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    crystals

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    5 views25 pages

    Crystalsa

    Uploaded by

    Gomathi Varshini
    crystals

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 25
    i structure: sss now ICIS applied to the atom’ s electronit- { ;. Explain ate Wp x Lot ‘ me mic ™ass and atomic number. What is an Isotope? vents %6 . at are . nd Cy we effects of electron energy levels in metals? ™ (AMIE. ‘ 9 7, State postulates of Bohr's theory of the Spectrum of hydr ” ‘ rogen atom, 8. Caleulate the radius of the hydrogen atom in the normal ground state. 9. Briefly discuss the various Quantum Numbers, MI 12% 10. Define the following : , ne (AMIE, 5-92) () Atomic mass (ii) Atomic number (iii) Isotopes (iv) Nucleons (») Alpha particles (vi) Mesons . Explain the difference between mass ni ic number * hema wanes * iri ~ tance in Periodic table. omen ‘ante, W'S) meer 12. (@) Explain how the modem periodic table is di . Periodic table ? le is different from Mendeleev’s (&) Write the basis on which Periodic table is divided into four blocks. (c) Differentiate between periods and groups w.r.t Periodic table. 13. (a) What is deuterium? (AMIE - 96) (b) Why elements having zero valence electron are called “inert gases"? (c) What were the drawbacks observed in Mendeleev’s Periodic table ? 414. Find the radius of the first orbit of the electron in the hydrogen atom, given that hn= 6.626 x 10 Js, m=9.11 x 10°?! kg and e = 1.6 x 10? coulomb. 15. Calculate the orbital frequency of an electron in the second Bohr’s orbit in a 23? 2p* hydrogen atom. 16. State and explain Bohr’s model of an atom. i +s ofbil in a hydrogen atom is 0.529 rotons pres# 17. The radius of the first Bohr’s orbit of an electron ina hy drogen ato : Seo A Calculate the radius of the second Bohr’s orbit in a single ionised helium (AMIE-93) i atom, nts 18. Describe the freq electron thee of metals, ; ! 8 (B.H.U. 92-93) aaa PAR II-CRYSTML STRUCTURE ic mass 16 C \\ omit wuss? rystal Structure ANS . ic i Solids can be broadly classified as crystalline (isomorphous) and non-crys i jal, the arrangement of atoms is in True /Fals¢}ig line (amorphous). In a crystalline materi ae ia pio tey : erly peating patter” wo aol be either a single crystal, ae ont Pry ¢ material. A crystalline solid one chet ne t the entire solid consists of omly n° aggregate of many small crystals) separares 7 1” are called grain boundaries. rhese crystals have respect to cach other, Grain boundaries obstruct the So a poly-crystaline material is stronger than an or are called isotropic Le. having same properties 1n © unlike a single crystal, Which is anistropic. A single crystal can be defined as a solid object of uniform chemica composition which as it occurs in nature or formed in the laboratory, the internal structure of which shows a typical symmetry with the material in ideq condition, These crystals help in studying behaviour and defects of mateni| in its ideal condition. Though the solids which are different orientations with movement of dislocations dinary one. Such crystal; very plane and direction e non-crystalline are termed as amorphous, the Fig. 2.8. (a) Crystalline Structure. (&) Non-crystalline Structure. modern view is that they are cooled liqui igh vi it r wis iquids of very high viscosit is glass, which is a super cooled liquid in which the alerted of orran ri '{ ina regular pattern but have become fixed in a more random manner. . Continued abstraction of heat and lowerii i t ering of the t qui Lata 2 continued geerease in the Kinetic energy sft mololes eas a in temperature known as the freezing t i into relatively fixed Positions with rompectt ios eth ote “Whee a cabel : becomes solid, it does so in a crystalline form, that is, thie atome or. biaten e en ina pattern that repeats periodically in three directions, TE type of symmetry is important characteristic of most of the crystals. It i cats that if the parts of an ideal crystal are interchanged, the speci en will be just like the original crystal. , ecimen produ In crystalline materials, the structure i crystals are quartz, snow flakes, gems. ih nee ont Conon examples? rials such as ‘wood, plastics, paper, glass, the internal structut cine ra pattern. Fig. 2.8 shows the two structures. Branch of sci nce d ie internal structure of crystals, its properties, external or interna (cane possessed by the crystals is known as crystallography. internal symmen! wip ; oy, so * - oe “ee / foe . . > ° : ; or | 0 bf \ gee ce Fata s vice oi %, ° ° °. °. ! 