C++ Programming Fundamentals

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II
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2016-2017
UNIT 1 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS

C++ Programming features - Data Abstraction - Encapsulation - class - object - constructors static members
constant members member functions pointers references - Role of this pointer Storage classes function
as arguments.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN C & C++

Procedure Oriented Programming
Object Oriented Programming.
The problem is viewed as a sequence of Emphasis on data rather than procedure.

things to be done.
Larger programs are divided into smaller Larger programs are divided into objects.
programs known as functions.
The data is defined as global and accessible It ties data more closely to the function
to all the functions of a program without any that operates on it and protects it from
restrictions which reduces data security and accidental modification from outside.
integrity.
Employs top-down approach
Employs bottom-up approach
INTRODUCTION TO C++
Basics of C++ Programming
C++ was developed by BJARNE STROUSSTRUP at AT&T BELL Laboratories in Murry
Hill, USA in early 1980s. STROUSSTRUP combines the features of C language and
SIMULA67 to create more powerful language that support OOPS concepts, and that language
was named as C with CLASSES. In late 1983, the name got changed to C++. The idea of
C++ comes from C language increment operator (++) means more additions. C++, but the
object oriented features (Classes, Inheritance, Polymorphism, Overloading) makes the C++ truly
as Object Oriented Programming language.
STRUCTURE OF C++ PROGRAM
Include files
Class Definition
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Member function Definitions

Include files provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the system library.
Eg: #include <iostream.h>
#include
iostream.h
Preprocessor Directive
Header File
A class is a way to bind and its associated functions together. It is a user defined datatype. It
must be declared at class declaration part.
Member function definition describes how the class functions are implemented. This must be the
next part of the C++ program.
Finally main program part, which begins program execution.
main( )
{
}
Program execution begins at the opening brace and ends at the closing brace. The closing brace
of the main function is the logical and of the program.
Input / Output statements
Input Stream
Syntax:
cin >> var1 >> var2 >>;
cin Keyword, it is an object, predefined in C++ to correspond to the standard input stream.
>> - is the extraction or get from operator
Extraction operation (>>) takes the value from the stream object on its left and places it in the
variable on its right.
Eg:
cin>>x;
cin>>a>>b>>c;
Output Stream:
Syntax:
cout<<var1<<var2;
cout - object of standard output stream
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<< - is called the insertion or put to operator

It directs the contents of the variable on its right to the object on its left. Output stream can be
used to display messages on output screen.
Eg:
cout<<a<<b; cout<<value of x is<<x;
cout<<Value of x is<<x<<less than<<y;
TOKENS
The smallest individual units in a program are known as tokens. C++ has the following tokens
Keywords
Identifiers
Constants
Strings
Operators
Keywords
It has a predefined meaning and cannot be changed by the user
Keywords cannot be used as names for the program variables. Keywords supported by C++ are:
asm
double new
switch
auto
else
operator
template
break
enum
private
this
case
extern
protected
throw
catch
float
public
try
char
for
register typedef
class
friend return
union
const
goto
short
unsigned
Identifiers
Identifiers refer to the names of variables, functions, arrays, classes, etc. created by the
programer.
Rules for naming these identifiers:
Only alphabetic characters, digits and underscores are permitted.
The name cannot start with a digit.
Uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct.
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A declared keyword cannot be used as a variable name.

(i) Variables:It is an entity whose value can be changed during program execution and is known
to the program by a name.
A variable can hold only one value at a time during program execution.A variable is the
storage location in memory that is stored by its value. A variable is identified or denoted by a
variable name.
The variable name is a sequence of one or more letters, digits or underscore.
Rules for defining variable name:
A variable name can have one or more letters or digits or underscore for example
character White space, punctuation symbols or other characters are not permitted to denote
variable name.A variable name must begin with a letter.
Variable names cannot be keywords or any reserved words of the C++ programming
language. C++ is a case-sensitive language.
Variable names written in capital letters differ from variable names with the same name
but written in small letters.
Declaration of Variables
Syntax :datatype variablename;
Datatype
It is the type of data, that is going to be processed within the program
C++ datatype
User Defined type
Built-in type
Derived type
Eg:
Eg:
Eg:
structure
Void
Array
union
int
Function
Enumerated
float
Pointers
double
char
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constant
A quantity that does not change is known as constants. integer constants are represented as
decimal notation.
Decimal notation is represented with a number.
Octal notation is represented with the number preceded by a zero(0) character.
A hexadecimal number is preceded with the characters 0x.
Types of constants:
Integer constants
Eg: 123, 25
without decimal point
Character constants
Eg: A, B, *, 1
Real constants
Eg: 12.3, 2.5
- with decimal point
Strings
A sequence of characters is called string. String constants are enclosed in double quotes as
follows
Hello
OPERATORS
An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical or logical
manipulations.
Types of Operators
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Increment & decrement Operators
6. Conditional Operators
7. Bitwise Operators
8. Special Operators
9. Manipulators
10. Memory allocate / delete Operators
An expression is a combination of variables, constants and operators written according to the
syntax of the language.
Arithmetic Operators
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C++ has both unary & binary arithmetic operators.
Unary operators are those, which operate on a single operand.
Whereas, binary operators on two operands +, -, *, /, %
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Examples for Unary Operators:

