5.
Test Design
Selectionof flaw test ( State why you choose )
Design Thinking / Structural framework
Working princciple of testing system
Drawing
Material / Part / Component Used
[Link] Analysis
Theory / Law
Expected performance parameters and
indicators
5. Test Design
Overall gear geometry can be inspected and verified using various
methods such as industrial CT scaning, coordinate-measuring
machines , or white light scanner . Particularly useful for plastic gears,
industrial CT scanning can inspect internal geometry and
imperfections such as porosity .
Important dimensional variations of gears result from variations in the
combinations of the dimensions of the tools used to manufacture
them. An important parameter for meshing qualities such as backlash
and noise generation is the variation of the actual contact point as the
gear rotates, or the instantaneous pitch radius. Precision gears were
frequently inspected by a method that produced a paper "gear tape"
record showing variations with a resolution of .0001 inches as the gear
was rotated.
The American Gear Manufacurers Assoiation ( AGMA ) was
organized in 1916 to formulate quality standards for gear inspection to
reduce noise from automotive timing gears in 1993 AGMA assumed
leadership of the ISO committee governing international standards for
gearing. The ANSI/AGMA 2000A88 Gear Classification and
Inspection Handbook specifies quality numbers from Q3 to Q15 to
represent the accuracy of tooth geometry; the higher the number the
better the tolerance. Some dimensions can be measured to millionths
of an inch in controlled-environment rooms.
Industrial CT(Computer Tomography) Scanning
Industrial computed tomography (CT) scanning is any computeraided tomographic process, usually x-ray computed tomography, that
(like its medical imaging counterparts) uses irradiation (usually
with x-rays) to produce three-dimensional representations of the
scanned object both externally and internally. Industrial CT scanning
has been used in many areas of industry for internal inspection of
components. Some of the key uses for CT scanning have been flaw
detection, failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis and reverse
engineering [Link] as in medical imaging, industrial
imaging includes both nontomographic radiography (industrial
radiography) and computed tomographic radiography (computed
tomography).
coordinate-measuring machines,
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring
the physical geometrical characteristics of an object. This machine
may be manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer
controlled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third
moving axis of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser,
or white light, amongst others. A machine which takes readings in six
degrees of freedom and displays these readings in mathematical form
is known as a CMM.
white light scanner
A White Light Scanner (WLS) is a device for performing surface
height measurements of an object using Coherence Scanning
Interferometry (CSI) with spectrally-broadband, "white light"
illumination. Different configurations of scanning interferometer may
be used to measure macroscopic objects with surface profiles
measuring in the centimeter range, to microscopic objects with surface
profiles measuring in the micrometer range
Eddy Current 101
Eddy current testing is an electromagnetic, non-destructive testing
method that measures the flow of eddy currents in a conductive
material. Changes in the material due to cracks or structure changes,
such as heat treatment or alloy variation, cause the eddy currents in the
material to flow differently. This difference is detected by an eddy
current instrument.
Crack Testing
Eddy current crack testing is performed by passing a pair of coil
windings over a section of the component to be tested. These coil
windings can be made small enough to test between gear teeth, and
with multi-coil probes can test very complex shapes. Most crack test
applications use one test frequency, as they only require detection of
surface flaws. Typical test frequencies range between 10 KHz and 4
MHz with higher frequencies used to find smaller surface flaws.
Simultaneous testing with multiple frequencies allows for testing of
both surface and sub-surface defects when inspecting nonferromagnetic parts.
An easy-to-see crack test application is shown in Figure 3. In this
case, the carrier gear experienced cracking upon assembly. The probe
assembly shown in Figure 4 was used to detect the flaws. This probe
uses multiple coil assemblies (the white blocks) so that the testing
fixture did not have to rotate 360 degrees for testing. This made for a
simpler material handling station.
Heat Treat Verification
While not an absolute hardness test like a Rockwell test, eddy current
heat treat verification can achieve sorting results on par with Rockwell
testing. This has been demonstrated with both forged and powder
metal gears. Eddy current heat treat inspection coils come in both
standard encircling coil configurations and multi-coil custom
configurations. The custom configurations allow for precise location
testing verifying that induction heating parameters were correctly
applied. Defects to be tested include misplaced case, shallow case,
short quench, delayed quench, air cooled, non-heat-treat, and ground
out conditions.