3 cs Seite” 4 ___ Fig. 2.9 Space Lattice, unit Cel 247 Space Lattice ° |” inaperfect crystal, there is aregular. | arrans i iodici etc atta dere meer | | nace, about which a set of atoms group together. The volt of uch pots | forms a space lattice. The set of atoms around a lattice point is called bai, \ | The crystal lattice alongwith the basis is known as crystal structure. Fig. 2.9 -e shows the same. ‘The space lattice can, therefore, be defined as an infinite three dimensional 4 " . ant “ righ atilt est = tL & Fig, 2.10 Lattice parameter of aunit cel i hi i 4 amy of geometrical points it space such that point is the severe as tic 201 identical surroundings: If we Tocate ourselves 8 any ye in 4H lock out in a particular direction that lies on the plane of the Papel: set! ce be the same, irrespective of the position where pi “18 Unit Cell is . be vii os h lock iscalted F Ag . umber of ato! 0 rystal constitutes a large * arrangement. wie qiembly of identical blocks. W" a regular ar, when Segui res” 3 fot Cl. Thus, the smallest wou oF Seg pimibve Tait cells”. pet fms het eich identical are called, “non-primitive” unit cells. Each cell in spi, shape and orientation with every other in the san, 34 a Un-identical blocks a primitive cell. lattice is identical in size, crystal. A simple cubic cell is an example of ‘The units of length in the space lattice are the intercepts (distance) betweg, the space lattice points and are represented by 4 band c. The angles betwey, the axes are called interfacial angles. These are shown by alpha, beta ay) gamma. The space lattice is completely determined by intercepts a, 6, and angles alpha, beta, gamma. Form and actual size ‘of unit cell cany established if the values of intercepts (vectors) and interfacial angles a known. Fig, 2.10 shows the lattice parameters of a unit cell. () OBLIQUE aed > 72 90° 6 {@ RECTANGLE $280 ° > . @ - Primitive aeons tC angus . 4 , ° b . ‘ u y a D KY () Square a s gular 7 o a=by=90° (Pr va tame Rectangular azb,y=90° ene oF . a 4 “ (ii) Hexagonal ( a | aed y= 120° M Obdetue »Y= Fig. 2411. (a) Bravais lattices in two dimension. ip a a —-ar | OU” ~ of Atoms, Cr spructre . Crystal Struct * si ture and Bonds in Sole e system ‘ Bravals Lath am Soe asthe _— ; (y CUBI eee ! aa a=B=y=90 | : J inj ! s | | (i) TETRAGONAL a= ! ! \ ay HEXAGONAL acbes AND orp. TRIGONAL mane é | (monTHO- @*o#e [" RHOMBIC 0. = B=¥=90 | } | , } } a=b=¢ (») Rhombohedral . a=Bp=y490 R |e) MONOCLINIC avbee =B=90° 47 | re TRICLINIC 2 2 . e i lp ( Fig. 2.11 (6) Bravais Lattices three dimension. Seem = ctures in solids is the ference int ‘ype f we eye ae ner ane i ord ‘on, which try to hold atoms a Jattice 6d he . uw identica’» 1. pravais lattices el 2.20 Bravais Late” attice poi and five possi ees va gS! Ha jee THE ae a In three dimenst Fig. 2-11(). 9) is lattice. Th 2.41(a). In Lie in Fig. 2-1 , Brava aes, a. in Fig. es. are shown gand face cen “ 0 de FOU vais Fattices. TRESS My face ce ‘yotems al found Findicate the Pt i Pane cen fred ce ry F Iai symbols FC indicates COnveR _ i ear described hereunder : “_— so lastoe intercepts (2 = b=c)a a (i) Simple ewe tor icates it has equal La cepts AF possess at « As the nai ight angle (0 if i s at rig! i pa interac a omnes of unit cell. Pe) tn ie a i ial angl mots terfacial angle; cw oe renal mc eae oan econ the eight come fo i Pe sletoeach other. Itpossesses lattice po! a and A the body centre. : . (xiv iit) Face centred cubic lattice : _ satinterfacil angle (iii) Tthas equal intercepts (a = b= pang ea al anes o| right angle to each other. It possesses lattic’ poi e of the unit cell. ae (jv) Simple tetragonal lattice : 1 co Ithas two intercepts equal while the third can be either longer = interfacial angerystalline Jhorter than the other two (a = b#c). Also the three interfé aizequal and at right angle. It possesses lattic epoints at eight comdescribed bh of the unit cell. (v) Body centred tetragonal lattice : Same as above Sr. No. (iv) plus it possess lattice point at the ba centre also. (vi) Simple orthorhombic lattice : Ithas intercepts not equal to each other (a # b # c) but the t# interfacial angles are equal and at tight angle to i i i each other. lattice points at eight corners of the unit cell, her. It pos (vii) End centred orthorhombic lattice « Tthas also three intercey the three interacial angles ae equel ye each other (a # b #0 F : I and at ri lattice points at the ei qual and at right angle. It posse other. © cight corners and at face centres opposite to ° (iii) Body centred. orthorhombic lattice : Ithas three inj interfaci . in acial angles equal to eac mtn ach other (a%b x) and? Points atthe eight corn ther and at ri 7 ers 7 right ; &) Simple Rhombohedrat (Trigon at the six face on angle. thas laf ercepts not eq ho -* Face centres of ie ‘onal, . Of the unit !) lattice - fe ui - Me, @ Cc It (ii) T% Tt ay (it) It 6( an ) © It ) Ri Tr (vi i k (vi ni It mee Oe 7 It has equal interes r epts (a = = put not at right angle. I 6 = c) and i unit cell. ele Ithas lattice points atthe cisht cements @i) Simple