1. int x = 10;
y = -x;
int x = 5; sum = -x;
Examples for Unary Operators:
int x = 16, y=5;
x+y = 21; (result of the arithmetic expression) x-y = 11;
x*y=80;
/ - Division Operator
Eg:
x = 10, y = 3;
x/y=3; (The result is truncated, the decimal part is discarded.)
% - Modulo Division
The result is the remainder of the integer division only applicable for integer values. x=11, y = 2
x%y = 1
Relational Operators
A relational operator is used to make comparison between two expressions.
All relational operators are binary and require two operands.
<, <=, >, >=, ++, !=

Relational Expression
Expression1 (relational operator) Expression2
Expression1 & 2 may be either constants or variables or arithmetic expression. Eg:
a < b (Compares its left hand side operand with its right hand side operand) 10 = = 15(Equals)
a != b(Not equals)
An relational expression is always return either zero or 1, after evaluation.
Eg:
(a+b) <= (c+d)
arithmetic expression
Logical Operators
&&
- Logical AND
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- Logical OR
Increment & Decrement Operators
Increment ++, this operator adds 1 to the operand
Decrement --, this operator subtracts 1 from the operand
Both are unary operators
Eg:
m = 5;
y = ++m; (adds 1 to m value)
x = --m; (Subtracts 1 from the value of m)
Types
Pre Increment / Decrement OP:
Post Increment / Decrement OP:
If the operator precedes the operand, it is called pre increment or pre decrement.
Eg: ++i, --i;
If the operator follows the operand, it is called post increment or post decrement.
Eg: i++, i--;
In the pre Increment / Decrement the operand will be altered in value before it is utilized for its
purpose within the program.
Eg:
x = 10;
Y = ++x;
1st x value is getting incremented with 1.
Then the incremented value is assigned to y.
In the post Increment / Decrement the value of the operand will be altered after it is utilized.
Eg:
y = 11;
x = y++;
1st x value is getting assigned to x & then the value of y is getting increased.
Conditional Operator? :
General Form is
Conditional exp ? exp 1 : exp 2;
Conditional exp
- either relational or logical expression is used.
Exp1 & exp 2 : are may be either a variable or any statement.

Eg:
(a>b)?a:b;
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Conditional expression is evaluated first.

If the result is 1 is true, then expression1 is evaluated.
If the result is zero, then expression2 is evaluated.
Special Operators
sizeof
comma(,)
size of operators returns the size the variable occupied from system memory.
Eg:
var = sizeof(int)
cout<<var;
Ans: 2
x = size of (float);
cout << x;
Ans: 4
int y;
Manipulators
Manipulators are operators used to format the data display. The commonly used manipulators are
endl, setw.
endl manipulators
It is used in output statement causes a line feed to be inserted, it has the same effect as using the
newline character \n in C language.
#include <iostream.h>
main()
{
int a=10, b=20;
cout << C++ language << endl; cout << A value: << a << endl; cout << B value: <<
b << endl;
}
O/P:
C++ language
A value: 10
B value: 20
Setw Manipulator
The setw manipulator is used or specify the field width for printing, the content of the variable.
Syntax:
setw(width);
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where width specifies the field width.

