (b) reaction force at A , (c) reaction force at D , (d) shear force at B ,
(e) shear force at C , (f) moment at B , (g) moment at C of the beam above. (2) Using the influence lines of (1), calculate
the maximum and minimum values resulting from two moving live loads, whose relative position is fixed.
Solution:
(2)
max M A = 137.5 k-ft
max D = 33.75 k
maxVC = 5 k
max MC = 20 k-ft
min M A
min D
minVC
min MC
= 150 k-ft
= 7.5 k
= 13.75 k
= 55 k-ft
max A = 20 k
maxVB = 20 k
max M B = 68.75 k-ft
min A = 13.75 k
minVB = 13.75 k
min M B = 68.75 k-ft
7.2
50 kN
1m
50 kN
6m
5 kN/m
4m
2m
(1) Find the influence line for (a) the moment at A , (b) the shear force at A , (c) the shear force at B , (d) the reaction
force at C of the beam above. (2) Using the influence lines of (1), calculate the maximum and minimum values resulting
from a uniformly distributed load of magnitude 5 kN/m (dead load across the entire beam) and two moving live loads,
whose relative position is fixed. (3) Repeat (2) considering the distributed load a live load of variable length.
Solution:
(2)
due to w = 5 kN/m
M A = 135 kNm
A = 37.5 kN
VB = 7.5 kN
due to P = 50 kN
max M A = 225 kNm min M A = 550 kNm
maxVB = 87.5 kN
minVB = 37.5 kN
C = 22.5 kN
maxVA = 100 kN
max C = 137.5 kN
156
minVA = 37.5 kN
min C = 0
7.3
P
w
A
B
5.00 m
5.00 m
" M B " [m]

x
x
The influence line " M B " for the support moment at B of a two-span continuous beam is given by the function
1
1 3
x
" MB " = x +
0x 5
4
100
(1) Using the above expression for the influence line, calculate by integration the support moment M B for a uniformly
distributed load applied to both spans. Check your result by using the fixed-end moment table.
(2) At what location must a concentrated force P be placed to produce minimum M B ? What is the value for min M B ?
(3) Place P at the location found in (2) and verify the value for min M B using the force method of structural analysis.
Solution:
(1) M B = 3.125w (ans )
(2) x 0 =
100
= 2.8867 m (ans )
12
M B = 0.4811P (ans )
7.4
A
15 ft
20 ft
25 ft
25 ft
20 ft
15 ft
A dead load of wD =1k/ft and a live load of wL =1.5 k/ft are applied to the six-span continuous beam shown. Use skiploading for the live load and find (electronically) the maximum and minimum design forces (dead load plus live load)
for the span moments, support moments, support reactions and the shear forces at the supports. Use symmetry to minimize the number of live load patterns you need to analyze. For simplicity, assume that the maximum span moments
occur at midspan. The beam has constant flexural stiffness.
157
5 kN/m
7.5
A
B
5.00 m
5.00 m
" MB "
x
x0
[m]
1.00 m
5.00 m
5.00 m
The influence line " M B " for the support moment at B of a two-span continuous beam is given by the function
1
1 3
x
" MB " = x +
4
100
0x 5
(1) Using the above expression for the influence line, calculate by integration the support moment M B due to the triangular load shown.
(2) At what location x 0 must two concentrated forces P be placed to produce minimum M B ? What is the value
for min M B ?
w live = 3 k/ft
7.6
D
20 ft
20 ft
0.342
0.576
0.714
0.768
0.75
0.672
0.546
0.384
0.198
0.198
0.384
0.546
0.672
0.75
0.768
0.714
0.576
0.342
20 ft
"M 2 "
[ft]
0.46
1.04
1.74
2.56
3.5
2.56
1.74
1.04
0.46
A live load of intensity w live = 3 k/ft acts on a three-span continuous beam whose influence line for the bending moment
at mid-span 2 is given (ordinates every 2 ft). Use the influence line and the principle of skip loading to find the
minimum and maximum moments at mid-span of span 2. You may assume a linear variation of the influence line
between given ordinates.
158
7.7
w live = 3 k/ft
D
20 ft
20 ft
0.78
1.28
1.54
1.6
1.5
1.28
0.98
0.64
0.3
0.528
1.02
1.46
1.79
2.0
2.05
1.9
1.54
0.912
20 ft
"M B "
[ft]
0.228
0.384
0.476
0.512
0.5
0.448
0.364
0.256
0.132
A live load of intensity w live = 3 k/ft acts on a three-span continuous beam whose influence line for the bending moment
at support B is given (ordinates every 2 ft). Use the influence line and the principle of skip loading to find the minimum
and maximum moments at support B . You may assume a linear variation of the influence line between given ordinates.
159

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ARCE 302-Structural Analysis

Lecture Notes, Fall 2009

Copyright 2009 Ansgar Neuenhofer (photo by author)

Principal of Virtual Forces

The Force Method

The Slope-Deflection Method

The Moment-Distribution Method

Approximate analysis of building frames under lateral load

(c) 1-dimensional structural elements

Summary of Properties of Moment and Shear Force Diagrams

Fig. 1.1 Properties of shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Example 1.1: Beam with internal hinges

Fig. 1.2 Beam with internal hinges.

Fig. 1.3 Free-body diagram of whole structure.

Fig. 1.4 Free-body diagram of individual parts.

Fig. 1.5 Free-body diagrams of exterior parts after calculating FC and FD .

Fig. 1.6 Free-body diagrams with all forces known.

Fig. 1.7 Shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Fig. 1.8 Sketch of deflected shape.

Fig. 1.11 Three cuts for internal forces.

Fig. 1.13 Sample frame structure.

sketch of deflected shape

Fig. 1.14 Internal force diagrams and sketch of deflected shape.

Fig. 1.15 Statically determinate truss.

Fig. 1.16 Statically indeterminate trusses.

Fig. 1.17 Unstable trusses with collapse modes.

Number of support reactions

Number of truss members

Fig. 1.18 Statically determinate, indeterminate and unstable truss structures.

Beams and frames

Number of support reactions

Number of internal forces at hinges

Number of closed loops without hinge

Degree of statical indeterminacy

(stat. indet. to 2nd degree)

(!! unstable!! CAUTION)

(stat. indet. to 11th degree)

(!! unstable!!, CAUTION)

Fig. 1.19 Statically determinate, indeterminate and unstable frame structures.

Degree of statical indeterminacy for space frame structures

Number of support reactions

Number of internal forces at hinges

Number of closed loops without hinge

Degree of statical indeterminacy

Fig. 1.20 Statically indeterminate three-dimensional frame.

(stat. indeterminate to the 24th degree)

sketch of deflected shape

Principal of Virtual Forces

where n is the number of members in the truss.

Fig. 2.1 Example 2.1.

Fig. 2.2 Member forces for real loading.

Fig. 2.3 Member forces for virtual loading (vertical displacement at B ).

Fig. 2.4 Member forces for virtual loading (horizontal displacement at E ).

The calculations are best arranged in tabular form:

The vertical displacement at B and the horizontal displacement at E are thus

Fig. 2.5 Deflected shape of truss.

Fig. 2.6 Example 2.2.

Fig. 2.7 Moment diagram for real loading.

Fig. 2.8 Moment diagram for virtual loading.

(summation over n segments of the beam)

typical value of virtual moment M

typical value of virtual moment M

tabulated integration factor depending on the shape of M and M