Hexagonal lattice : ers othe It has two equal interce, ‘, -: ts, ‘ird eit 4) and interfacial angles a =p oo et short of long (a= & nd . It has lattice ‘ ints at the 12 comers of he eX nexagonal faces of the eon Prism and at the centres of the (xii) Simple monoclinic lattice : It has unequal intercepts ( a (a # b # c) and interfaci q=B=90° #7, Ithas | a and interfacial angles t sell. lattice points at the eight comers of the unit (xiii) End centred monoclinic lattice : ls ae fgg ay ites ite (a # b # c) and imterfacial angles =p= 5 jattice points at the ei face centres opposite to each other. eight (comers and aniw (xiv) Simple triclinic lattice : Ie Tt has unequal intercepts (a # b # c) and interfacial angles a as B= 90°. It has lattice points at the eight comers of the unit cell. 21 Common Crystal Systems igs. To construct fourteen Bravais Lattices, seven sets of axes are required. All angystalline solids are accordingly classified into seven crystal systems as ‘onescribed hereunder = (i Cubic System « 1p Tt has three equal axis at right angle to each other. e® (ii) Tetragonal System - It has two equal axis while third is either shorter or longer. All three axis meet at right angle. ell (ii) Hexagonal System : | a. po It hae four a three equal and intercepting in the same plane i 60° angle and the fourth axis either shorter or longer than and at ry angle to these three axis. 46 () Orthorhombic System: Ithas three unequal axis at right angle. 4 tem: , ot at a“ Riomohettsas ree equal axis at equally included angle but n ( right angle. i vi) Monoclinic System ° splique angle an mt (on of different lens: wot “el third is at right angle (© the plane 0 eo (vit) Pitctinie System = taxis anequallY rnctined and none being at t has three unequal aX! 3 "7 By angle. unit” Metallic Structures govern ed by the following * _ The metallic structure of solid is may TT ban rn (a) Nature of bonding. (6) Size of atoms and molecules. (c) Geometrical arrangement of atoms an Depending upon the above factors most of the metals orystalise into a or hexagonal structure as against seven system only a few metals like Sn, Bi do not crystallise in any of these Table 2.5 Shows the atomic positions and cl d molecules. haracteristics of each of structures : Table 2.5. Characteristics of crystal structures. stal ‘Structure characteristics ‘Simple cubic (i Only comer positions are ‘occupied. (Sc) (ii) There is one atom per unit cell. (iii) Bach atom is surrounded by six nearest neighbours. BCC. (i The atoms occupy comer (0.0.0 and 1/2) positions. (i) There are two atoms per unit cell. st neighbours. (iii) Each atom is surrouned by six nearest (i) The comer atoms are (0 0 0) and the face centred posi FCC. are (1/2 1/2 0). (ji) There are four atoms per unit cell. Wey (iii) Fach atom is surrounded by 8 nearest neighbours. # cP. (i) The space lattice is simple hexagonal with two atoms oo 2/3 1/3 1/2) associated with each lattice point. j (ii) Hexagonal indices with the four axes(ai a2 a3 etc. [0 0 © 1] indicates the c axis. a 2 ag cic Jaws (iii) The c/a ratio for close packing of spheres is (8/3) = 161 Diamond (@ The unit cell has constant a and compris € uni , prises octants. Th lattice is F.C.C., with a basis of two atoms at (0 0 ‘ (4 1/4 1/4) associated with each lattice point. (ii) The bonding is tetrahedral : four iearen eigen, and each atom is surrounded (iii) There are eight atoms per unit cell. (2) poe centred cubic (B.C.C.) Structure 1 unit cell of body centred cubic sy i centred c system has an ator which are sharediby ve adjoining eight cubes and also one af eco e cometric system. The number it cellé x 8 + 1 = 2. Some of the metals possessing this eee Lala 910°C), Mo, V, Mn, Nb, W, Cr, li, K Ba, Na, Cs ete. nant () Hexagonal close packed (H.C,P) Structure , au be srucure io act ae a hene lice because the surrounding more dense than the simple hexagonal structure, raat of stm atoms, one at a comer and the other with co-ordinates 213, 12, eat 1/3, 1/2 rel iv. pf Ee aa Fig. 2.12(a) Structure Sodium Chloride {Acomer atom is common to ei *igtoms per unit cell. Some of the bn, Cé, Ti, Co, Hf, Se, Te {) Face centred cubic (F.C.C.) Structure » Itisalso known as cubic packed structure. It ‘ismore common among metals oman the body centred structures, It is also formed in ceramic crystals. There Jan atom at each comer of the cube and also one at the centre of each face. reach of the atoms has surroundings identical with any other and so all of them te lattice points. Each atom at a comer of the unit cell is shared by eight unit yjlls and each face atom is shared by two cells. Hence the number of atoms egt unit is 8 x 1/8 + 6 x 1/2 = 4. Some of the metals possessing this structure Cu, Al, Pb, Ag, Au, Ca. Pa, Pt, Ir, Sr. etc. Many metals crystallise in the debsed packed structures