int a = 10;
cout << A value << setw(5) << a << endl;
Output:
A value
10
REFERENCE VARIABLE
A reference variable provides an alias (alternative name) for a previously defined variable.
For example, if we make the variable sum a reference to the variable total, then sum & total can
be used interchangeably to represent that variable.
A reference variable is created as follows:
datatype & ref_name = var_name;
Eg:
Float total = 100; float & sum = total; cout << sum << total;
Both the variables refer to the same data object in the memory i.e. total, sum 100
CLASS SCOPE AND ACCESSING CLASS MEMBERS
A class definition starts with the keyword class followed by the class name; and the class body,
enclosed by a pair of curly braces. A class definition must be followed either by a semicolon or a
list of declarations
General Syntax of a class:
General structure for defining a class is:
class classname
{
acess specifier:
data member;
member functions;
acess specifier:
data member;
member functions;
};
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Generally, in class, all members (data) would be declared as private and the member functions
would be declared as public. Private is the default access level for specifiers. If no access
specifiers are identified for members of a class, the members are defaulted to private access.
example
class Box
{
public:
double length; // Length of a box
double breadth; // Breadth of a box
double height; // Height of a box
};
The keyword public determines the access attributes of the members of the class that follow it. A
public member can be accessed from outside the class anywhere within the scope of the class
object. You can also specify the members of a class as private orprotected
Creation of Objects:
Once the class is created, one or more objects can be created from the class as objects are
instance of the class.
Objects are also declared as:
class name followed by object name;
exforsys e1;
This declares e1 to be an object of class exforsys.
For example a complete class and object declaration is given below:
class exforsys
{
private:
int x,y;
public:
void sum()
{
}
};
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main()
{
exforsys e1;
}
The object can also be declared immediately after the class definition. In other words the object
name can also be placed immediately before the closing flower brace symbol } of the class
declaration.
For example
class exforsys
{
private:
int x,y;
public:
void sum()
{
}
}e1 ;
The above code also declares an object e1 of class exforsys.
It is important to understand that in object-oriented programming language, when a class is
created no memory is allocated. It is only when an object is created is memory then allocated.
Accessing the Data Members:
The public data members of objects of a class can be accessed using the direct member access
operator (.). Let us try the following example to make the things clear:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Box
{
public:
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double length; // Length of a box

double breadth; // Breadth of a box
double height; // Height of a box
};
int main( )
{
Box Box1;
// Declare Box1 of type Box
Box Box2;
double volume = 0.0;
// Store the volume of a box here
// box 1 specification
Box1.height = 5.0;
Box1.length = 6.0;
Box1.breadth = 7.0;
Box2.height = 10.0;
Box2.length = 12.0;
Box2.breadth = 13.0;
// volume of box 1
volume = Box1.height * Box1.length * Box1.breadth;
cout << "Volume of Box1 : " << volume <<endl;
// volume of box 2
volume = Box2.height * Box2.length * Box2.breadth;
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Volume of Box1 : 210
It is important to note that private and protected members can not be accessed directly using
direct member access operator (.). We will learn how private and protected members can be
accessed.
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Access Specifiers
Access specifiers are used to identify access rights for the data and member functions of the
class.
There are three main types of access specifiers in C++ programming language: private public
protected
A private member within a class denotes that only members of the same class have accessibility.
The private member is inaccessible from outside the class.
Public members are accessible from outside the class.
A protected access specifier is a stage between private and public access. If member functions
defined in a class are protected, they cannot be accessed from outside the class but can be
accessed from the derived class.
When defining access specifiers, the programmer must use the keywords: private, public or
protected when needed, followed by a colon and then define the data and member
Scope resolution operator

Scope resolution operator is used to uncover the hidden variables. It also allows access to global
version of variables.
Eg:
#include<iostream. h>
int m=10; // global variable m
void main ( )
{
int m=20; // local variable m
cout<<m=<<m<<\n;
cout<<: : m=<<: : m<<\n;
}
output:
20
10 (: : m access global m)
Scope resolution operator is used to define the function outside the class.
Syntax:
Return type <class name> : : <function name>
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Eg:
Void x : : getdata()
MEMBER FUNCTION AND CLASS

