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International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 58 (2006) 108111

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The function of sulfate-reducing bacteria in corrosion of potable

water mains
A.D. Seth, R.G.J. Edyvean
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Abstract
Growing awareness of the detrimental effect of corrosion in conjunction with bacterial activity in potable drinking water systems has
led to an increase in research sponsored by water companies. In particular, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), found in anaerobic
conditions underneath the main corrosion shell, are noted for their effects in promoting localized corrosion. This study investigates the
presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria in sampled water mains, in a region that would otherwise be expected to be stable, both by direct
sampling, by using coupons in a Robbins device installed in the distribution network, and by sampling from laboratory tanks. Samples of
pipes of various materials show a high frequency of SRB. Cast iron coupons from the Robbins device gave positive results for SRB after
only 1 month in the distribution system, though negative for total viable count and coliforms. Corrosion rates of the coupons in the
Robbins device increased in the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria, indicating microbially induced corrosion. Laboratory coupon tests
indicated no sulfate-reducing bacteria present.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Corrosion; Sulfate-reducing bacteria; Drinking water

1. Introduction
The incidence of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) colonizing ferrous water mains has been reported for many
years (Butlin, 1949; Tuovinen et al., 1980; Beech et al.,
1994). These bacteria are generally associated with the area
underneath the main corrosion shell since they require
anaerobic conditions (Butlin, 1949; Beech et al., 1994).
However, anaerobic conditions may also occur on the
corrosion surface due to the presence of other aerobic
bacteria producing anoxic pockets (Spencer, 1971; Gaylarde, 1989; Jain, 1995). Once colonization has begun,
bacterial growth is further promoted due the spread of
reducing conditions (Starkey, 1958).
SRB are particularly unwanted in ferrous mains because
of their notable effect in promoting corrosion by reducing
sulfate to sulde, which may in turn oxidize hydrogen to
give hydrogen sulde, and this may react further to
produce ferrous suldes or sulfuric acid, which also
contributes acid corrosion (Starkey, 1958; Gaylarde,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 114 222 7558; fax: +44 114 222 7501.

E-mail address: a.seth@shefeld.ac.uk (A.D. Seth).

0964-8305/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2006.10.005

1992). In addition, the undesirable rotten egg smells of

hydrogen sulde, and the possibility of sloughing of the
black slime, can lead to consumer complaints and increased
health risks. Microbial corrosion by SRB results in severe
graphitization of cast iron, leaving a soft surface liable to
collapse (Butlin, 1949; Starkey, 1958).
The work reported here forms part of a study to assess
the frequency of SRB occurring in the water distribution
system (WDS) and their effect on corrosion. Sections of
mains pipe were removed from a distribution system and
examined directly; a Robbins device was used to assess
colonization and corrosion rates of the inner pipe surface
by exposing coupons to normal network conditions.
Coupons were also immersed in water tanks in the
laboratory, to assess whether SRB favour certain conditions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Pipe sampling
Sections of drinking water pipes were removed from the distribution
system and immediately swabbed. Cast iron samples could then be cut into

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A.D. Seth, R.G.J. Edyvean / International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 58 (2006) 108111
sections for cross-sectional analyses using scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and elemental
analysis.

2.2. Coupon design and preparation

Two types of cast iron coupons were madenew cast iron (BS 1452)
and old cast iron (taken from an original water main). Cast iron (CI)
coupons were immersed in two static tanks: one aerobic, where water was
changed daily; and one anaerobic with unchanged stagnant water.
Coupons were also used in a Robbins device installed in a ductile iron
section of the distribution system, where the coupon surface was ush with
the inner pipe surface.
Coupon preparation and weight loss measurement was carried out
according to ASTM D2688-94.