i.e. atoms the crystals tend to occupy as _teh volumes as possible in the tit cell. The HCP and FCC struc- Wes have the highest packing of # (0.74 packing factor). oft AS an example structures of a Solids are described bereunder : Structure of Sodium Chloride The arrangement of sodium and X' Norine ons in their sodium chlo- Fig. 2.12(6) Silica Structure ight unit cells, so that there are 8 x WB+1= metals Possessing this structures are Be, Mg, itd in such a manner 50 88 “a 0 Th cy (K se \ iol \ / x 10) 401 (011) (a) (110) ( w rystal planes: i poi dei , Each ion of Cl7 1s surrounde:. chloride eo me ius of Cl and Na” is 1.82 Ag an equal number of Na’ ions. The ee Ne 3 0.98 A respec’ ratio of such a high ratio, only 6 must be equal numb Clrion is surrounded by 6 Na* ionsat the centre of ‘the cube fai - 21 The entire cube is a FCC unit cell of sodium, while the central plane 1s the plane of an overlapp ing FCC unit cell of chlorine. (i Silica structure In this case ratio of silicon to oxygen atoms is 1:2. The silicon atc: surrounded by four oxygen atoms placed at the corners of the tetrahedra.” ) structure is complete when all the corners of one silicon oxygen tetrahedr j shared by the other tetrahedra. Hence, every oxygen atom is common (0 ne The structure is electrically neutral, open, having lower dem and 1710°C melting point because of strong prit and oxygen. [Fig. 2.12(6)] eB pomay ihonds ‘between * (tii) Diamond structure In this case each carbon atom i || Covadinaton number), The n is surrounded by other four arbor i } prevents the formation of closed packed ins account of number of ¥ atoms (neighbours) are at equal distance frot toe o a tetrahedra [Fig. 2.12(c)}. m the central atom and they’ The angles made by ines j y the lines joinin; ig comer atoms with central ato") 109.5°. The cor is formed by joining a tel mplete crystal is formed by joining a number of th tra of these Each atom c: i , an be considered as a central atom surrounded by fe yy four H 2.23 Miller Indices A plane is defined by the leng its i eh nears from the origin oon frat \ ofthe dimensions of the unit eal vee |, Which e axis. The reciprocals of these int Fig. 2.13 Miller Indices for various © arrange 7 epts on. the 3 ed; yf s iges of ane intercepts are speci" ‘unit di q lercepts reduced ta ees aid ON o ge paving the same ratio are calk 8 . it ‘thus, Miller Indices designate qa iler Indices ang 41 we a}, These are denote ; ifferent pj, nd writt (See led by hk TEM anes and ce EN Sy ustrations rough Let R, S, Tbe a plane in acube and h, k, [be the Miller Indices of the pla » ” sshown in Fig. 2.14. Draw ‘OL perpendicular to the plane from the origin ( . Suppose — a= Cubic edge of the lattice constant of the cube. d= Perpendicular distance between the origin (0) and ! plane i. OL. Vy a, B, y= Angles which the perpendicular makes with three axis xx, yey and 2-2 respectively. OR, OS, OT = Intercepts of the plane alog x-% Y-Y and z-z axis. ‘The Miller Indices of any plane are the smallest integers of the recip! of its intercepts. The intercepts as above also can be expressed as rec of Miller Indices. Therefore Since OLi: angle triangle. Therefore OL Qh aax #, k cos a= GR = 4% a =o5 74% oF cosy = Sh adx Since cos? cz + cos? B + cos? = 1 substituting above values, we ge is perpendicular to the plane and ROL, SOL and TOL will be"! 2 2 2 eG)6" G2 +2 +P)=2 =O + K+? d= +h +l eee no yf Inacrystalline structure, every atom is surrounded by 0 Pyordination number of carbon 1S pre of Atoms. CTYSIAN St Sc MCtUre and Bondy A, in Solids ee i Atoms per Unit ean, , 2c tc packing enite * Wig kno which ara ee Proper ME crystals ea ; 7 aes mainly depends Sea ire wes macy Mf ma allows eE Of the mai age ee an es. Material The ef Me . The atomic rst oP (oy Te ri of the atoms involved | uy () The type of bonding oetuigen ory \ a © The relative density of packing: ms; al | @ Atomic patiastne : The number of atoms per unit cell for differe 1 \ 4 | plow, if the arrangement of atoms insi nt structures \ + (a) Simple cubic structure : ms inside the unit cell is noes Salevlated { There are eight atoms, on , al : one at eac A iy, _ shared by the eight nearby cubes. Gach comer ofthe cube whic re 1 5 Total number of atoms/unit cell=4x8 =1, \ | (b) Body centred cube \ Jt has one more atom at the centre i tre in additic 1 nf each comer shared by nearby cubes. Hence, ion to 8 atoms, one at \ | Total number of atoms/unit celt=2x8+1=2. y i. (0 Face centred cube : : Ithas 6 face centred atoms at each plane: ‘of cube plus 8 ator wo corner, shared by nearby cubes. Hence, pls 8 atoms, teach \ prt eal number of tomsuniteel = x8+6%3= 1434 \ | Closed packed hexagonal (HCP) unit cell contains only two atoms \ per unit cell, because one-third of the lattice is taken as @ unit cell, \ whereas diamond and other complex lattices ike