A member function of a class is a function that has its definition or its prototype within the class
definition like any other variable. It operates on any object of the class of which it is a member,
and has access to all the members of a class for that object.
Member functions can be defined within the class definition or outside the class
MEMBER FUNCTION INSIDE THE CLASS
A member function of a class can also be defined inside the class. However, when a member
function is defined inside the class, the class name and the scope resolution operator are not
specified in the function header. Moreover, the member functions defined inside a class
definition are by default inline functions.
Defining a member function within the class definition declares the function inline, even if you
do not use the inline specifier. So either you can define Volume() function as below:
class Box
{
public:
double length;
// Length of a box
double breadth;
// Breadth of a box
double height;
// Height of a box
double getVolume(void)
{
return length * breadth * height;
}
};
MEMBER FUNCTION OUTSIDE THE CLASS
Member function outside the class can defined using scope resolution operator.defining a
member function outside a class requires the function declaration (function prototype) to be
provided inside the class definition. The member function is declared inside the class like a
normal function. This declaration informs the compiler that the function is a member of the class
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and that it has been defined outside the class. After a member function is declared inside the
class, it must be defined (outside the class) in the program.
The definition of member function outside the class differs from normal function definition, as
the function name in the function header is preceded by the class name and the scope resolution
operator (: :). The scope resolution operator informs the compiler what class the member belongs
to. The syntax for defining a member function outside the class is
Return_type class_name :: function_name (parameter_list)
{
// body of the member function
}
If you like you can define same function outside the class using scope resolution operator, :: as
follows:
double Box::getVolume(void)
{
}
Here, only important point is that you would have to use class name just before :: operator. A
member function will be called using a dot operator (.) on a object where it will manipulate data
related to that object only as follows:
A member function will be called using a dot operator (.) on a object where it will manipulate
data related to that object only as follows:
Box myBox;
// Create an object
myBox.getVolume(); // Call member function for the object

Let us put above concepts to set and get the value of different class members in a class:
#include <iostream>
class Box
{
public:
double length;
// Length of a box
double breadth;
// Breadth of a box
double height;
// Height of a box
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// Member functions declaration

double getVolume(void);
void setLength( double len );
void setBreadth( double bre );
void setHeight( double hei );
};
// Member functions definitions
double Box::getVolume(void)
{
}
void Box::setLength( double len )
{
length = len;
}
void Box::setBreadth( double bre )
{
breadth = bre;
}
void Box::setHeight( double hei )
{
height = hei;
}
// Main function for the program
int main( )
{
Box Box1;
Box Box2;
double volume = 0.0;
// Store the volume of a box here
Box1.setLength(6.0);
Box1.setBreadth(7.0);
Box1.setHeight(5.0);
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Box2.setLength(12.0);
Box2.setBreadth(13.0);
Box2.setHeight(10.0);
// volume of box 1
volume = Box1.getVolume();
// volume of box 2
volume = Box2.getVolume();
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
BASIC CONCEPTS OF OOPS

Objects.
Classes.
Data abstraction and Encapsulation.
Inheritance.
Polymorphism.
Dynamic binding.
Message passing.
Class definitions Basic building blocks OOP and a single entity which has data and
operations on data together
Objects The instances of a class which are used in real functionality its variables and
operations
Abstraction Specifying what to do but not how to do ; a flexible feature for having a overall
view of an objects functionality.
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Encapsulation Binding data and operations of data together in a single unit A class adhere
this feature
Inheritance and class hierarchy Reusability and extension of existing classes
Polymorphism Multiple definitions for a single name - functions with same name with
different functionality; saves time in investing many function names Operator and Function
overloading
Generic classes Class definitions for unspecified data. They are known as container classes.
They are flexible and reusable.
Class libraries Built-in language specific classes
Message passing Objects communicates through invoking methods and sending data to them.
This feature of sending and receiving information among objects through function parameters
is known as Message Passing.
Features of OOPS.
Emphasis is on data rather than on procedure.
Programs are divided into objects.
Data is hidden and cannot be accessed by external functions.
Follows bottom -up approach in program design.
Applications of OOPS
Real-time systems.
Simulation and modeling.
Object-oriented databases.
AI and expert systems.
VARIOUS ACCESS SPECIFIERS

Data hiding is one of the important features of Object Oriented Programming which allows
preventing the functions of a program to access directly the internal representation of a class
type.
The access restriction to the class members is specified by the labelled public,
private, and protected sections within the class body.
The keywords public, private, and protected are called access specifiers.
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A class can have multiple public, protected, or private labeled sections.