When performing heat-treat inspection, multiple test frequencies are
used to reliably detect these various heat treat anomalies. A range of
eight frequencies is commonly used with the ratio of the lowest to
highest frequency of 1:1000 or more. Structure defects or anomalies
are usually discoverable within those frequency ranges. Using an eight
frequency test also makes setting up a test much easier.
Figure 5 shows a heat treated reaction internal gear that needed to be
heat treat tested. On the left hand side is the custom designed eddy
current probe used to test the gear. The two eddy current coil windings
are clearly seen as bands in the white nylon housing. Two areas on the
gear were tested using this set up.
Gear inspection begins with the everyday tasks on the shop floor and
extends into the manufacturing laboratory for complex analytical gear
evaluation. Some, or all, of these procedures are necessary to maintain
process control and to produce parts to the required quality. In
particular, inspection can help control the following:
Size of the gear
Quality of the gear
Fixture mounting on the machine
Machine set-up
Part blank quality
Accuracy of the cutting tool
Mounting of the cutting tool
Correct sharpening of the cutting tool
Heat treat process
Condition of the production equipment
The following information summarizes the basic elements of gear
inspection beginning with the most simple and leading to the more
complex.
Size Inspection
The traditional method of inspecting a gear for correct size is the
measurement over pins or balls with a micrometer. Pin measurement
provides an accurate and convenient method of determining tooth
thickness of a gear of any diameter within the capacity of the available
micrometers. For larger diameter gears a span measurement or gear
tooth calipers can be used. Composite testing can also provide a
measurement of gear tooth size. Size measurement is used to provide
the correct backlash when the gear is mounted with its mating gear at
operating center distance.
Runout Inspection
Runout is the maximum variation of the distance between a surface of
revolution and a datum surface, measured perpendicular to that datum
surface. Runout of a gear can be measured with a dial indicator over a
pin or ball placed in successive tooth spaces. On modern CNC gear
measuring machines this inspection can be provided in a fully
automatic cycle. Runout measurement is used to assure correct
backlash and minimum variation of rotary motion.
Composite Inspection
The composite test of a gear is a method of inspection in which the
work gear is rolled in tight double flank contact with a master gear.
AGMA defines this type of inspection as "radial composite deviation."
No backlash is provided, as the work gear is spring-loaded against the
reference gear on the inspection machine. The composite action test is
made on an inspection instrument that will allow variation in the
center distance during rolling. This variation in center distance will
yield a "tooth-to-tooth" and a "total composite" indication that can be
read on a simple dial indicator or recorded graphically.
Composite inspection is a useful shop-friendly tool to determine the
general quality of a gear including size, runout, tooth-to-tooth rolling
action, and to detect nicks. It is not an appropriate method to
determine individual tooth flank errors
Material / Part / Component Used
[Link]/Law
A spiral bevel gear is a bevel gear with helical teeth. The main
application of this is in a vehicle differential, where the direction of
drive from the drive shaft must be turned 90 degrees to drive the
wheels. The helical design produces less vibration and noise than
conventional straight-cut or spur-cut gear with straight teeth.
A spiral bevel gear set should always be replaced in pairs i.e. both the
left hand and right hand gears should be replaced together since the
gears are manufactured and lapped in pairs.
Handedness
A right hand spiral bevel gear is one in which the outer half of a
tooth is inclined in the clockwise direction from the axial plane
through the midpoint of the tooth as viewed by an observer looking at
the face of the gear.
A left hand spiral bevel gear is one in which the outer half of a tooth
is inclined in the counterclockwise direction from the axial plane
through the midpoint of the tooth as viewed by an observer looking at
the face of the gear.
Note that a spiral bevel gear and pinion are always of opposite hand,
including the case when the gear is internal.
Also note that the designations right hand and left hand are applied
similarly to other types of bevel gear, hypoid gears, and oblique tooth
face gears