2.3. Bacterial enumeration

All coupons and pipe samples were immediately swabbed on removal
for the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria, indicator bacteria (total and
fecal coliforms), and non-lactose-fermenting (NLF) bacteria. Swabs for
SRB were dipped directly into a glass vial containing Postgate E Agar,
quickly sealed, and stored in an oven at 25 1C. Other bacterial swabs were
sent directly to an independent laboratory for analysis using the
membrane ltration method (HMSO, 1994). For pipe samples, an area
of approximately 1 cm2 was swabbed from between the pipe surface and
corrosion interface; from the Robbins, 2 coupons of each type of cast iron
were swabbedhalf the coupon area (approximately 140 mm2) for SRB,
half for indicator bacteria; for static tanks 1 cm2 was swabbed for both.

2.4. Elemental analysis

Corrosion products were removed from pipe samples and coupons and
pre-treated with acid for elemental analysis by ICP-MS and ICP-OES.
SEM-EDS was used to identify structures through the scale, and
locations of elements with atomic weight greater than 16 g/mol. In
preparation, the samples were embedded with epoxy resin (Struers
Epoxs). The samples were then cut to size and the through wall surface
was polished with silicon carbide paper of decreasing grit size (120, 240,
400, 800, 1200), followed by diamond polishing (6 and 1 mm). For SEM,
the edges and back of the samples are painted with silver electrodag, and
subsequently carbon coated. Samples were analyzed using a JEOL JSM
6400 scanning electron microscope coupled to EDS.

109

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Pipe samples
Table 1 summarizes the bacterial enumeration results of
the pipe samples. In total, 10 samples of varying
materialscast iron (CI), ductile iron (DI), and concrete
lined (CL) pipeswere all swabbed for SRB and bacteria.
For SRB, seven of the samples were positive, thus
highlighting the frequency of SRB in the WDS. However,
it should also be noted that none of the pipes when
sampled had a notable rotten egg smell or the black
slime that is associated with high levels of SRB. It is
unexpected for SRB to be colonizing concrete lined pipes,
as they are expected to be found in areas of depleted
oxygen, i.e. under corrosion tubercles; however, it has been
shown that SRB can become dormant in aerobic areas
(Hamilton, 1985) or may colonize anaerobic pockets
created by aerobic bacteria (Videla and Herrera, 2005).
The results also show high total viable counts (TVC)
with the exception of 6628. It is usually expected that 3 day
TVC associated with ora are higher than 2 day TVC that
may be associated with fecal contamination. High counts
were indicated for sample 5661, which was negative for
SRB. No results were available for samples 4900, 5841, and
5848. It should be noted that none of these results are high
enough to give concern about the potability of the water.
Due to sample preparation it was not expected to see
bacteria directly using the SEM-EDS; however, it was
expected that, where SRB were detected, some iron suldes
would be observed. Cast iron samples were analyzed using
SEM-EDS, where for all samples, trace amounts of sulfur
were detected as well as phosphorous, calcium, and silicon,
which are associated with bacterial action (Beech et al.,
1994) as well as the base metal suffering heavily from
graphitization. For samples 6106, 6626, 5665, and 5481
ratios of iron to sulfur were found to vary4Fe:1S,
4Fe:3S, 3Fe:1S and 3Fe:4S, indicating the presence of
different types of iron suldes, where the presence of
greigite (Fe3S4) is indicative of biological activity (McNeil
and Little, 1990); an example is given in Fig. 1.

Table 1
Results of bacterial enumeration of pipes sampled from the distribution system
Sample no.

Pipe material

4900
5481
5484
5661
5665
6106
6625
6626
6627
6628

Ductile iron
Cast iron
Cast iron
Cast iron
Cast iron
Cast iron
Concrete lined
Cast iron
Concrete lined
Concrete lined

Note: TVC is the total viable count.

Faecal coliforms

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

TVC 2 days at 37 1C

100
28
76
13
40
48
16

TVC 3 days at 22 1C

440
33
27
30
14
20
6

Coliform

SRB

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Negative
Positive
Negative
Negative
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive

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A.D. Seth, R.G.J. Edyvean / International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 58 (2006) 108111

White corrosion,
4Fe:1S
Black area,
3Fe:4S

Pipe
surface

Fig. 1. Micrograph of corrosion above base in sample 5481, showing iron

suldes.