Each section remains in effect until either another section label or the closing right brace of the
class body is seen.
The default access for members and classes is private.
class Base {
public:
// public members go here
protected:
// protected members go here
private:
// private members go here
};
The public members:
A public member is accessible from anywhere outside the class but within a program.
#include <iostream>
class Line
{
public:
double length;
void setLength( double len );
double getLength( void );
};
double Line::getLength(void)
{
return length ;
}
void Line::setLength( double len )
{
length = len;
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}
int main( )
{
Line line;
line.setLength(6.0);
cout << "Length of line : " << line.getLength() <<endl;
line.length = 10.0; // OK: because length is public
cout << "Length of line : " << line.length <<endl;
return 0;
}
Output
Length of line: 6
Length of line: 10
The private members:
A private member variable or function cannot be accessed, or even viewed from outside the
class.
Only the class and friend functions can access private members.
By default all the members of a class would be private
#include <iostream>
class Box
{
double width;
public:
double length;
void setWidth( double wid );
double getWidth( void );
};
double Box::getWidth(void)
{
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return width ;
}
void Box::setWidth( double wid )
{
width = wid;
}
int main( )
{
Box box;
box.length = 10.0; // OK: because length is public
cout << "Length of box : " << box.length <<endl;
// box.width = 10.0; // Error: because width is private
box.setWidth(10.0);
cout << "Width of box : " << box.getWidth() <<endl;
return 0;
}
Output:
Length of box: 10
Width of box: 10
The protected members:

A protected member variable or function is very similar to a private member but it provided
one additional benefit that they can be accessed in child classes which are called derived
classes.
#include <iostream>
class Box
{
protected:
double width;
};
class SmallBox:Box
{
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public:
void setSmallWidth( double wid );
double getSmallWidth( void );
};
double SmallBox::getSmallWidth(void)
{
return width ;
}
void SmallBox::setSmallWidth( double wid )
{
width = wid;
}
int main( )
{
SmallBox box;
box.setSmallWidth(5.0);
cout << "Width of box : "<< box.getSmallWidth() << endl;
return 0;
}
Output:
Width of box: 5
STATIC MEMBER AND MEMBER FUNCTION

Static variable are normally used to maintain values common to the entire class.
Feature:
It is initialized to zero when the first object is created. No other initialization is permitted
only one copy of that member is created for the entire class and is shared by all the objects
It is only visible within the class, but its life time is the entire class type and scope of each
static member variable must be defined outside the class
It is stored separately rather than objects
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Eg: static int count//count is initialized to zero when an object is created.
int classname::count;//definition of static data member
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class stat
{
int code;
static int count;
public:
stat()
{
code=++count;
}
void showcode()
{
cout<<"\n\tObject number is :"<<code;
}
static void showcount()
{
cout<<"\n\tCount Objects :"<<count;
}
};
int stat::count;
void main()
{
clrscr();
stat obj1,obj2;
obj1.showcount();
obj1.showcode();
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obj2.showcount();
obj2.showcode();
getch();
}
Output:
Count Objects: 2
Object Number is: 1
Count Objects: 2
Object Number is: 2
INLINE FUNCTION
An inline function is a function that is expanded in line when it is invoked. The compiler
replaces the function call with corresponding function code. The inline functions are defined as
follows:
inline function-header
{
Function body;
}
Example:
inline double cube(double a)
{
Return(a*a*a);
}
Some situations where inline expansion may not work are:
For functions returning values, if a loop , a switch, or a goto exists.
For functions not returning values, if a return statement exists.
If functions contain static variables.
If inline functions are recursive.
-Example program to illustrate inline functions :

inline float mul(float x, float y)
{
return(x*y);
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inline double div(double p, double q)

{ return(p/q) ;
int main( )
{
float a=1.2 ;
float b=2.3;
cout<< mul(a,b)<<\n;
cout<< div(a,b)<<\n;
return 0;
}
One of the most useful facilities available in C++ is the facility to defined default argument
values for functions. In the function prototype declaration, the default values are given.
Whenever a call is made to a function without specifying an argument, the program will
automatically assign values to the parameters from the default function prototype declaration.
Default arguments facilitate easy development and maintenance of program.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONSTRUCTORS
PARAMETERIZED CONSTRUCTORS
The constructor that can take arguments are called parameterized constructor. The
arguments can be separated by commas and they can be specified within braces similar to the
argument list in function.
When a constructor has been parameterized, the object declaration without parameter
may not work. In case of parameterized constructor, we must provide the appropriate
arguments to the constructor when an object is declared. This can be done in two ways:
By calling the constructor explicitly.
By calling the constructor implicitly.
The implicit call method is sometimes known as shorthand method as it is shorter and is easy to
implement.
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Program : creating parameterized constructor