NaCl contain 8 1 | atoms per unit cell. \ ®7 Co-ordination Number : ther atom. Thus the mber of atoms surrounding 2 central atom is fixed. The co-ordination ighbours of an atom, ¢.8- tuber therefore shows the numbe first neighbou™ 51. Co-ordination Inter for diamond cubic seuctae is oe fos est neighbours in the same plane plus on Oe of bod centred The co-ordination number, i simpl ‘co-ordinate num! comer atom. Similarly vie 3 re it eur is 8 and for face omen trUCAUTS umber is 12- gona closed packed structure Atomic Radius jae sélement is known a5 the distance between the 44 in terms of cube edge element a. Atomic radius for vari is as given below : (a) Simple cubic (S.C) structure eo (b) Body centred cubic (B.C.C.) structure 7 = a (c) Face centred cubic (F.C.C.) structure r= Wr’ | 2.29 Atomic Packing Number (Factor) | itis the ratio of volume of atoms ina. Unh cell to the js also defined as true volume per unit of bulk volume. toms in a unit cell __ oI y i i _ Volume of atoms A Atomic packing factor =——Yolume of the unit cell Atomic packing factors for various structures can be calcul: (a) Simple cubic (S.C.) structure < ‘Volume of one atom , number of atoms Pet nit AP-F.= "Volume of unit cell = sur (in case of cubic structure 7 aie = eA x(a _§ -052 ao aN 7 @ . j / Body centered cubic (BCC) structure * P 2K 4/3 KP 9; APE.= ea (2 in case of B.C.C. n = 2) a: 288 22 as ay A (c) Face centred cubic (F.C.C.) structure = _4xA/3 EP og, APF. —s (4 in case of F.C.C.,n=4) _16nx ‘a/2%2P a 3a? (where r= 35 (d) Hexagonal closed. (€) Diamond structure < 2.30 Density of Crystal APF. =V3 7/16 =0.34 } Density (p) of the crystal = _Mass of unit cell Volume of unit cell Mass of a unit cell | enieennl volume of unit cell lated as under ¥,, cell ( x number of atoms per unit “oor te US 7 ’ parametre a 7M A unit cat of orem Planeg U 89-9976. , ag the Bravais |. . Whatere attices ? Exp in the same anges 4. Explain why we get different types With ex le les, 5-93) igur; Ferystay Structures; AMIE Weg 10. Waite hesckearonic confi ation of Silicon and een Solids, Unies 11. Describe the body centre Cubic g aniny mo With sketch, (AME 5.95) BHU. Chem. 5 12, Calculate the theoretical density of iron (At, wt, = 56 an faa vn rn in (BHU. Ch. by Sem. 1, 94) ‘ 13, Write short notes on (a) Single Crystals and whiskers (6) Space Lattices (BHU. B.Tech. '92-93), | w93) (c) Isotopes. (AMIE. w-93) : 3 . . 14. Acertain elemental crystal has a density of 3500 kg/m and ae ciny of 34%, It the closest distance of approach, between nego mega A, determine mass of a single atom in amu (BITS. jimensions of B.C.C chromium ! y mic diametre and unit cell di i . Calculate the ato = 7.19), given lamu. = (atomic mass = 52 a.m.u.; specific gravity (as Pn 9290 (AMIE-S-88, W-7) 1.66 x 1827 ke. 7 ° PART II - BONDS IN SOLID: : Je strengtb, Formation of Bonds in Solids tt cit ies i cc ° Order to understand properties of ma mateo te itisneces to see the mater rials ee om + Phe 5 ®eether 2 The: two criteria whicl ave like tothe next in the solid eee 48 J which atoms are packed togey, “ne a i i cking i.e, U i ° Ts vers the ‘dea how many atoms are held Og Ne UM aS | and the angle at which they are combined ith ea oe solid - a ‘The bonds between atoms enable them to cone MNSIOA ana 7 a ces of attraction msss. These bonds are due to forces 0! nearby atoms in a equilibrium state. In case of atoms the equilibnum a Si . to have the outer. to have its electronic ¢ e. to sf va! oe | he manner in yn. onfiguration of noble gases #: . plete. To understan s the Stectronic arrangement of elements. The electrons of an atom take pang achemical reaction, if the outermost shell is incomplete. Toachieve this, ax ile of most of the elements form bonds with one another. The atoms can ached mer equilibrium state by i str (a) Sharing one or more electron with other atoms. (b) Gaining one or m (c) By lossing one or more electron When the atoms of the elements combine together, a force of attraction developed which is known as bonding force. The formation of a bond resii into decrease in energy of the reacting atoms and the resulting molecule t less energy e.g. oxygen (O>) molecule has less energy than its two atoms. t energy of formation ‘of one molecule of a substance from its atoms or ios: % known as its bonding energy or cohesive energy. The energy required y 4 separate the two ions or atoms is a measure of the bond strength. The streti of bond affects the melting and boiling, points of the different elemes Materials possessing stronger bonds have higher melting and boiling poit. 2.32 Types of Bonds ‘The way in which atom are joi cated bond Ths bongs betwece atone enable tema toconbine ial mass to form a solid. Bonding between atoms indicates the ‘oh sie electrical properties of solid materials. Two types of bonds ee primary and