6.8 Structural Design of Spread Footings The plan dimensions (B and L) of a spread footing are controlled by the allowable soil pressure beneath the footing, The pressure distribution beneath footings is influenced by the interaction of the footing rigidity with the soil type, stress-state, and time response to stress as shown in Figure 6.19 (a) (b). However, it is common practice to use the linear pressure distribution beneath rigid footings as shown in Figure 6.19 (c). The depth (D) for spread footings is usually controlled by shear stresses. Two-way action shear always controls the depth for centrally loaded square footings. However, wide-beam shear may control the depth for rectangular footings when the L/B ratio is greater than about 1.2 and may control for other L/B ratios when there is overturning or eccentric loading (Figure 6.20a). [n addition, footing depth should be designed to satisfy diagonal (punching) shear requirement (Figure 6.20b). Recent studies by Duan and McBride [30] indicate that when the length-to-thickriess ratio of cantilever (L/D as defined in Figure 6.21) of a footing (or pile-cap) is greater than 2.2, « nonlinear distribution of reaction should be used for footing oF pile-cap design. The specifications and procedures for footing design can he found in AASHTO. 16.134 General Design Assumptions A pileshaft group is an indeterminate structure and is generally subjected to axial force and biaxial moment and shear. The following assumptions are commonly used inanalysis of pile/shaft groups ‘© Rigid Pile Cap: The pile cop can be assumed as rigid when the length-to- thickness ratio of the cantilever measured fiom face af the calumn/pier to the ‘edge of the cap is less than or equal to 2.2 according to Seismic Design Chteria (SDC) 7.7.1.3 (Caltrans, 2013), (Chapter 16 — Deep Foundations 16-5 '» Pile/Shatt-to-Cap Pin Connection: When surrounded by competent soil, the lateral movement of the piles/shafts under lateral loads such as earthquake is very small. Therefore, moments in the pile/shaft can be ignored and a pin coninection can be assumed between piles/shatts and the pile cap. These assumptions will result in a linear distribution of pile/shaft forces and facilitate analysis under lateral forces as explained in this chapter.1S 1893 ( Part 1) : 2002 3 TERMINOLOGY FOR EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING. 3.1 For the purpose of this standard, the following definitions shall apply which are applicable generally, toall structures. NOTE — For the definitions of terms pertaining t cil mechanies ané soil dynamics references may be made to 1S 2809 and IS 2810, 3.2 Closely-Spaced Modes Cloely-spaced modes of a structure are those of its natural modes of vibration whose natural frequencies differ from each other by 10 percent or less of the lower frequency. 15 1893 ( Part 1): 2002 a} Ifthe building does not have closely-spaced ‘modes, then the peak response quantity (A) due to all modes considered shall be obtained as where 2, = Absolute value of quantity in mode k, and = Number of modes being considered ‘Ifthe building hasa few closely-spaced modes (see 3.2), then the peak response quantity (QC ) due to these modes shall be obtained 2A ‘where the summation is forthe closely spaced modes only. This peak response quantity due tothe closely spaced modes ( A" )is then combined with those of the remaining well-separated modes by the method described in 7.8.4.4 (a), as