#include<conio.h>
class student
{
private:
int roll,age, marks;

public:
student(int r, int m, int a);
//parameterized constructor
void display( )
{
cout<<\nRoll number : <<roll <<endl;
cout<<Total marks : <<marks<<endl;
cout<<Age:<<age<<endl;
}
};
//end of class declaration
student : : student(int r, int m, int a)
//constructor definition
{
roll = r;
marks =m;
age=a;
}
int main( )
{
Student manoj(5,430,16);
//object creation
Cout<<\n Data of student 1:<<endl;

manoj.display();
Student ram(6,380,15);
//object creation
Cout<<\n Data of student 1:<<endl;

ram.display();
getch();
return 0;
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Data of student 1:
Roll number
Total Marks
430
Age
16
Data of student 2:
Roll number
Total Marks
380
Age
15
COPY CONSTRUCTOR
Copy constructor is a constructor which creates an object by initializing it with an object of
the same class, which has been created previously. The copy constructor is used to:
Initialize one object from another of the same type.
Copy an object to pass it as an argument to a function.
Copy an object to return it from a function.
Syntax:
classname (const classname &obj)
{
// body of constructor
}
Program : Copy Constructor

#include<conio.h>
class student
{
private:
int roll, marks, age;
public:
student(int r,int m,int a)
//parameterized constructor
{
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rol l = r;
marks = m;
age = a;
}
student(student &s)
//copy constructor
{
roll = s.roll;
marks = s.marks;
age=s.age;
}
void display( )
{
cout<<"Roll number :" <<roll <<endl;
cout<<"Total marks :"<<marks<<endl;
cout<<"Age:"<<age<<endl;
}
};
int main( )
{
clrscr();
student t(3,350,17);
// or student k(t);
student k = t;
// invokes copy constructor
cout<<"\nData of student t:"<<endl;

t.display();
cout<<"\n\nData of student k:"<<endl;
k.display();
getch();
return 0;
}
The outout of the above program will be like this:

Data of student t :
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Roll number
Total marks
350
Age
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17
Data of student k :
Roll number
Total marks
350
Age
17
DEFAULT CONSTRUCTOR
n C++, the standard describes the default constructor for a class as a constructor that can be
called with no arguments (this includes a constructor whose parameters all have default
arguments).[1] For example:
class MyClass
{
public:
MyClass(); // constructor declared
private:
int x;
};
MyClass :: MyClass() // constructor defined

{
x = 100;
}
int main()
{
MyClass m; // at runtime, object m is created, and the default constructor is called
}
DYNAMIC CONSTRUCTORS
The constructor can also be used to allocate memory while creating objects. This will enable
the system to allocate the right amount of memory for each object. Allocation of memory to
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objects at the time of their construction is known as dynamic construction of objects. The
memory is allocated with the help of the new operator.
Program: illustrate the working of dynamic constructors:
class Sample
{
char *name;
int length;
public:
Sample( )
{
length = 0;
name = new char[ length + 1];
}
Sample ( char *s )
{
length = strlen(s);
name = new char[ length + 1 ];
strcpy( name , s ); }
void display( )
{
cout<<name<<endl;
} };
int main( )
{
char *first = C++ ;
Sample S1(first), S2(ABC), S3(XYZ);
S1.display( );
S2.display( );
S3.display( );
return 0; }
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RESULT :
C++
ABC
XYZ
POINTERS
C++ pointer can also have address for an member functions. They are known as pointer to
member function.
Pointer to function is known as call back functions.
The size of the object is determined by the size of all non-static data members.
Pointer to member use either
star-dot combination
arrow notation
Syntax:Class_name *Ptr_var;
Ptr_var=new student;
class student
{
public:
int rollno;
string name;
void print()
{
cout<<rollno<<rollno;
cout<<name<<name;
}};
void main() //Star-dot notation
{
student *stu-ptr;
stu-ptr=new student;
(*stu-ptr).rollno=1;
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(*stu-ptr).name=xxx;
(*stu-ptr).print();
}
CONSTANT DATA MEMBER

These are data variables in class which are made const. They are not initialized during
declaration. Their initialization occur in the constructor.
Example:
class Test
{
const int i;
// Constant Data Member
public:
Test (int x)
{
i=x;
}
};
int main()
{
Test t(10);
Test s(20);
}
In this program, i is a const data member, in every object its independent copy is present, hence
it is initialized with each object using constructor. Once initialized, it cannot be changed.
Constant class Member function
A const member function never modifies data members in an object.
Syntax :
return_type function_name() const;
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Example for const Object and const Member function
class X
{
int i;
public:
X(int x)
// Constructor
{
i=x;
}
int f() const
// Constant function
{
i++;
}
int g()
{
i++;
}
};
int main()
{
X obj1(10);
// Non const Object
const X obj2(20);
// Const Object
obj1.f();
// No error
obj2.f();
// No error
cout << obj1.i << obj2.i ;