secondary bonds. These are further divided, as shown in Fe? 2.33 Primary Bonds ° A primary bond is an inter-atomic bond ii i the atoms together. Primary bonds are Soe a er oatate ale Types of Bonds ‘atom attrac ore electron with another atom. with another atom. Primary bonds Secondary bonds Tonic Covalent Metallic i i bonds bonds bonds ee " Byaeees ¥ onds oe! a Fig. 2.15. Types of bonds we Sy welt yn and yoo s¥e DANES A elect WHonds in Sotidy , “i Nwengih varying from pot 5 7) DORON of the “9 wp himost comple te transfer of the. Volt These ch, omnter electrons. Th ca that of the other The in lect gto wn as Inter-at inter atornc roms) fron i vata omic bonds There ore! usual rebels pions, : Nere are nally 1 tonic bonds (lonicslly bo © ate three type of primey Peat Y bonded Struct oT primary bonds oP gp individual atom 6 having _ : 1 e¢ Mealy an atoms neutral Whenthen Ee pro: seinem erlove proximity, 1 results in an wat Mand the atoms involved, love or pan elects metron-contivuratic oF gain electron spr electon-confivuration 10 an sonal ty ted ie their outer. te gaves i cIGCIEON (0 an atom of a ended structure, an atom of the : vo of another ele ‘ wns of nos rons and the other of nepative une Hon ae priron. it has @ net postive charge while fan Sanaa’ ania loseain rm pagative charge Thons [occ chain ean ea extra-electron, ihe two constutuent elements in the mate ar The iets neo —— ‘of ionic bond are : 1¢ factors favouring forma- Ing (i) ie atom, which loses clecw n, should have a low ionization energy. lence amount of ene et energy required to remove the electron from its nd negative wns are brought ce, which forms the tonic oa ™ outermost shell is less. “iq (ii) The atom. which gains electron, should have a high electron affinity. Hence the electron 1s readily accepted in its outermost shell The alkali metals like lithium, sodium, potassium have low ionisation energy and the halogens like fluorine, chlorine, iodine, bromine have high~ con affimity. Therefore the ionic bond 1s readily formed between atoms of Gali metals and halogen atoms, typical examples are NaCl, KCl, ete. Also toms of metals like magnesium, aluminium, copper, etc. and the atoms of spdon-metals like oxygen, chlorine, bromine form the ionic bond e.g. MgO, 390, AlOy, ele. ca® In the ionic bond, one element gives UP it hepa stable inner-shell of eight. The electron(s) tin which they can serve tocomplete its outer- . bes up its Br! electron mits outermost energy level. 10 make ts inne bg ee of eight and chlorine, with outermost ener se af ceiet oe elfracts that electron to have the stab! a i colell of eight. In this way, a bond is formed between tne ee ie fs. Both sodium and chlorine atoms hhave stable configura Ws? 2s? 2p? 357 3p respectively: boperties nds of lonic Compou! i Hine in nature. The ionic compounds are ee ean comms forces binding them- s outer-shell electrons to make are attracted to @ shell of eighte g.. sodium felting and boilin, due to g points miderable energy is requ! reer soled tae. W2 has a bigh dielectric luctors of electncity in thet of artrac’ electncity force th water organic Amstant, the tact tion | As It of this the © t wil Bic solid, i rea when come in i tie force of atm ents have low diclectr’ constan™ contact wit GOO eS Pes at on ce wen iney come Ore INN SS . lg ' aa rie ON gyal oo" of 50 in Fluorin € nic solvents but Fig. 2.16. Coavalent bond ii Hence, the ionic compounds are insoluble in organ! soluble in water and polar solvents like liquid ammonia. ‘There are no directionality forces in ionic bonding as the ions are ti y held together by electrostatic force of attraction. “qe . (b) Covalent bonds (Covalent bonded structures) * ‘A bond formed by sharing one or more paiss of valence electrons by or more atoms is called a covalent bond. Atoms attain a stable group ofty by sharing outer shell electrons ¢.8-, in the case of fluorine gas, one ele from each atom is used to forma common pair so that each atom is surrow by astable group of eight electrons (Fig. 2.16). This is also called a mole ‘ bond, because the stable molecule F, is formed. l - When the atoms share a single pair of electrons the bond formed is e single covalent bond e.g,. a hydrogen molecule is formed involving hydrogen atoms, each atom having just one electron, sharing a pair of, When the atoms share two pairs of electron: s, the bor is said 2 double bond. Oxygen molecules are composed of ~ ape aes pairs of shared electrons [Fig. 2.17]. Similarly carbon dioxide mo! q Dee Fig, 2.17. Oxygen Molecule Fig. 2.18. CC, Molecule FRE SEEPS uw oe of a carbon atom with o"4 Bonds ” Solids consists atom and the carbon bej WO Oxyp, | oxyse . ny en a | ofalectrons the bond formed ig en jloubte om, the bonds be 51 n atom may share electrons van ‘triple bonne the atome ren each itl : ©3 pairs «fullshell”” e.g., carbon