Table 2
Comparison of corrosion rates showing increased rates with SRB, where
X indicates new cast iron coupons and Y are coupons cut from old cast
iron
Immersion time
of coupons

Coupon
type

Original
corrosion
rate
(mg cm 2 day 1)

Repeat
corrosion
rate
(mg cm 2 day 1)

1 month

X
Y

0.546
1.693

0.285
0.307

3 months

X
Y

0.357
0.327

0.301
0.357

4 months

X
Y

0.370
0.355

0.260
0.251

levels using ICP-MS of the 1- and 4-month coupons to the

originals that contained SRB do not show a decrease in
sulfur levels. However, there is a noticeable decrease in
corrosion rates for repeated 1- and 4-month coupons, but
corrosion rates of 3-month coupons have stayed approximately the same (Table 2), indicating that the SRB present
were increasing corrosion rates.
SEM-EDS of the hedgehog coupons did not show any
distinct iron suldes and only detected trace amounts of
sulfur.

Fig. 2. Micrograph of sulfur globules in sample 6106.

In particular, sample 6106 contained globules in the

corrosion near the original metal surface where the EDS
only detected sulfur, Fig. 2.
3.2. Cast iron corrosion coupons
Coupons were sampled from both static tanks and the
Robbins device over a period of a year.
3.2.1. Robbins device coupons
Positive results for SRB occurred after 1 month, 6 weeks,
4 months, 5 months, and 8 months; however, only one
sample at 6 weeks was positive for coliforms (4 cfu). It
should be noted that it has been shown that a high
proportion of anaerobic bacteria in the water distribution
system are non-culturable by standard methods (Tuovinen
and Gragnolino, 1986). There was no distinct preference
for SRB for one type of cast iron or another, and once
again no smell or black slimes were observed. It is
surprising, however, that the bacteria colonized the
coupons so quickly as no corrosion tubercles were yet
present; therefore it seems less likely for anaerobic
conditions to be present.
Repeats were carried out of coupons immersed for 1
month, 3 months, and 4 months; these were all negative for
SRB and indicator bacteria. Comparison of the sulfur

3.2.2. Laboratory coupons

All swabs for SRB from laboratory coupons in the static
tanks were negative even after one year immersed in stagnant
water. It is noted, however, by Videla (2001) that deaeration
of water is not sufcient to promote growth of SRB. Positive
results for non-lactose-fermenting (NLF) bacteria occurred
for nine different samples. There is no distinct increase in
sample from one tank over the other; however, it is notable is
that all samples were positive at 10 months.
Water samples from the tank where water was changed
daily were positive for both 2- and 3-day total viable counts
after coupons had been immersed for only a week, and the
counts increased over the next two weeks. The coupons taken
at the same time were negative for all bacteria. This indicates
that at this stage bacteria are in the water phase rather than
colonizing coupons themselves, and as time progresses, i.e. at
10 months, some of the coupons develop a biolm.
4. Conclusions
After an investigation into the incidence and origin of
sulfate-reducing bacteria with corrosion in the distribution
system, the following conclusions can be drawn:




In general there is a high frequency of SRB present in

drinking water mains.
SRB were found to be present on cast iron coupons in
the distribution system after only one month, emphasizing their ability to rapidly colonize new material in
distribution systems.

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For both pipe and coupon samples, the total viable

counts are shown not to be an indicator of whether SRB
are present.
The SRB present were shown to increase corrosion rates
of cast iron.
No SRB were detected in laboratory tanks after 1 year,
even in stagnant water, indicating that the factors
inuencing their growth are complex.
Water samples from a laboratory tank with water
changed daily showed that initially indicator bacteria
favoured the water phase as opposed to the coupon
surfaces, and colonization of coupons by NLF bacteria
was apparent on all coupons after 10 months.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support of the UK EPSRC of the work reported herein, and
the support and data provided by our industrial collaborators Yorkshire Water.
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