obj1.g();
// No error
obj2.g();
// Compile time error
}
Output : 10 20
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Here, we can see, that const member function never changes data members of class, and it can be
used with both const and non-const object. But a const object can't be used with a member
function which tries to change its data members.
REFERENCES
PROGRAM:
#include<iostream>
void swap(int &x,int &y)
{
int t;
t=x;
x=y;
y=t;
}
int main()
{
int a,b;
cout<<" enter two integers<a,b>";
cin>>a>>b;
swap(a,b);
cout<<"value of a & b on swap(a,b) in main():"<<a<<" "<<b;
return 0;
}
OUTPUT
enter two integers<a,b>25 9
value of a & b on swap(a,b) in main():9 25
STORAGE CLASSES
A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life-time of variables and/or functions within
a C++ Program.
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These specifiers precede the type that they modify.

There are following storage classes, which can be used in a C++ Program
auto
register
static
extern
mutable
The auto Storage Class

The auto storage class is the default storage class for all local variables.
{
int mount;
auto int month;
}
The example above defines two variables with the same storage class, auto can only be used
within functions, i.e., local variables.
The register Storage Class

The register storage class is used to define local variables that should be stored in a register
instead of RAM.
This means that the variable has a maximum size equal to the register size and can't have the
unary '&' operator applied to it (as it does not have a memory location).
{
register int miles;
}
The register should only be used for variables that require quick access such as counters.
It should also be noted that defining 'register' does not mean that the variable will be stored in a
register.
It means that it MIGHT be stored in a register depending on hardware and implementation
restrictions.
The static Storage Class
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The static storage class instructs the compiler to keep a local variable in existence during the
life-time of the program instead of creating and destroying it each time it comes into and goes
out of scope.
Therefore, making local variables static allows them to maintain their values between function
calls.
The static modifier may also be applied to global variables. When this is done, it causes that
variable's scope to be restricted to the file in which it is declared.
In C++, when static is used on a class data member, it causes only one copy of that member to
be shared by all objects of its class.
void func(void);
static int count = 10; /* Global variable */
main()
{
while(count--)
{
func();
}
return 0;
}
// Function definition
void func( void )
{
static int i = 5; // local static variable
i++;
cout << "i is " << i ;
cout << " and count is " << count <<endl;
}
Output:
i is 6 and count is 9
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The extern Storage Class
The extern storage class is used to give a reference of a global variable that is visible to ALL
the program files.
When 'extern' is used the variable cannot be initialized as all it does is point the variable name
at a storage location that has been previously defined.
#include <iostream>
int count ;
extern void write_extern();
main()
{
count = 5;
write_extern();
}
The mutable Storage Class

The mutable specifier applies only to class objects.
It allows a member of an object to override constness.
That is, a mutable member can be modified by a const member function.
DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION

Memory allocated "on the fly" during run time
dynamically allocated space usually placed in a program segment known as the heap or
the free store
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Exact amount of space or number of items does not have to be known by the compiler in
advance.
For dynamic memory allocation, pointers are crucial
We can dynamically allocate storage space while the program is running, but we cannot
create new variable names "on the fly"
For this reason, dynamic allocation requires two steps:
Creating the dynamic space.
Storing its address in a pointer (so that the space can be accesed)
To dynamically allocate memory in C++, we use the new operator.
De-allocation:
Deallocation is the "clean-up" of space being used for variables or other data storage
Compile time variables are automatically deallocated based on their known extent (this is
the same as scope for "automatic" variables)
It is the programmer's job to deallocate dynamically created space
To de-allocate dynamic memory, we use the delete operator
C++ integrates the operators new and delete for allocating dynamic memory.
New operator:
Allocate memory at run time within the heap for the variable of a given type using a special
operator in C++ which returns the address of the space allocated. This operator is
called new operator.
There is following generic syntax to use new operator to allocate memory dynamically for any
data-type.
new datatype;
Here, data-type could be any built-in data type including an array or any user defined data types
include class or structure. Let us start with built-in data types.
To allocate space dynamically, use the unary operator new, followed by the type being allocated.
new int;
// dynamically allocates an int
new double;
// dynamically allocates a double
If creating an array dynamically, use the same form, but put brackets with a size after the type:
new int[40];
// dynamically allocates an array of 40 ints
new double[size]; // dynamically allocates an array of size doubles