i the i Tequires. an cporine Feauires only one, Each epelestronste nt | ectrons ant @ carbon atom obtain atom sh; Son ' + ‘as plorine atoms [Fig. 2.18]. Thy ip4 chlorine atoms. S> carbon atom ig bonded by covalent (aur Carbon atoms form covalent bond wi ven ion is 1s 2s* 2p*. It requires four aoe hydrogen. tts electroni {eonfiguration. In methane (CH,) molecu 8 to achieve stable mee ‘vith four hydrogen atoms, ule carbon atom shares te falc four electron As the name implies, it is dominant j me fbonding occurs in materials with |, unis s e.g, Stone pottery; all common ¢ module in silicates, ceramics and imarsin its pure form in diamond, silicon, nu of cement. It , ties of Covalent Compounds , Covalent bonds are directional bonds. The bon occurs i bfthe shared pairs of electrons. Covalent tonds wo, strony inthe direction bi¥sno transfer of electrons from one atom to another, hence a i ere Q ‘ovalent compounds are therefore electric insulators. ne fon formation . They are insoluble in water except the covalent compounds like hydrogen i oride, sugar, ammonia and urea which are soluble in water as the covalent pounds do not form ions in water. ‘They are soluble in non-polar solvents, juch as benzene, alcohol, ‘chloroform and paraffins. They are soft, rubbery, and : ifm a variety of materials known as plastics. int! Their melting and boiling points are low as the electrostatic foree of ol traction is less. In the exception case of diamond covalent bonding is strong to the large cohesive energy of @ ‘solid, making this form of carbon very \idrd and with a high melting point. 8) Metallic bonds (Metallically bond The bond formed by sharing of electrons bY 1 Pnctalic bond. This type ofbond occursinall We heey held valence electrons by their “ er fog eauite very little amount of €nerBY canis at room teh ik of electrons after they af SPA near metals in ioe Ponding is observed in metals iodic table. ily released. For i | . rons are readily and just Metals havé atoms from which has full K, Land shells re leet With an atomic number 9 Jose! inthe n/shall This odd elect" Tred som te Seco metals and their alloys, This type jed structures) isknown number of atoms is i etal atoms with anumber ost energy level. { q+ +e on. tn soli get _ Re comet te EO - AA x mm negative charge floating between 7 —— = the ions. The result is bonding, the —— @) ——! Ey positive ions are held together by 6 oe ‘ their attraction to the negative _= — _ cng charge in which they are embed- bn ded (Fig. 2.19). Such bonds are = — not directional and are in general O= oo weaker than ionic or covalent bonds. Fig. 2.19, Metallic bonding Since the metal ions are not bonded directly to each other but to formed from a mixture of two or more m Properties of metallic compounds Good heat and electrical conductivity isacharacteristic of ‘metallic bong due to high electron mobility. Electrons are free to move, where an ¢l field is applied. Metallic compounds have good strength, good luster andig reflectivity. They are crystalline in nature. Metallic compounds have ix u melting and boiling temperature compared to ionic bond as the elect - “$%_ ‘orce of attraction between the positive ions and free electrons is less thanicqa! . . “qe. sonds. Therefore the energy required to melt or boil the metallic compo \ s less. t The comparative properties of ionic, covalent and metallic compounds given in Table 2.6. Table 2.6 Properties of Ionic, Covalent and Metallic Compounds Tonic Compounds Covalent Compounds Metallic Compounds iy Tonic compounds are- Covalent compounds are Crystalline in nate crystalline in nature, rubbery in nature and are soft have * therefore they have high have low hardness. ductibity am hardness. re Ionic crystals are builtup Covalent crystals are They are fe aft of oppositely charged built up of molecules, Ta ee jons. Giant molecules are _ ins of ions. The Fe Ca formed as each ion tends formed by sharing “Of cemgetves on toattract maximum ofop- electron pairs between " ) site nature arounditself the atoms of same or due to clectro- static different elements. forces working in all di- rections. ‘They have high melting They have low melting Th , rr 7. h I ci and boiling point as the —_and boiling point as. they lower matey ant a strong electro- static _areheld together by weak point than ionic ° ic the electron cloud, a metallic solide J -~ etallic elements, called an alloy, B forces are working in all __inter molec 4 forees are ular forces. ounds. ve Ionic compounds are Covalent compounds are Metalli und poor conductors. non-conductors. high “ compeect so S SS ionic compounds are Ss ised packed type struc ae rare of MOMS. Crystal Sin sre CHU and Bony nds in Solias 33 ~ They itive tie ter and pay MY are; Snes open ol ents like ammonia aa but sotuty ae in Neither put insoluble in organic enzena vents such Hor in bob in water Ne solvents. Chlorofony, *!