// note that the size can be a variable
These statements above are not very useful by themselves, because the allocated
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Used to free memory allocated with new operator

The delete operator should be called on a pointer to dynamically allocated memory when it is
no longer needed
Can delete a single variable/object or an array
delete PointerName;
delete [] ArrayName;
After delete is called on a memory region, that region should no longer be accessed by the
program
Convention is to set pointer to deleted memory to NULL
Any new must have a corresponding delete --- if not, the program has memory leak.
include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
int main() {
int n;
cout << "Enter total number of students: ";
cin >> n;
float* ptr;
ptr = new float[n];
// memory allocation for n number of floats
cout << "Enter GPA of students." <<endl;

for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
cout << "Student" << i+1 << ": ";
cin >> *(ptr + i);
}
cout << "\nDisplaying GPA of students." << endl;
for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
cout << "Student" << i+1 << " :" << *(ptr + i) << endl;
}
delete [] ptr;
// ptr memory is released
return 0;
}
Enter total number of students: 4
Enter GPA of students.
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Student1: 3.6
Student2: 3.1
Student3: 3.9
Student4: 2.9
Displaying GPA of students.
Student1 :3.6
Student2 :3.1
Student3 :3.9
Student4 :2.9
DEFAULT ARGUMENTS
Default arguments assign a default value to the parameter, which does not have matching
argument in the function call.
Default values are specified when the function is declared.
The advantages of default arguments are,

We can use default arguments to add new parameters to the existing function.
Default arguments can be used to combine similar functions into one.
int volume(int length, int width = 1, int height = 1);
int main()
{
int a,b,c;
a=solume(4, 6, 2);
b=volume(4, 6);
c=volume(4);
return 0;
}
int volume(int length, int width=1, int height=1)
{
int v;
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v=length*width*height;
return v;
}
ROLE OF this POINTER
Every object in C++ has access to its own address through an important pointer called this
pointer. The this pointer is an implicit parameter to all member functions. Therefore, inside a
member function, this may be used to refer to the invoking object.
Friend functions do not have a this pointer, because friends are not members of a class. Only
member functions have a this pointer.
#include <iostream>
class Box
{
public:
// Constructor definition
Box(double l=2.0, double b=2.0, double h=2.0)
{
cout <<"Constructor called." << endl;
length = l;
breadth = b;
height = h;
}
double Volume()
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{
}
int compare(Box box)
{
return this->Volume() > box.Volume();
}
private:
double length;
// Length of a box
double breadth;
// Breadth of a box
double height;
// Height of a box
};
int main(void)
{
Box Box1(3.3, 1.2, 1.5);
// Declare box1
Box Box2(8.5, 6.0, 2.0);
// Declare box2
if(Box1.compare(Box2))
{
cout << "Box2 is smaller than Box1" <<endl;
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}
else
{
cout << "Box2 is equal to or larger than Box1" <<endl;
}
return 0;
}
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C++ Programming Fundamentals

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CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

UNIT 1 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN C & C++

Object Oriented Programming.

The problem is viewed as a sequence of Emphasis on data rather than procedure.

Employs bottom-up approach

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

Member function Definitions

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

<< - is called the insertion or put to operator

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

A declared keyword cannot be used as a variable name.

User Defined type

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

without decimal point

Eg: 12.3, 2.5

- with decimal point

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

C++ has both unary & binary arithmetic operators.

Unary operators are those, which operate on a single operand.

Whereas, binary operators on two operands +, -, *, /, %

Examples for Unary Operators:

A relational operator is used to make comparison between two expressions.

All relational operators are binary and require two operands.

<, <=, >, >=, ++, !=

(a+b) <= (c+d)

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

Increment ++, this operator adds 1 to the operand

Decrement --, this operator subtracts 1 from the operand

Both are unary operators

Pre Increment / Decrement OP:

Post Increment / Decrement OP:

- either relational or logical expression is used.

Exp1 & exp 2 : are may be either a variable or any statement.

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

Conditional expression is evaluated first.

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

where width specifies the field width.

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

double length; // Length of a box

// Declare Box1 of type Box

// Declare Box2 of type Box

double volume = 0.0;

// Store the volume of a box here

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

Scope resolution operator

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

MEMBER FUNCTION AND CLASS

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

myBox.getVolume(); // Call member function for the object

St.Josephs College of Engineering/St.Josephs Institute of Technology

CS 6301 PROGRAMMING AND DATA STRUCTURE II

// Member functions declaration