¢ohot, rzene, : y he solid . They exist in U They exists, Olig, form only _ and yaseou li quid Tye Va Rous form, Y exist in solid form 4.34 Secondary Bonds (except mercury) . In secondary bonds atoms or mi ny Thy gelds. These are much weaker than prin atacted : by overall electri * elect y iments pechuse there is election 2. the strength of ve Bovemed by the intermolecular attactone he molecule. The - These are al; © types of secondary bonds nase as Vander an sexchange. However, such forces are ve Magnade up of large molecules is haby the bond strength within t lecaWaals forces. There are thre ithe) Dispersion bonds Distribution of electrons in a molecul They are always in motion. But someti Powsymmetrical around its axis. It creates electronic imbalance of the charge which is known as Polarisation. This is fluctuating in nature and is known sg jonéispersion effect. Because of this force of attraction is developed between the —jwo molecules of the same element which is weak in nature, Due to this force 20%, bond is formed between the two molecules which is called dispersion bond. 12 The molecules of noble gases like helium, argon, which consists of single 4t tom are held together by dispersion bonds when they are solidified at very low temperature, Their bond energy is very low and bond lengths are com- atively large. Their attraction is non-directional in nature hence very weak. Sermal ‘energy required to break the bond is therefore less, The bonding in ie case of helium and argon is also called “Vander Waals bonding”. le is symmetrical around its nucleus, imes the distribution of electrons is not yee ------ 2-4 ----- ) Hydrogen bonds | Itis a special case of inter-molecular attraction produced between certain : tom. tovalently bonded hydrogen atoms and one pf eld aod Tse is positive il ace 1 te lg be ele i is force is very" A erature. Ice is ios sich as DNA. Te ees wae Hal 8 ae es w¥drogen bonded. Each hydrogen atom gives up he pestvely charged ut ®ygen atom; which then acquires @ negative © near by oxygen ions and bot 8¥drogen atom (proton) acts as a bond berweRogen bonds ke? mer chains together to give solid polymer. ‘cules well apart, which is why ice ‘a lower density than water. Without hydrogen bonding the later “ted at ~ 80°C- would have boiled an in various 1 in character. They @° . i. l¥drogen bonds are direction®’ "ay life. SS such as blood, skin and bones in 2 z NGOS \ \ 54 (ce) Dipole bonds _— The arrangement of electrons an positive nucle charged eld at ‘one end of the molecule and a negative field at the other Nn a result of this permanent dipoles are produced. They attract each oll her an bond is formed which is known as dipole bond. Dipole bonds are weaker thy onic bonds but stronger than dispersion bonds. ical example of this is the formation of Hydrogen Chloride. Hy drops chloride (HCI) is a polar ‘molecule as the region near hydrogen nucleus , highly positive and the opposite region near the chlorine nucle is negativ: The negative region of adjacent chlorine molecule is attracte Es pests region of the hydrogen molecule. Fig- 2.20 shows the formation on ydroger chloride polar molecule. Other examples are hydrogen fluoride, sulphy dioxide, hydrogen b clei results in a Positives, romide and hydrogen cyanide. oe (1Pair Shared) ‘Chiorine Fig. 2.20. Formation of ‘Hydrogen Chloride Polar Molecule 2.35 Bond Energy The electrons are attracted towards the nucleus by electrostatic force When the atoms are brought close to each other, Le. separation distance (r.)® reduced, the attractive and repulsive forces increase. When the two are eq the resultant is zero and the atoms are said to be in equilibrium. When (“1 } very large, the atoms do not interact with each other (See Fig. 2.21 (a). +ve and —ve charges attract each other. If they are ‘ ; 4 to be t the force (F) of attraction does work. This force between he ve at point-charges is given by on we 5 oF where gq = Charge of each ion r= Distance betws i € = Permittivity of vacuum; ° een the Hons ‘The work done (U) to bring them tog, a U= 3 we (2.9) where r=Inm. are Repulsive Force Force ——~ where r, = Distance of Separation (r, = Distane of Separation) Fig. 2.21. (a) Bond Energy When the ions get close enough together, the electronic charge distribu tions start to overlap one another. This increases the repulsive forces. The ionic inimum in the U(r) curve shown with a cross (X) bond is most stable at the mil in Fig. 2.21 (a, b). epulsion Curve . __ Separate tons cech OL ee ar oo Cl ant a . } \ Electrostatic a). Attraction Curve BOND STABLE 7 jint of the = bond, at the pottom pe! Me.221 son of most sable fore m8) 21, (b) Formation on curve (marke ee —_————snur_@|_—

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